DU |
Special Collections, Perkins Library, Duke University, Durham, N.C. |
ECU |
Special Collections, Joyner Library, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C. |
HL |
Huntington Library, San Marino, Calif. |
NCDAH |
North Carolina Department of Archives and History, Raleigh |
OR |
The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. 70 vols. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1880–1901 |
SCL |
South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina, Columbia |
SHC |
Southern Historical Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill |
1. Herrington, “The Refugee’s Niece”; Herrington, The Captain’s Bride. The name of the town of New Bern was in the nineteenth century variously spelled New Bern, Newbern, and Newberne. Quotations retain the original spelling, while I have elected to use the modern spelling elsewhere.
2. Massey, Refugee Life, xii. The biographical description of Massey is drawn from George Rable’s excellent introduction to the new paperback edition of Refugee Life; C. Myers, “Mary Elizabeth Massey”; Heath, “Mary Elizabeth Massey.”
3. On the Freedmen and Southern Society Project, see Berlin et al., Freedom; Glymph, Out of the House of Bondage; Glymph, “This Species of Property”; Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We; J. Downs, Sick from Freedom; Hahn, The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom; Sternhell, Routes of War. Also see Click, Time Full of Trial; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long; Mobley, James City; Camp, Closer to Freedom, 117–38. On the biracial aspects of the Confederate refugee crisis, see Mohr, On the Threshold of Freedom; Inscoe, “Mountain Masters as Confederate Opportunists.”
4. For a recent review of the historiography of the Confederate home front, see Mobley, Weary of War, 165–68; and DeCredico, “The Confederate Homefront.” Also see Cashin, “Into the Trackless Wilderness.”
5. Sternhell, Routes of War, 7.
6. Two exceptions to this were the American Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission, which used “Negroes as Refugees” as a subhead in a report, and the American Missionary Association, which insisted that “colored refugees” was a better term than “freedman” or “contraband” to describe African Americans who had fled to Union lines. “Colored Refugees,” American Missionary 6 (February 1862): 29; American Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission, Preliminary Report, 3–14; Click, Time Full of Trial, 77–78, 145; Meekins, “Unionism and the Arcane Origin of ‘Buffalo.’”
7. Taylor, The Internal Enemy; Jasanoff, Liberty’s Exiles; Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom; Schama, Rough Crossings; Gatrell, The Making of the Modern Refugee, 21.
8. Manning, “Working for Citizenship,” 190.
9. Rable, Civil Wars, 183; J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 21; Hahn, The Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom, 61; Sternhell, Routes of War, 5; Blight, A Slave No More, 160.
10. I have drawn on recent scholarship on refugees and internally displaced peoples, especially Lischer, Dangerous Sanctuaries; R. Cohen and Deng, Masses in Flight; Helton, The Price of Indifference. My work has also been shaped by accounts of contemporary refugee experiences, notably, Moorehead, Human Cargo; Dau and Sweeney, God Grew Tired of Us; Bashir and Lewis, Tears of the Desert. I also benefited tremendously from attending and participating in the Conference on Critical Refugee Studies held at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee in November 2011. Recent studies suggest that refugees experienced significant psychological consequences. See Fazel, Wheeler, and Danesh, “Prevalence of Serious Mental Disorder”; Geltman et al., “Lost Boys of Sudan”; Sundquist et al., “Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.”
1. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 1.
2. J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 46–48.
3. Watson, A History of New Bern; Sandbeck, The Historic Architecture of New Bern.
4. Judkin Browning, Shifting Loyalties, 55.
5. Diary entry, January 26, 1862, Clarrisa Phelps Hanks Papers, Special Collections, Joyner Library, East Carolina University, Greenville, N.C. (hereafter ECU); Judkin Browning, Shifting Loyalties, 52; Bryan, A Grandmother’s Recollection, 25; Curtis, “A Journal of Reminiscences,” 288.
6. Denny, Wearing the Blue, 104; Curtis, “A Journal of Reminiscences,” 289.
7. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 123; Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies, ser. 1, vol. 7, p. 372.
8. On the white evacuation of towns in eastern North Carolina such as New Bern, see R. B. MacRae to his brother, September 1, 1861; W. G. McRae to Don [?], August 21, 1862, MacRae Family Papers, Special Collections, Perkins Library, Duke University (hereafter DU).
9. Horace James, letter, Congregationalist, March 22, 1862; Day, My Diary of Rambles, 46; Burnside to Stanton, March 21, 1862, in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880–1901) ser. 2, vol. 1, p. 812 (hereafter OR); Emmerton, A Record of the Twenty-Third Regiment, 95; Judkin Browning, “Visions of Freedom and Civilization,” 79; Rawick, The American Slave, 15:227–28; Greenwood, First Fruits of Freedom, 33.
10. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 22; New York Times, June 10, 1862.
11. Franklin and Schweninger, Runaway Slaves; W. Robinson, From Log Cabin to Pulpit, 29–32; Parker, Recollection of Slavery Times, 30, 58, 76, 82, 85–90.
12. Cecelski, Waterman’s Song, 205; Denny, Wearing the Blue, 91–92; Drake, The History of the Ninth New Jersey, 85–86. Also see Gould, Diary of a Contraband, 104–5; Judkin Browning, The Southern Mind under Union Rule, 86.
13. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 156–62; Hess, Lee’s Tar Heels, 93–96; W. Brown, The Negro in the American Rebellion, 212.
14. Leaming, Hidden Americans, 222–86; Sayers, Burke, and Henry, “The Political Economy of Exile”; OR, ser. 2, vol. 1, p. 812; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 19–20.
15. Graham, Ninth Regiment New York Volunteers, 216.
16. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 23; Walls, Joseph Charles Price, 24–30.
17. Martinez, Confederate Slave Impressment, 21; Evans, To Die Game, 6; Hauptman, Between Two Fires, 66, 77–84; “Our War Experience,” Cronly Family Papers, DU; Rawick, The American Slave, 14:81.
18. Franklin and Schweninger, Runaway Slaves, 210–12; Berlin et al., Slaves No More, 16; Camp, Closer to Freedom, 123–27.
19. J. Abbott, “Heroic Deeds of Heroic Men,” 8; Day, My Diary of Rambles, 51; Esther Williams, “Roanoke Island,” National Freedman 1 (April 1, 1865): 93–94; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 150; Judkin Browning, The Southern Mind under Union Rule, 48; Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 83–84.
20. Day, My Diary of Rambles, 64, 74, 76; Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 185–86; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 136, 184–85; Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 84, 323.
21. Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 208; Day, My Diary of Rambles, 76.
22. Greenwood, First Fruits of Freedom, 33–35; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 114.
23. Hadden, Slave Patrols, 172–73; Berlin et al., Freedom, ser. 1, 1:94.
24. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 163; Kirwan, Memorial History, 393–94; Henry Jones to J. Donnell, September 14, 1862, Bryan Family Papers, DU, quoted in Ash, When the Yankees Came, 166.
25. James, Annual Report, 4.
26. Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 107–8.
27. Graham, Ninth Regiment New York Volunteers, 228–29; diary entry, April 17, 1862, William J. Creasey Papers, Southern Historical Collection, Wilson Library University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (hereafter SHC). For a similar incident, see “Incidents of Three Years Trip at Soldiering,” Charles Henry Tubbs Letters, North Carolina Department of Archives and History (hereafter NCDAH).
28. Rowland Hall to his father, May 26 1863, Julia Ward Stickley Papers, NCDAH.
29. Oakes, Freedom National, 118–40, 186–89, 209–11; Berlin, Slaves No More, 6–32; Gerteis, From Contraband to Freedman, 11–32; Siddali, From Property to Person. On the use of the word “contraband,” see Masur, “A Rare Phenomenon of Philological Vegetation.”
30. OR, ser. 1, vol. 9, pp. 352–53, 359–60, 363–64.
31. Berlin et al., Freedom, ser. 1, 1:81.
32. Click, Time Full of Trial, 33, 38; Oakes, Freedom National, 210–11; OR, ser. 1, vol. 9, pp. 369–70.
33. William H. Doherty to Abraham Lincoln, May 13, 1862, Abraham Lincoln Papers, Library of Congress.
34. OR, ser. 2, vol. 1, p. 813.
35. Colyer, Report of the Christian Mission, 2–10; Bishop, Memorial Record of the New York Branch, 9–12; Henry, “The United States Christian Commission,” 374–76; Raney, “In the Lord’s Army”; Silkenat, “A Typical Negro.”
36. Howard, “The Freedmen during the War,” 381–82; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 1; Click, Time Full of Trial, 38.
37. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 6.
38. Ibid., 9; Judkin Browning, “Visions of Freedom and Civilization,” 81.
39. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 14–15; Liberator, July 11, 1862; Philadelphia Inquirer, July 17, 1862.
40. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 22.
41. Singleton, Recollections of My Slavery Days, 8.
42. William Loftin to his mother, March 18, 1862, William F. Loftin Papers, DU; Judkin Browning, The Southern Mind under Union Rule, 36–37; OR, ser. 1, vol. 9, p. 477; H. Jones to J. R. Donnell, December 1863, Bryan Family Papers, DU, quoted in Cecelski, Waterman’s Song, 159.
43. Berlin et al., Slaves No More, 18; Worcester Daily Spy, April 26, 1862, quoted in Greenwood, First Fruits of Freedom, 35.
44. “New England Anti-Slavery Convention,” Liberator, June 6, 1862; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 126.
45. Emmerton, A Record of the Twenty-Third Regiment, 96; Rowland Hall to his sister, February 13, 1863, Julia Ward Stickley Papers, NCDAH.
46. Hubbard, Campaign of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 18; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 130–31.
47. Putnam, The Story of Company A, 140–41; B. Myers, Rebels against the Confederacy; Denny, Wearing the Blue, 90–91; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 171.
48. OR, ser. 1, vol. 18, pp. 745–47; Durrill, War of Another Kind, 91.
49. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 177; Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 109; OR, ser. 1, vol. 4, p. 619.
50. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 179–80.
51. North Carolina Times (New Bern), March 23, 1864. On Quakers in Civil War North Carolina, see Bynum, “Occupied at Home”; Zuber, “Conscientious Objectors in the Confederacy.”
52. Derby, Bearing Arms, 96; Sternhell, Routes of War, 129–32. For an example of a passport issued to a white refugee, see pass dated May 10, 1862, Foscue Family Papers, SHC.
53. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 15; Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 37; Budington, A Memorial of Giles F. Ward, 61; “Incidents of Three Years Trip at Soldiering,” Charles Henry Tubbs Letters, NCDAH.
54. Mildred Wallace, “The Sacrifice or Daring of a Southern Woman during the War between the States,” diary fragment, December 7, [1865], Benjamin Franklin Royal Papers, SHC; Old North State, February 18, 1865.
55. “Heroines of the Confederacy, New Bern and Vicinity, 1861–1865,” Elizabeth Moore Collection, ECU; Anderson, North Carolina Women of the Confederacy, 16–20; Carbone, Civil War in Coastal North Carolina, 128; Lowry, Swamp Doctor, 104, 108.
56. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 22; Derby, Bearing Arms, 162; James E. Glazier to Annie Monroe, September 23, 1862, James E. Glazier Papers, Huntington Library (hereafter HL); Stephen Tippett Andrews to Maggie, May 6, 1863, Stephen Tippet Andrews Papers, SHC; Rowland Hall to mother, February 13, 1863, Julia Ward Stickley Papers, NCDAH; Marcotte, Private Osborne, 94–95; Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 240.
57. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 34.
58. Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men; G. Downs, Declarations of Dependence, 46–47.
59. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 6.
60. Ibid., 34.
61. Walcott, History of the Twenty-First, 106.
62. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 33; Schwalm, “Between Slavery and Freedom,” 140–41; Judkin Browning, “Visions of Freedom and Civilization,” 81; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 16, 30, 41; Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 135–36; Hubbard, Campaign of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 23.
63. Rowland Hall to his sister, June 13, 1862, Julia Ward Stickley Papers, NCDAH; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 172.
64. Denny, Wearing the Blue, 226–27; Judkin Browning, “Visions of Freedom and Civilization,” 81.
65. Colyer, Report of the Christian Mission, 14.
66. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 14, 31.
67. Emmerton, A Record of the Twenty-Third Regiment, 95; Denny, Wearing the Blue, 104; George F. Weston to “Dear Sir,” February 15, 1863, New Bern Occupation Papers, SHC; Click, Time Full of Trial, 26–28.
68. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 15; Day, My Diary of Rambles, 47.
69. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 6.
70. Denny, Wearing the Blue, 104; Ash, When the Yankees Came, 19.
71. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 127; Colyer, Report of the Christian Mission, 16; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 40–42.
72. Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 91; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 36; Click, Time Full of Trial, 35.
73. Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 155; Mann, History of the Forty-fifth Regiment, 218. Also see Hubbard, Campaign of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 80–82.
74. James Glazier to his parents, March 19, 1862; James Glazier to Annie Monroe, June 24, 1862, James E. Glazier Papers, HL.
75. Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 114.
76. Fenn, “A Perfect Equality Seemed to Reign.” For a description of Jonkonnu in eastern North Carolina just prior to the Civil War, see Jacobs, Incidents in the Life, 179–80.
77. H. Williams, Self Taught, 15; Click, Time Full of Trial, 35, 85; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 43–44.
78. OR, ser. 1, vol. 9, pp. 396–97; N. Brown, Edward Stanly; Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 127.
79. Carbone, Civil War in Coastal North Carolina, 80–81; Recruitment poster, May 1, 1862, Henry Toole Clarke Papers, NCDAH.
80. Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 17; Wyeth, Leaves from a Diary, 36.
81. Letter from Hon. Edward Stanly, 6; N. Brown, Edward Stanly, 204.
82. OR, ser. 1, vol. 9, p. 400; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 44. Also see New York Times, June 10, 1862.
83. Coyler, Report of the Services Rendered, 44–47; New York Times, June 4, 1862.
84. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 47–51; New York Times, June 4, 1862; N. Brown, Edward Stanly, 208; Christian Recorder, June 21, 1862.
85. New York Times, June 4, 10, 1862; Greenwood, First Fruits of Freedom, 44.
86. Rowland Hall to his sister, June 13, 1862, Julia Ward Stickley Papers, NCDAH; New York Times, June 4, 1862; Daniel Reed Larned to his sister, May 28, 1862, Larned Papers, cited in N. Brown, Edward Stanly, 209; Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 15.
87. Graham, Ninth Regiment New York Volunteers, 220–21.
88. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 52; N. Brown, Edward Stanly, 210–212.
89. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 52–55; N. Brown, Edward Stanly, 228–32; Harris, “Lincoln and Wartime Reconstruction,” 165–66; Greenwood, First Fruits of Freedom, 56.
90. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 128; Colyer, Report of the Christian Mission, 17; Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 59–60.
1. Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 111.
2. Old North State, January 7, 1865; Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 160–64. Also see Freedman’s Journal 1:3 (March 1865).
3. Congregationalist, January 30, 1863.
4. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 151; Oakes, Freedom National, 362–67. On the Emancipation Proclamation, see Franklin, The Emancipation Proclamation; Guelzo, The Emancipation Proclamation; Holzer, Medford, and Williams, The Emancipation Proclamation; Foner, The Fiery Trial, 240–50.
5. George F. Weston to “Dear Sir,” February 15, 1863, New Bern Occupation Papers, SHC; Judkin Browning, “Visions of Freedom and Civilization,” 78; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 129; Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 191.
6. Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 192; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 129; Gustavus Jocknick to John Wilkin, March 11, 1863, Gustavus Jocknick Papers, HL; Silber and Sievens, Yankee Correspondence, 97–98.
7. New York Times, December 5, 1862.
8. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 173; Friend, 37:17 (1863): 135.
9. N. Brown, Edward Stanly, 249–53; OR, ser. 1, vol. 19, p. 525.
10. Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 230; Mary L. Peabody to Edward Kinsley, March 22, 1863, Edward W. Kinsley Papers, DU.
11. Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 211.
12. Colyer, Report of the Services Rendered, 35; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 139, 149–50. On black literacy in slavery, see H. Williams, Self Taught.
13. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 158; James, Annual Report, 7; Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 88.
14. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 172–73, 219; R. Reid, Freedom for Themselves, 13.
15. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 44–45. On the importance of oaths in the South, see Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor, 55–57.
16. James E. Glazier to Annie Monroe, October 24, 1862; James E. Glazier to his parents, November 6, 1862, James E. Glazier Papers, HL.
17. Meekins, Elizabeth City, 62–65, 79; OR, ser. 1, vol. 18, pp. 1050–51.
18. Donaghy, Army Experience of Capt. John Donaghy, 111. Also see New York Herald, May 11, 1863.
19. Josiah Wood to Laurania, June 28, 1863, Josiah Wood Papers, DU.
20. Singleton, Recollections of My Slavery Days, 8–9.
21. OR, ser. 1, vol. 16, p. 525. Also see Meekins, Elizabeth City, 61–64; William Loftin to his mother, January 22, 1863, William F. Loftin Papers, DU.
22. Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 176.
23. Click, Time Full of Trial, 40–41; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration”; James, The Two Great Wars of America, 27; Day, My Diary of Rambles, 87.
24. Although Wild was authorized to raise four regiments in North Carolina, he raised only three. Originally named the First, Second, and Third Regiments North Carolina Colored Volunteers, they were later rechristened the Thirty-Fifth, Thirty-Sixth, and Thirty-Seventh Regiments U.S. Colored Troops. Kingman, Memoir of Gen. Edward Augustus Wild, 5–7.
25. Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 1–62.
26. Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 301–2, 446–49; unpublished memoirs, Edward W. Kinsley Papers, W. E. B. DuBois Library, University of Massachusetts, Amherst; Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, xiii-xvi, 73–74, 78–80. On the Confederacy’s policy on black POWs, see Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 160–61; McPherson, Marching toward Freedom, 81–82; McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 301–8.
27. Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 93–95, 109; Rowland Hall to father, June 10, 1863, Julia Ward Stickley Papers, NCDAH.
28. Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 244; Weekly Anglo-African, August 22, 1863, quoted in Trudeau, Voices of the 55th, 37; Mann, History of the Forty-Fifth Regiment, 324.
29. Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 244–45; Trudeau, Voices of the 55th, 15; Helen James letter, December 12, 1863, Friend37:17 (1863), 135.
30. James, Annual Report, 4.
31. Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 109. Also see Mobley, James City, 5.
32. Helen James letter, December 12, 1863, Friend 37:17 (1863), 135.
33. Click, Time Full of Trial, 57–71; Horace James to the Public, June 27, 1863, Letters Received, Department of North Carolina, Record Group 393, pt. 1, series 3238, box 2, National Archives, Washington, D.C. Also see G. Downs, Declarations of Dependence, 63.
34. Click, Time Full of Trial, 47–49.
35. Christian Recorder, July 4, 1863, quoted in Redkey, A Grand Army of Black Men, 91.
36. Click, Time Full of Trial, 27–28, 51, 82–83, 85–86; “Letter from Miss E. James,” American Missionary 8 (February 1864): 39–40; Sarah Freeman, “A Letter to Be Read and Circulated, in Public and Private Meeting, in Aid of the Freedmen,” Freedmen’s Advocate 1 (November 1864): 38.
37. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 202–7; Olnhausen, Adventures of an Army Nurse, 133; “Letter from Miss E. James,” American Missionary 8 (February 1864): 39–40; James, Annual Report, 7; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 39.
38. Goss, Soldier’s Story of His Captivity, 55–57; Olnhausen, Adventures of an Army Nurse, 141–42; Jordan and Thomas, “Massacre at Plymouth,” 156–58.
39. Jordan and Thomas, “Massacre at Plymouth,” 125–93; Carbone, Civil War in Coastal North Carolina, 112–20; Daily Confederate, April 30, May 3, 1864; Goss, Soldier’s Story of His Captivity, 61.
40. OR, ser. 2, vol. 7, pp. 459–60.
41. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 220–21; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 40; Jesse Harrison to his mother, April 28, 1864, Jesse Harrison Papers, DU; North Carolina Times (New Bern), May 7, 14, 1864; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 319; Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 206; James, Annual Report, 8–9.
42. North Carolina Times, April 13, 1864; James, Annual Report, 10.
43. L. Abbott, The James City Project; Wheaton and Reed, James City, North Carolina; Mobley, James City; James, Annual Report, 8–9.
44. James, Annual Report, 39–42.
45. Stanley, “Beggars Can’t Be Choosers”; J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 55–57; G. Downs, Declarations of Dependence, 64–65; James, Annual Report, 7, 12–13.
46. James, Annual Report, 10–12.
47. Ibid., 15; Click, Time Full of Trial, 133–35.
48. James, Annual Report, 30; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 55.
49. New York Times, August 5, 1863; Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 86–89.
50. Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 108–9, 114–17.
51. Hood, Sketch of the Early History, 89–91. Also see S. Martin, For God and Race, 51–54; Hildebrand, The Times were Strange and Stirring, 46.
52. Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 129–33.
53. Ibid., 133, 137, 245, 256, 277; Foner, Freedom’s Lawmakers, 88–89; Beckel, Radical Reform, 44; Minutes of the Freedmen’s Convention, 21; Bernstein, “Participation of Negro Delegates,” 391.
54. W. Black, “Civil War Letters of E. N. Boots,” 219; North Carolina Times, September 9, 1864; Judkin Browning, The Southern Mind under Union Rule, 155.
55. OR, ser. 1, vol. 33, pp. 870–71; Murder of Union Soldiers, 23; Gordon, “In Time of War”; Collins, “War Crimes or Justice?”
56. Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 191, 221.
57. “Horrors of the Rebellion,” New York Times, March 18, 1864.
58. Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 206.
59. North Carolina Times, May 14, 1864. The quotation is from Proverbs 11:25.
60. North Carolina Times, May 14, June 18, December 24, 1864; Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 213; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 112.
61. R. Reid, Freedom for Themselves, 221; J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 24; Long, Doctoring Freedom, 51–60.
62. Stanley, “Beggars Can’t Be Choosers,” 1276–88; Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters of a North Carolina Unionist, 208; North Carolina Times, January 23, July 16, 1864.
63. Click, Time Full of Trial, 94–95.
64. James, Annual Report, 9; Anti-Slavery Reporter, May 1, 1865.
65. Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 2:204. Also see Homer A. Cooke Military Records, SHC.
66. Mrs. F. Roberts, “Historical Incidents,” 5.
67. On prostitution during the Civil War, see Clinton, Public Women and the Confederacy; Barber, “Depraved and Abandoned Women”; D. Williams, Bitterly Divided, 80; J. Jones, “A Tale of Two Cities”; Cole, “Upon the Stage of Disorder”; Massey, Bonnet Brigades, 262–64; Rable, Civil Wars, 194–95; Wiley, The Life of Johnny Reb, 51–55.
68. Lowry, Swamp Doctor, 169, 179, 181–83.
69. Sparrow, “Recollections of the Civil War,” 58; Edmund J. Cleveland diary, April 6, 1865, SHC.
70. William J. Creasey diary, June 5, 24, 1862, SHC. Also see James Glazier to Annie G. Monroe, June 24, 1862, James Edward Glazier Papers, HL; Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 112.
71. Edwards, Scarlett Doesn’t Live Here Anymore, 109; Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 102; Fellman, Inside War, 211; Frankel, Freedom’s Women, 39–40; Humphreys, The Marrow of Tragedy, 73.
72. Schwartz, A Woman Doctor’s Civil War, 34; Barber and Ritter, “Physical Abuse . . . and Rough Handling,” 54.
73. James, Annual Report, 6; Liberator, October 21, 1864; Roe, Fifth Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 152; Clapp, Letters to the Home Circle, 211; Haines, Letters from the Forty-Fourth, 111; Olnhausen, Adventures of an Army Nurse, 151; Butler, Autobiography and Personal Reminiscences, 411–12.
74. J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 42–64; Meier, Nature’s Civil War; Long, Doctoring Freedom, 44–60; Humphreys, Intensely Human, 6–8; Humphreys, The Marrow of Tragedy, 76–102.
75. Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 172. Also see J. Downs, “The Other Side of Freedom.”
76. Judkin Browning and Smith, Letters from a North Carolina Unionist, 226–33; Rawick, The American Slave, 14:373; “Letter from Miss E. James,” American Missionary 8 (February 1864): 39–40; Helen James letter, December 12, 1863, Friend 37:17 (1863): 135.
77. T. Farnham and King, “The March of the Destroyer.” Estimates vary as to the number of soldiers and civilians killed during the yellow fever epidemic. Horace James estimated that fifteen hundred whites and one thousand blacks died in the epidemic. See James, Annual Report, 17. Also see Benjamin, Great Epidemic.
78. William H. Jackson to George A. Root, October 28, 1864, George A. Root Letters, DU; Day, My Diary of Rambles, 149; Thorpe, History of the Fifteenth Connecticut Volunteers, 76–77; Putnam, The Story of Company A, 318–19; Olnhausen, Adventures of an Army Nurse, 152; Diary of Chas. A. Torunier, October 21, 1864, New Bern Historical Society Collection, ECU; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 82–83.
79. Thorpe, History of the Fifteenth Connecticut Volunteers, 76–77, 235. African Americans may have had increased immunity to yellow fever. See Humphreys, Intensely Human, 49.
80. Olnhausen, Adventures of an Army Nurse, 151–52.
81. Kirwan, Memorial History, 250.
82. J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 35; Lowry, Swamp Doctor, 185. Also see Foster, “Limitations of Federal Health Care,” 353–54. On black folk medicine, see Gorn, “Black Magic”; Fett, Working Cures.
83. Judkin Browning, The Southern Mind under Union Rule, 132, 136–37, 150–52.
84. Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 158–60.
85. Diary of Chas. A. Torunier, January 17, 1865, New Bern Historical Society Collection, ECU; Silber and Sievens, Yankee Correspondence, 108.
86. North Carolina Times, February 7, 1865; Diary of Chas. A. Torunier, February 5, 1865, New Bern Historical Society Collection, ECU; “Roanoke Island,” National Freedman 1 (April 1, 1865): 93–94.
87. North Carolina Times, January 21, 1865; Olnhausen, Adventures of an Army Nurse, 146.
88. Barrett, Sherman’s March through the Carolinas, 137; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 86.
89. Nicholas, Story of the Great March, 252. Also see Campbell, When Sherman Marched North, 86.
90. Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 86; James, Annual Report, 57–58; North Carolina Times, March 25, 1865; OR, ser. 1, vol. 47, pt. 1, pp. 164–65; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 37–38; Wilmington Herald, March 21, 1865.
91. Wilmington Herald, March 17, 24, April 4, 1865; Fonvielle, The Wilmington Campaign, 451; Evans, Ballots and Fence Rails, 39.
92. Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 84; Hamilton, Reconstruction in North Carolina, 148; Fonvielle, The Wilmington Campaign, 452; Congregationalist, April 28, 1865; J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 69.
93. Freedmen’s Record, May 1865, quoted in Greenwood, First Fruits of Freedom, 78; Gage, From Vicksburg to Raleigh, 292–93; James, Annual Report, 57.
94. North Carolina Times, April 4, 1865.
95. Mary Ann Starkey to Edward Kinsley, April 20, 1865, Edward W. Kinsley Papers, DU.
96. On the Freedmen’s Bureau, see Cimbala and Miller, The Freedmen’s Bureau and Reconstruction; Foner, Reconstruction, 142–70.
97. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather; Howard, Autobiography, 164; Statutes at Large, 13:507–9.
98. James, Annual Report, 64; Congregationalist, August 18, 1865; Mobley, James City, 32; Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 2:182, 187, 192.
99. Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 2:182–89; Stanley, “Beggars Can’t Be Choosers,” 1283.
100. Mobley, James City, 44–45; Reilly, “Reconstruction through Regeneration,” 103–104; Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 2:190.
101. Berlin et al., Freedom, ser. 2, 729–30.
1. Bryan, A Grandmother’s Recollection, 25; Bryan, Echoes from the Past, 17–20; scrapbooks, Mary Norcott Bryan Papers, SHC; Mrs. F. Roberts, “Historical Incidents,” 4; Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 105.
2. The poem can be found in the Mary Bryan’s scrapbooks, Mary Norcott Bryan Papers, SHC. It is unclear in which newspaper the poem was originally published. The clipping indicates that the author of the poem was an “M.E.S.” in Snow Hill, Greene County. Mary Bryan added a note to her scrapbook that the author was Eliza Scott, a friend of hers from New Bern and a fellow refugee. Mary Bryan later quoted from the poem in A Grandmother’s Recollection of Dixie, in which she describes the author as “a very old lady refugeed from here [New Bern] during the war” to “a little village at the head waters of the Neuse” (33).
3. Giles Underhill to his children, December 8, 1862, Ransom Lee Papers, DU.
4. Berlin et al., Freedom, ser. 1, vol. 1, pp. 676–77.
5. Auman, “Neighbor against Neighbor”; Crofts, Reluctant Confederates; Bynum, Long Shadow; Domby, “Loyal to the Core”; Dodge, “Cave-Dwellers of the Confederacy.”
6. Susie Mallett to Peter Mallett, September 7, 1861, Peter Mallett Papers, SHC; diary, September 1, 1861, David Schenck Papers, SHC. On Schenck, see Stewart, David Schenck.
7. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 66–130.
8. Massey, Refugee Life, 237; William S. Pettigrew to Charles L. Pettigrew, October 14, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 5; diary, October 9, 1862, Cushing Biggs Hassell Papers, SHC; Milton Chronicle, November 14, 1862.
9. Blair, Virginia’s Private War, 77; Cashin, First Lady of the Confederacy, 125; Rable, Civil Wars, 197; Murray, Wake, 1:197; McGee, “On the Edge of the Crater,” 175.
10. Bell, Mosquito Soldiers, 51; Sprunt, Chronicles of the Cape Fear River, 283–88. For other examples of Wilmington residents fleeing to the interior in 1862 because of the yellow fever outbreak, see Bellamy, Back with the Tide, 4; Joseph Blount Cheshire, “Some Account of My Life for My Children,” NCDAH; J. E. Metts to James Isaac Metts, October 13, 1862, James Isaac Metts Papers, SHC.
11. Wilmington Journal, November 27, 1862; Nicholas Schenck diary, 28–29, ECU; D. W. K. Dix to Don MacRae, September 24, 1862, MacRae Family Papers, DU; William Calder to Phila Calder, April 23, September 15, 1862, Calder Family Papers, SHC.
12. The role of the Aedes aegypti mosquito as a carrier for yellow fever was not discovered until the twentieth century. See Carrigan, “Yellow Fever.”
13. Nicholas Schenck diary, 28–29, ECU; Fayetteville Observer, September 29, 1862; Zebulon Vance to Harriet Vance, October 2, 1862, Zebulon Vance and Harriet Espy Vance Papers, NCDAH.
14. “Some Incidents of the War as Personally Experienced,” Cronly Family Papers, DU; Eliza Oswald Hill diary, October 12, 25, 1862, Papers of Eliza Oswald Hill, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia; Marie Louise Du Brutz Reston Memoirs, SHC.
15. William Henry to Eliza DeRosset, October 3, 1862; Bella DeRosset to Eliza DeRosset, October 3, 1862; Cattie Kennedy to Eliza DeRosset, October 8, 1862, DeRosset Family Papers, SHC.
16. Alice DeRosset to Mary DeRosset Curtis, December 23, 1861, Moses A. Curtis Papers, SHC; John Benbury to Harriet Benbury, January 22, 1862, Benbury and Haywood Family Papers, SHC; Massey, Refugee Life, 15. Census records indicate that Benbury owned twenty-four slaves in 1860.
17. Harriet A. Yellowley to Edward C. Yellowley, September 20, October 28, 1862, Edward C. Yellowley Correspondence, Henry T. King Collection, ECU.
18. North Carolina Standard, May 7, August 6, 1862.
19. William Holland Thomas to Zebulon Baird Vance, November 22, 1862, in F. Johnston, Papers of Zebulon Baird Vance, 1:385–86; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 212.
20. Diary, July 8, 1863, February 28, 1865, Cushing Biggs Hassell Papers, SHC.
21. Crabtree and Patton, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 273; William S. Pettigrew to James C. Johnston, November 26, 1862; William S. Pettigrew to Wesley Johnson, December 18, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC. Pettigrew eventually did move many of his slaves to Davie County.
22. Crabtree and Patton, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 287.
23. Rawick, The American Slave, 15:329–30.
24. Greensboro Daily News, December 22, 1940; Tristim Skinner to Eliza Skinner, April 6, 1862, Skinner Family Papers, SHC.
25. OR, ser. 1, vol. 29, pt. 1, pp. 911–14; Creecy, Grandfather’s Tales, 155–56; Sarah Espy diary, December 17–18, 1863, Alabama Department of Archives and History, Montgomery; Clampitt, Confederate Heartland, 51; Levine, Fall of the House of Dixie, 195.
26. Caroline Pettigrew to her mother, March 22, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC. Also see Durrill, War of Another Kind, 68–90; contract, May 6, 1862, B. C. Beckwith Papers, NCDAH.
27. William Henry Thurber to Eliza DeRosset, October 28, 1862, DeRosset Family Papers, SHC; Bardaglio, “African American Childhood in Wartime,” 221–24. Also see Ripley, “The Black Family in Transition,” 371–74; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 30–36; Mohr, On the Threshold of Freedom, 104. On the fragility of cross-plantation marriages, see Gutman, Black Family, 131–39; Fraser, Courtship and Love; West, Chains of Love; R. Griffin, “Goin’ Back Over There”; West, “Surviving Separation.”
28. “An Interesting and Romantic Narrative,” Anglo-African, June 11, 1864, quoted in Wood, When the Roll Is Called Up Yonder, 14–15.
29. Caroline Pettigrew to Charles Pettigrew, February 26, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC; Berlin, Freedom, ser. 1, vol. 1, p. 676; Crabtree and Patton, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 118; diary, February 22, 1862, David Schenck Papers, SHC.
30. Spencer, Last Ninety Days, 264; Crabtree and Patton, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 117.
31. Martinez, Confederate Slave Impressment; Ash, When the Yankees Came, 164; M. Bowen to Charles Pettigrew, March 1, 1863, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC; Mobley, Weary of War, 73–74.
32. A. W. Mangum to his sister, January 19, 29, 1863, Mangum Family Papers, SHC; “A Voyage of a Refugee Sailor-Soldier, from the Interior of North Carolina to the Interior of South Carolina, Ending at Kingsville, January, 1864,” HL.
33. MacBryde, Ellie’s Book, 33; Massey, Refugee Life, 56–57.
34. Cashin, “Into the Trackless Wilderness,” 42; Crabtree and Patton, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 119; Norfolk Christian Sun, February 14, 1862.
35. Massey, Refugee Life, 51; McDonald, A Woman’s Civil War, 166.
36. Cashin, “Into the Trackless Wilderness,” 29–33. On sexual purity, see Scott, The Southern Lady; Friedman, The Enclosed Garden. On the role of antebellum plantation mistresses and slave management, see Clinton, The Plantation Mistress; Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household.
37. Bynum, Unruly Women; Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South; Cecil-Fronsman, Common Whites.
38. Ash, When the Yankees Came, 18–20.
39. Massey, Refugee Life, 71–81; McGee, “On the Edge of the Crater,” 195.
40. Spencer, Last Ninety Days, 264; Raleigh Register, May 21, 1862; Papers of Jefferson Davis, 8:187, 199.
41. Stoops, The Heritage, 62. For more on refugees at female academies in central North Carolina, see chapter 5.
42. Jane Meares to Kate Meares, October 28, 1862, John W. and Augustus Williams Papers, SHC; Western Democrat, May 20, 1862.
43. Eliza A. DeRosset to her sister, December 10, 1862, DeRosset Family Papers, SHC; Paul Cameron to George Mordecai, November 25, 1862, George W. Mordecai Papers, SHC.
44. Crow and Barden, Live Your Own Life, 152.
45. North Carolina Standard, June 25, 1862. For other property ads targeting refugees, see North Carolina Standard, August 9, December 9, 1863; Daily Confederate, September 1, October 29, 1864; Greensboro Patriot, January 26, 1865; Christian Advocate, November 11, 1863.
46. Daily Confederate, October 26, 1864.
47. Biblical Recorder, reprinted in North Carolina Standard, April 9, 1862; Salisbury Watchman, quoted in North Carolina Standard, May 14, 1862; Christian Advocate, May 13, 1863.
48. Sharpe, “Diary of a Confederate Refugee,” 10; McCallum, Martin County during the Civil War, 18–20, 107–8; Daily Confederate, June 6, 1864.
49. Hamilton, Papers of William A. Graham, 5:417–18.
50. Lloyd Beall to David Swain, August 29, 1864, David Swain Papers, NCDAH.
51. Harriet Yellowley to Edward C. Yellowley, September 13, 1862, Edward C. Yellowley Correspondence, Henry T. King Collection, ECU. On Edward C. Yellowley, see entry in Powell, Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, 6:291.
52. Harriet Yellowley to Edward C. Yellowley, November 16, 1862, Edward C. Yellowley Correspondence, Henry T. King Collection, ECU.
53. Harriet Yellowley to Edward C. Yellowley, November 27, December 6, 1862, Edward C. Yellowley Correspondence, Henry T. King Collection, ECU.
54. Mary Lacy to Bessie Dewey, July 3, 1862, Drury Lacy Papers, SHC.
55. Mary Lacy to Bessie Dewey, October 2, 1862, Drury Lacy Papers, SHC.
56. Mary Lacy to Bessie Dewey, July 17, 21, 24, 1863; Drury Lacy to Bessie Dewey, August 3, 1863, Drury Lacy Papers, SHC.
57. Mary Lacy to Bessie Dewey, November 8, 1864, Drury Lacy Papers, SHC.
58. Lou to Kate DeRosset, April 1863, DeRosset Family Papers, SHC; Eliza Oswald Hill diary, September 28, 1862, Papers of Eliza Oswald Hill, Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library, University of Virginia; R. Barrus to Caroline Foscue, November 19, 1862, Foscue Family Papers, SHC; War Days in Fayetteville, 21; Aunt Julia to Mary Scott, May 15, 1863, Mary French Scott Papers, DU; W. J. Clarke to Z. B. Vance, November 27, 1863, Z. B. Vance Papers, DU, quoted in Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 181.
59. Spirit of the Age, June 15, 1863.
1. Rawick, The American Slave, 14:400–402; Censer, “Southwestern Migration.” Boylan was born in Raleigh in 1803 and moved to Mississippi as a young man. His father was William Boylan, a prosperous planter and politician; see Powell, Dictionary of North Carolina Biography, 1:205.
2. Carrie to her aunt, February 3, 1863, Samuel Finley Patterson Papers, DU.
3. Diary, January 19, 1864, David Schenck Papers, SHC.
4. In February 1863 North Carolina enacted a tax on slaves and property. See Revue Law; 1863 Tax Assessors List, Ashe County, NCDAH; Warren County Assessment, 1863, Steed and Phipps Family Papers, SHC; 1863 Tax List, Johnston County, NCDAH; 1863 Tax List, Cabarrus County, NCDAH; 1863 Tax List, Wayne County, NCDAH; Wynne, “Confederate Tax Assessments.”
5. Kenzer, Kinship and Neighborhood, 86.
6. Richard C. Gatlin to Col. J. C. Barnhardt, January 11, 1864, Militia Letterbook, N.C. Adjutant General’s Department, General Records, 1807–1950, NCDAH, quoted in Martinez, “For the Defense of the State,” 130.
7. Silkenat, Moments of Despair, 159–63; Mobley, Weary of War, 40–42; Dodge, “Domestic Economy in the Confederacy.”
8. Macy Outten to John Isaac Brown, March 31, August 15, 1864, January 27, 1865, John Isaac Brown Papers, NCDAH.
9. King, Anna Long Thomas Fullers’Journal, 32; Margaret M. Smith et al. to Gov. Vance, February 4, 1863, Zebulon B. Vance Governor’s Papers, NCDAH. Also see McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 133–68, 174–99; Bynum, Unruly Women, 111–29, 145–46; Escott, Many Excellent People, 52–58, 65–67; Bynum, “War within a War”; Simkins and Patton, The Women of the Confederacy, 127; D. Williams, Bitterly Divided, 91; Mobley, Weary of War, 42–43.
10. On refugees working as teachers, see chapter 5. On refugees working as nurses, see Dawson, Our Women in the War, 146–48. Also see Massey, Refugee Life, 160–64.
11. Hesseltine, Dr. J. G. M. Ramsey, 218.
12. Rev. J. Henry Smith diary, January 1, 1862, Henry Smith Richardson Papers, SHC; B. Nelson, “Some Aspects of Negro Life,” 164; Martinez, “Slave Market in Civil War Virginia”; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 86–90; diary, September 1, 1862, January [?], 1865, David Schenck Papers, SHC.
13. On the relationship between debt and honor, see Silkenat, Moments of Despair, 141–58; Greenberg, Honor and Slavery, 51–86; Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor, 23, 73, 345.
14. Charlotte Daily Bulletin, March 3, 1865, quoted in B. Nelson, “Some Aspects of Negro Life,” 164. For the uncertainty of slavery’s future in central North Carolina, see R. B. Johnston to Thomas D. Johnston, December 7, 1863, Thomas D. Johnston Papers, SHC; diary entry, September 1, 1861, January 1865, David Schenck Papers, SHC. For western North Carolinians who sought to capitalize on the depressed market for slaves, see Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 212; Inscoe, “Mountain Masters as Confederate Opportunists.”
15. On slave renting, see J. Martin, Divided Mastery; Perry, “A Profitable, but Risky Business,” 141–45. Also see B. Nelson, “Some Aspects of Negro Life,” 161–64. On the increasing in renting during the war, see Fayetteville Observer, January 9, 1862; Wiley, Southern Negroes, 94.
16. Faust, Mothers of Invention, 62–79; Weiner, Mistresses and Slaves, 155–84; Glymph, Out of the House of Bondage, 97–136.
17. Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, 304; Caroline Pettigrew to her mother, March 4, 22, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC; Kenelm H. Lewis to Elizabeth Lewis, July 27, 1863, Kenelm H. Lewis Papers, NCDAH.
18. Eliza DeRosset to her sister, January 14, 1864, DeRosset Family Papers, SHC; John A. Campbell to William S. Pettigrew, January 24, 1865, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC.
19. William S. Pettigrew to Joshua Swift, August 12, 1862; William S. Pettigrew to Oliver H. Prince, October 22, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC.
20. Durrill, War of Another Kind, 146–47.
21. Rawick, The American Slave, 14:400–402; Durrill, War of Another Kind, 74.
22. William S. Pettigrew to Dr. Archibald Palmer, January 16, 1863, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC; Eliza DeRosset to her sister, December 15, 1863, DeRosset Family Papers, SHC.
23. “Our War Experience,” Cronly Family Papers, DU.
24. “Recollections of Slavery by a Runaway Slave,” Emancipator, August 23, September 13, 20, October 11, 18, 1838.
25. K. Battle, Memories of an Old Time Tar Heel, 177.
26. Fayetteville Observer, May 19, 1862.
27. Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 212–13; B. Nelson “Some Aspects of Negro Life,” 158–61.
28. C. Brown, “A History of the Piedmont Railroad Company”; Trelease, “A Southern Railroad at War”; R. Black, The Railroads of the Confederacy, 148–53, 227–29; S. Nelson, Iron Confederacies, 28–40.
29. Charleston Mercury, October 21, 1862; B. Nelson, “Some Aspects of Negro Life,” 161; Fayetteville Observer, February 16, 1863; North Carolina Standard, February 11, 1863; Trelease, “A Southern Railroad at War,” 5, 15; Turner, “Slaves Hired.”
30. On the division of labor among slaves on a railroad, see Thomas, The Iron Way, 21.
31. Allan Maifarlam [?] to Elias VanderHorst, March 18, 1863, VanderHorst Family Papers, South Carolina Historical Society, Charlotte, quoted in Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 88.
32. Hardy Hardison to Collins, March 27, 1863; Lloyd Bateman to Collins, June 1, 1863; Girard Phelps to Collins, March 14, 1863, Josiah Collins Papers, NCDAH. Also see Tarlton, Somerset Place and Its Restoration, 40–43; Redford, Somerset Homecoming, 118–20.
33. Durrill, War of Another Kind, 163; A. H. Arrington to Collins, May 13, 1863, Josiah Collins Papers, NCDAH.
34. “Private List—Negroes where hired 1863”; “Negroes where hired for 1864,” Josiah Collins Papers, NCDAH; Ash, Black Experience, 37; Fayetteville Observer, November 3, 1862.
35. Rental contract, September 20, 1864, Davidson Family Papers, DU; Crabtree and Patton, Journal of a Secesh Lady, 285.
36. Savitt, “Slave Life Insurance,” 594. The North Carolina Mutual Insurance Company of Raleigh should not be confused with the North Carolina Mutual Insurance Company of Durham, an African American owned company established in 1898.
37. J. M. Zohler to Williams Middleton, November 9, 1862, Middleton Family Papers, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston, quoted in Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 88.
38. Charles Pettigrew to Jane Pettigrew, January 8, 12, 23, 1863, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC.
39. Charles Pettigrew to Jane Pettigrew, April 3, August 6, 1863, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC.
40. The role of paternalism in American slavery remains a contentious topic. The traditional exposition of the idea can be found in Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll. For recent assessment of Genovese’s concept of paternalism, see Sinha, “Eugene D. Genovese”; Johnson, “A Nettlesome Classic Turns Twenty-Five.”
41. Durrill, War of Another Kind, 164–65.
42. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 87; Cunningham, “Edmund Burke Haywood,” 153; H. Johnston, Records of the Wilson Confederate Hospital; Cunningham, “Confederate General Hospitals,” 386; “Negroes where hired for 1864”; “Negroes where hired for 1865,” Josiah Collins Papers, NCDAH; Daily Confederate, December 17, 1864.
43. Shurr, “Inside the Confederate Hospital,” 144–57; Schultz, Women at the Front, 17, 38.
44. James L. McKee to Nancy Avaline Jarrett, May 5, 1861, Nancy Avaline Jarrett Papers, SHC; Hadden, Slave Patrols, 172, 174, 187; Rawick, The American Slave, 15:330.
45. Kenzer, Kinship and Neighborhood, 86; Bynum, Unruly Women, 116–17; “Our War Experience,” Cronly Family Papers, DU; James L. McKee to Nancy Avaline Jarrett, August 17, 1861, Nancy Avaline Jarrett Papers, SHC.
46. F. M. Hubbard to Josiah Collins, January 17, February 7, 1863, Josiah Collins Papers, NCDAH.
47. F. M. Hubbard to Josiah Collins, June 8, 17, 1863, Josiah Collins Papers, NCDAH.
48. Asheville News, November 3, 1864; Fayetteville Observer, August 25, 1862, March 16, November 23, 1863, June 2, 1864; Daily Confederate, February 13, 23, March 9, April 7, 8, June 5, 13, 20, 25, 30, August 18, 1864.
49. Richmond Daily Dispatch, September 2, 23, 1862, February 1, 1864.
50. Daily Confederate, April 28, May 3, 1864.
51. Fayetteville Observer, June 9, 1864. Also see Endor Iron Works Ledger, SHC.
52. Western Democrat, November 8, 1864.
53. Schneider, “Institution of Slavery,” 179; William C. Campbell to William S. Pettigrew, May 9, 22, 1862, Pettigrew Family Papers, SHC; Durrill, War of Another Kind, 76; Rev. J. Henry Smith diary, January 1, 9, 21, 25, February 11, March 1, 1862, Henry Smith Richardson Papers, SHC; Rufus L. Patterson to his father, December 8, 1864, Jones and Patterson Family Papers, SHC, quoted in Inscoe, “Mountain Masters as Confederate Opportunists,” 97.
54. Morgan, Emancipation in Virginia’s Tobacco Belt, 97–98; Ash, When the Yankees Came, 167.
55. Cashin, “Into the Trackless Wilderness,” 43–45; A. W. Mangum to his sister, January 19, 1863, Mangum Family Papers, SHC; Fayetteville Observer, September 12, 29, 1864; James McKee to Nancy Avaline Jarrett, March 1, 1863, Nancy Avaline Jarrett Papers, SHC; Spirit of the Age, March 23, 1863; Daily Confederate, February 6, 1864; Raleigh Weekly Progress, June 14, 1864; William H. Owen to Alexander Elliot, December 16, 1864, Alexander Elliot Papers, SHC.
56. Public Laws, Called Session, 4; North Carolina Standard, November 4, 1863; Martis, Historical Atlas, 57, 70, 136; Yearns, The Confederate Congress, 42–43; A Bill to Be Enacted; Journal of the Congress, 6:298–301.
57. Kruman, Parties and Politics in North Carolina, 249–65; Auman, “Neighbor against Neighbor,” 114–411; Raper, “William W. Holden”; Yates, “Governor Vance”; Harris, William Woods Holden, 127–55; McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 124–32; Escott, Many Excellent People, 45–49.
58. T. Alexander and Beringer, Anatomy of the Confederate Congress, 133, 228–29; Mobley, “Zebulon B. Vance,” 434–54; Manning, “Order of Nature.”
59. Raleigh Daily Confederate, May 10, 1864; Raleigh Weekly Progress, March 13, July 12, 19, 1864.
60. Escott, “Poverty and Government Aid,” 469; McCurry, Confederate Reckoning, 199–201.
61. Relief Committee for Volunteers’ Families—Richmond County, 1861–1863, Leak and Wall Family Papers, SHC; Public Laws, Called Session, 16; Public Laws, Adjourned Session, 26; Wake County Pleas and Quarter Sessions Minutes, 1859–65, 596, NCDAH.
62. Mayor of Greensboro to Z. B. Vance, January 19, 1865, Zebulon B. Vance Governor’s Papers, NCDAH.
63. Western Democrat, February 14, 1865.
64. Wright, A Southern Girl in ’61, 228–29; Spencer, Last Ninety Days, 46.
65. Daily Confederate, March 8, 1865; Daily South Carolinian, March 9, 1865.
66. Western Democrat, February 21, 1865; Greenwood, On the Home Front, 14; Van Noppen, “The Significance of Stoneman’s Last Raid,” 350; Margaret Burwell to Robert Burwell, February 16, 1865, Edmund S. Burwell Papers, SHC.
67. Bradley, This Astounding Close, 6; A. W. Mangum to his sister, February 24, 1865, Mangum Family Papers, SHC; Aaron Thompson to [?], February 21, 1865, Thomas Nixon Papers, DU.
68. Bradley, This Astounding Close, 14–15; Raleigh Weekly Progress, March 28, 1865.
69. Hollowell, War-Time Reminiscences, 29; Elizabeth Collier Diary, August 30, 1861, March 11, April 20, 1865, SHC; Bradley, This Astounding Close, 26–40. For another refugee experience in the Goldsboro area, see Harriet Cobb Lane, “Some War Reminiscences,” Lillie Vause Archbell Papers, SHC; Lane, For My Children. On the looting of homes by Sherman’s soldiers, see Campbell, When Sherman Marched North, 75–92.
70. Lucy H. Bryan to Sue Capehart, March 3, 23, 1865, Capehart Family Papers, SHC.
71. Hesseltine, Dr. J. G. M. Ramsey, 220–21; Diary of Margaret B. Crozier Ramsey, April 16, 1865, J. G. M. Ramsey Papers, SHC.
72. “Some Incidents of the War as Personally Experienced,” Cronly Family Papers, DU.
73. William Blount Rodman to Camilla Holliday Rodman, February 19, 1865, William Blount Rodman Papers, ECU.
74. Drury Lacy to Bessie Dewey, March 20, April 10, 1865, Drury Lacy Papers, SHC.
75. The primary source record contains contradictory accounts of Varina and Jefferson Davis’s flights from Richmond, including the date that Jefferson Davis arrived in Charlotte and the circumstances under which he heard of Lincoln’s assassination. J. Davis, Rise and Fall, 2:661–85; V. Davis, Jefferson Davis, 2:575–78, 582–88, 610–30; Papers of Jefferson Davis, 11:491, 513–14, 540, 549–50; Thomson, “How Jefferson Davis Received the News”; Harrison, Recollections Grave and Gay, 205–25; Stephen R. Mallory Diary and Reminiscences, SHC; diary, April 8–11, 1865, John Taylor Wood Papers, SHC; Cooper, Jefferson Davis, American, 522–30; C. Johnson, Pursuit, 1–149; Cashin, First Lady of the Confederacy, 152–63.
1. An earlier version of this chapter appeared as Silkenat, “‘In Good Hands, in a Safe Place’: Female Academies in Confederate North Carolina,” North Carolina Historical Review 83 (January 2011): 40–71. It is used with the generous permission of the North Carolina Historical Review.
2. T. Jones, “Historical Sketch of Greensboro Female College,” 168–73; Christian Advocate, April 16, May 27, August 19, September 2, 1863, January 17, 1865; Greensboro Patriot, August 13, 1863; People’s Press, August 13, 1863; Powell, Higher Education in North Carolina, 76.
3. Stillman, “Education in the Confederate States of America”; Eaton, Waning of the Old South Civilization, 103–9; Downey, “Light of Learning”; Cook, “Mt. Lebanon University”; Akers, First Hundred Years of Wesleyan College; Coulter, College Life in the Old South; Gray, “Corona Female College”; Duncan, “Impact of the Civil War”; Pusey, “Lexington Female Academy”; Hollow, “Development of the Brownsville Baptist Female College.”
4. Greensboro Patriot, May 31, 1861.
5. Because the enrollment records for many schools are incomplete or nonexistent, the figure of five thousand students who attended female academies in North Carolina during the Civil War is a rough estimate based on existing enrollment records. Autobiographical Sketch of Lucie Blackwell Malone Thompson, Thompson Family Papers, SHC; R. Battle, Historical Sketch of St. Mary’s School, 7–8; “Death of Rev. Robert de Schweinitz,” Academy, October 1901, Salem College Archives; Anderson, North Carolina Women of the Confederacy, 38–39. Also see Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 61.
6. Jabour, Scarlett’s Sisters, 47–82; Pope, “Preparation for Pedestals”; C. Farnham, Education of the Southern Belle; Stowe, “The Not-So-Cloistered Academy”; Ott, Confederate Daughters; Censer, North Carolina Planters and Their Children, 23, 43–46; Clinton, The Plantation Mistress, 124–37; Roberts, The Confederate Belle; Marten, The Children’s Civil War.
7. Powell, Higher Education in North Carolina, 7; Pope, “Preparation for Pedestals,” 29. On the culture of antebellum Southern men’s colleges, see T. Williams, Intellectual Manhood; Pace, Halls of Honor; Coulter, College Life in the Old South. On military academies, see Green, Military Education; Andrew, Long Gray Lines. Also see Tolley, “Science for Ladies, Classics for Gentlemen”; Walbert, “Endeavor to Improve Yourself.”
8. Rosa Biddle to her mother, November 14, 1860; Rosa Biddle to her father, January 20, 1861, Samuel Biddle Papers, DU; Emma Kimberly to John Kimberly, November 6, 1860, Kimberly Family Papers, SHC.
9. Annie E. Brodie to Rosa Biddle, April 14, 1861; Rosa Biddle to her father, April 15, 1861, Samuel Biddle Papers, DU; Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 59.
10. Kate Curtis to her brother, April 27, 1861, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC.
11. Rev. A. G. Stacy, quoted in Ruth Jane Trivette, “Davenport College: The Early Years,” Lenoir News-Topic, May 23, 1957, Davenport College Collection, Greensboro College Archives, Greensboro, N.C.; People’s Press, May 22, 1863; Fannie Patton to Charlotte Kerr, January 24, 1862, James W. Patton Papers, SHC; Montgomery, St. Mary’s of Olden Days, 25.
12. Lou Sullivan to her parents, February 17, 1863, Lou Sullivan Papers, St. Mary’s School Archives, Raleigh, N.C.; Montgomery, St. Mary’s of Olden Days, 16; Salley, Life at St. Mary’s, 35–36; Stoops, The Heritage, 62–65; Coulling, The Lee Girls, 106–8, 112, 120–21, 128, 130; Papers of Jefferson Davis, 8:199, 271.
13. Edmund Pendleton to Elizabeth Pendleton, February 6, 1863, Elizabeth Pendleton Coles Papers, SHC; Richard Creecy to Bettie Creecy, March 3, 1862, Creecy Family Papers, SHC.
14. Stoops, The Heritage, 37, 72; R. Battle, Historical Sketch of St. Mary’s School, 7–8; Fries, Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy, 20–21; People’s Press, June 9, 1864; Christian Advocate, February 14, 1865.
15. Stoops, The Heritage, 61; Kate Curtis to brother, April 27, 1861, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC; Fries, Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy, 21.
16. Greensboro Patriot, May 28, 1861, August 1, 1864; Christian Advocate, April 23, November 26, 1863; Willard, Louisburg College Echoes, 54; Moose, History of Mitchell Community College, 32.
17. Richard Creecy to Bettie Creecy, October 17, 1861, February 18, 1862, Creecy Family Papers, SHC.
18. Dietz, Postal Service; Sarah Cain to Elizabeth Cain, March 12, 1864, John Bailey Lancaster Papers, SHC; Bettie Dobson to Mary Dobson, March 11, 1865, Dobson Family Papers, SHC.
19. On homesickness at antebellum schools, see Miles, “Forgotten Scholars,” 238; Jabour, Scarlett’s Sisters, 47. On homesickness among Confederate refugees, see Mobley, Weary of War, 6–7.
20. Fannie Wirt to her mother, August 4, 16, 1863, Edward McCrady L’Engle Papers, SHC; Min Curtis to Mary Curtis, August 11, 1864, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC.
21. Fanny Moody to M. D. L. Moody, August 10, 1863, Sims Family Papers, SHC; Fannie Wirt to her mother, August 16, 1863, Edward McCrady L’Engle Papers, SHC.
22. Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 60–61; Lou Sullivan to her parents, May 17, 1864, Lou Sullivan Papers, St. Mary’s School Archives; Walke, “A Few Recollections,” 14.
23. Richard Creecy to Bettie Creecy, August 31, September 12, 1861, February 8, 13, March 3, 1862, Creecy Family Papers, SHC.
24. Creecy later described the situation in eastern North Carolina as “a time of horrors, . . . brotherhood and civilization were rudely sundered.” Creecy, Grandfather’s Tales, 235–36.
25. Richard Creecy to Aldert Smedes, August 31, 1861, Creecy Family Papers, SHC. Richard and Mary Creecy used both “Betty” and “Bettie” in correspondence with their daughter.
26. On the role of rumor in the Confederacy, see Phillips, “The Grave Vine Telegraph,” 753–88. Also see Cashin, “Into the Trackless Wilderness,” 48.
27. Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 63.
28. On spiritualism during the Civil War era, see Faust, This Republic of Suffering, 180–85; Schantz, Awaiting the Heavenly Country, 46–47.
29. Montgomery, St. Mary’s of Olden Days, 20; Sophie Richardson Patrick letter, 1937, Greensboro College Archives.
30. Massey, Ersatz in the Confederacy; Mobley, Weary of War, 33–48.
31. Stoops, The Heritage, 51; Mary Curtis to her sister, May 12, 1863, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC; Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 60.
32. On the Confederate textile shortage and the use of homespun as a symbol of Confederate patriotism, see Faust, Mothers of Invention, 220–26, 269–70; Ott, Confederate Daughters, 52–54; Massey, Ersatz in the Confederacy, 79–98; G. Roberts, The Confederate Belle, 79–84.
33. Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 64.
34. Kate Curtis to her brother, April 27, 1861, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC; Lou Sullivan to her parents, April 13, August [?], 1864, Lou Sullivan Letters, St. Mary’s School Archives; Aldert Smedes, untitled circular, March 14, 1864, St. Mary’s School Archives.
35. For accounts of the lengths to which school administrators went to secure provisions and other supplies, see Fries, Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy, 21; Memoir of Augustus Fogel, Moravian Church Archives, Salem, N.C.; F. Griffin, Less Time for Meddling, 264–65; Robert Burwell to Edmund Burwell, March 14, 1863; Margaret Burwell to Edmund Burwell, September 30, 1863; Robert Burwell to Edmund Burwell, September 10, 1864; and Margaret Burwell to Edmund Burwell, September 21, 1864, Edmund Strudwick Burwell Papers, SHC. In 1864–65 many schools accepted foodstuffs for tuition in lieu of highly inflated Confederate currency. Account books provide insight into how schools managed to feed and supply so many students. See Aldert Smedes, account book, St. Mary’s School Archives; account book of Augustus Fogel, Salem College Archive; Edgeworth Female Academy Account Book, Greensboro Historical Museum Archives, Greensboro, N.C.
36. Fries, Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy, 21.
37. Stoops, The Heritage, 44, 52; McKimmon, “Some Notes of Happenings,” 11; Lou Sullivan to her parents, undated, Lou Sullivan Papers, St. Mary’s School Archives; Nash, Ladies in Making, 19, 26–27.
38. Margaret Burwell to Edmund Burwell, February 16, 1865, Edmund Strudwick Burwell Papers, SHC.
39. Smedes, She Hath Done What She Could, 7; Richard Creecy to Bettie Creecy, December 21, 1861, Creecy Family Papers, SHC.
40. The school had refugee teachers from Maryland, Virginia, and Fayetteville, North Carolina. Montgomery, St. Mary’s of Olden Days, 23–25.
41. Moose, History of Mitchell Community College, 39–40.
42. Although male teachers were exempt from the Confederate draft, many enlisted. According to Calvin Wiley, “Our schools contributed their full share to the ranks of the brave and patriotic army which volunteered its services in defense of our rights and freedoms.” Southern schools had traditionally employed a significant number of Northern-born teachers. Stillman, “Education in the Confederate States of America,” 61–71, 83, 153, 265–68; North Carolina Journal of Education 4 (1861): 193–207.
43. Autobiography, Maria Florilla Flint Hamblen Papers, SHC; Anderson, North Carolina Women of the Confederacy, 105; Margaret Burwell to Edmund Burwell, September 21, 1864, Edmund Strudwick Burwell Papers, SHC.
44. Kate Curtis to her brother, April 22, 27, 1861, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC; Emma Kimberly to John Kimberly, August 3, 1861, Kimberly Papers, SHC; Anderson, North Carolina Women of the Confederacy, 127.
45. On the curriculum of antebellum female academies, see Jabour, Scarlett’s Sisters, 55–61; Clinton, The Plantation Mistress, 31–33.
46. Catalogue of Chowan Female Baptist Institute, 1853–54, 1856–57, 1867–70, Chowan University Archives, Murfreesboro, N.C. Also see Hixson, “Academic Requirement of Salem College.”
47. There has been considerable scholarly attention to the issue of Confederate textbooks: Stillman, “Education in the Confederate States of America,” 196–254; Bernath, Confederate Minds, 125–33, 199–205; Weeks, Confederate Textbooks; Rable, The Confederate Republic, 179–83; Marten, The Children’s Civil War, 33, 52–61.
48. Edgeworth Female Academy principal Richard Sterling published (with Edgeworth teacher J. D. Campbell) several primary textbooks during the Civil War, including Our Own First Reader, Our Own Second Reader, Our Own Third Reader, Our Own Fourth Reader, Our Own Fifth Reader, Our Own Primer, and Our Own Spelling Book. He also opened his own printing business to produce textbooks. See Carroll, “Sterling, Campbell, and Albright.” Samuel Lander, principal of High Point Female Seminary and later Lincolnton Female Seminary, published Our Own Primary Arithmetic in 1863 and the Verbal Primer in 1865. Female academy graduates also produced Confederate textbooks. Greensboro Female College graduate Marinda Branson Moore produced The Geographical Reader for Dixie Children in 1863. See O. Davis and Parks, “Confederate School Geographies.”
49. Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 59; Bettie Creecy to Kate Curtis, February 5, 1862, Moses Ashley Curtis Papers, SHC.
50. Noble, History of the Public Schools, 239; Stillman, “Education in the Confederate States of America,” 265–68; North Carolina Journal of Education 5 (1862): 62; People’s Press, January 12, 1865.
51. Ott, Confederate Daughters, 97; Moose, History of Mitchell Community College, 39–42; James G. Ramsay, “An Address Delivered by Hon. James G. Ramsay, M.D., before the Young Ladies of Concord Female College at Statesville, May 29th, 1863,” 17–18, North Carolina Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
52. John Bailey to Sarah Cain, January 22, 1865, John Bailey Lancaster Papers, SHC.
53. John Hanes to Catherine Hanes, undated, Catherine E. Hanes Papers, SHC.
54. Undated scrapbook, St. Mary’s School Archives; Susan Collier diary, April 11, 1865, St. Mary’s School Archives.
55. Susan Collier diary, April 11, 1865, St. Mary’s School Archives; Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 68.
56. Susan Collier diary, April 11, 1865, St. Mary’s School Archives.
57. Maggie Ramsay to Margaret Ramsay, April 4, 1865, John Graham Ramsay Papers, SHC.
58. Quoted in Frank, “Bedrooms as Battlefields,” 33.
59. Frank, “Bedrooms as Battlefields,” 40–41; Barber and Ritter, “Physical Abuse . . . and Rough Handling”; Faust, Mothers of Invention, 200; Feimster, “General Benjamin Butler”; Cashin, “Into the Trackless Wilderness,” 47–48.
60. Bessie Cain diary, April 16, 18, 1865, John Bailey Lancaster Papers, SHC.
61. Fries, Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy, 21.
62. Brooks, “Extracts from a School Girl’s Journal,” 68.
63. Bessie Cain diary, April 16, 1865, John Bailey Lancaster Papers, SHC; Clarke, “General Sherman in Raleigh,” 226; King, Anna Long Thomas Fullers’ Journal, 46; “Endurin’ the War,” typed manuscript compiled by Gertrude Jenkins containing the narrative of Margaret Elizabeth Clewell, 1908, Gertrude Jenkins Papers, DU.
64. Clarke, “General Sherman in Raleigh,” 226; Knight and Creech, A History of Chowan College, 164; Bessie Cain diary, April 29, 1865, John Bailey Lancaster Papers, SHC.
65. Censer, The Reconstruction of Southern Womanhood, 166–83; Noble, History of Public Schools, 245.
66. Stillman, “Education in the Confederate States of America,” 268–69. Male teachers with more than twenty students were exempt from the Confederate draft.
67. Mont Amoenian 2:2 (February 1899): 7–8, Kirkman Family Papers, SHC; Lelouids, Schooling in the New South, 73–78.
68. McKimmon, “Some Notes of Happenings,” 10.
69. Janney, Burying the Dead; Mills and Simpson, Monuments to the Lost Cause; Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy; Wilson, Baptized in Blood; Cox, Dixie’s Daughters; Sims, Power of Femininity, 129–51.
70. Salley, Life at St. Mary’s, 48; Anderson, North Carolina Women of the Confederacy, 127; Smith and Wilson, North Carolina Women Making History, 201–4.
71. Although slightly younger than the generation examined by Pete Carmichael, female academy students experienced the Civil War as a similarly transformative event. See Carmichael, The Last Generation.
1. Katherine Polk Gale, “Recollections of the Southern Confederacy,” Gale and Polk Family Papers, SHC.
2. Sondley, Asheville and Buncombe County, 117; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 27.
3. Brewster, Summer Migrations and Resorts, 7, 63–66; Memminger, Historical Sketch of Flat Rock, 8–12; Allston, Early Sketch; McCandless, Slavery, Disease and Suffering, 259.
4. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 370–72; Rose, Rehearsal for Reconstruction.
5. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 108–15; William Elliott to William Elliott, September 24, 1861; Mary Johnstone to her mother, n.d., Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
6. Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 108; Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 39, 65.
7. Diary of Reverend Malet, quoted in Allston, Early Sketch, 31; Mary Boykin Williams Harrison Ames, “Childhood Recollections,” Williams-Chesnut-Manning Family Papers, South Caroliniana Library, University of South Carolina (hereafter SCL).
8. O’Connell, Catholicity in the Carolinas and Georgia, 443.
9. Bishir, Southern, and Martin, Guide to the Historic Architecture, 318; Pinckney, “Register of St. John-in-the-Wilderness” (April 1962): 106; 1861 receipt, Mitchell King Papers, SHC.
10. Allston, Early Sketch, 22; Hamilton and Cameron, Papers of Randolph Abbott Shotwell, 2:280.
11. Patton, Flat Rock, 11. C. G. Memminger’s house was later owned by the poet and historian Carl Sandburg and is now a National Historic Site. See Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site, Connemara Main House, 8–19. On Memminger, see Jordan, “Schemes of Usefulness”; Capers, Life and Times of C. G. Memminger.
12. Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 18.
13. Crofts, Reluctant Confederates, 145; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 83–111; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 37; Alex J. Cansler to [Henry T.] Clark, August 20, 1861, Clark Governor’s Papers, NCDAH; Poteat, Henry Toole Clark, 109.
14. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 430–32; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 111–15; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 39–40; Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 183–84.
15. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 185; OR, ser. 4, vol. 2, p. 674; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 137–44.
16. Quoted in Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 113.
17. Mary Johnstone to her mother, July 13, [1862?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
18. North Carolina Troops, 15:183–92; Paludan, Victims, 56–98.
19. On desertion in western North Carolina, see King-Owen, “Conditional Confederates”; Bardolph, “Confederate Dilemma”; Guiffre, “Desertion as Politics,” 246–63; R. Reid, “Test Case of ‘Crying Evil’”; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 113–17.
20. Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 134–36; Bumgarner, Kirk’s Raiders; Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 233–37; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 113–19; North Carolina Troops, 15:183–92.
21. Bishir, Southern, and Martin, Guide to the Historic Architecture, 320–21; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 176.
22. Mary Johnstone to her mother, August 3, [1862?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, 455; Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 169.
23. Mary Johnstone to her mother, February 2, [1862?], [summer 1862], September 21, 1862, [June?] 21 [1863?], n.d., Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; “List of Negroes at Beaumont,” Johnstone Family Papers, SCL; Mitchell King to MacMillan King, October 15, 1862, Mitchell King Papers, SHC.
24. Helsley, “Mitchell King Builds His Dream Home”; Mitchell King diary, August 2, 1862, Mitchell King Papers, SHC; Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 168; Woodward, Mary Chesnut’s Civil War, 422–23.
25. Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 172; Mary Johnstone to her mother, September 21, [1862], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
26. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 611–12; A. Robinson, Bitter Fruits of Bondage, 129–30, 278–79.
27. Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 211.
28. Confederate Friends to Vance, February 17, 1863; William Pickens to Vance, March 2, 1863, Zebulon B. Vance Papers, NCDAH, quoted in Schneider, “Institution of Slavery,” 242–43.
29. Mary Johnstone to Emmie, December 27, [1863], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
30. Katherine Polk Gale, “Recollections of the Southern Confederacy,” Gale and Polk Family Papers, SHC.
31. Hunt, “High with Courage and Hope,” 109; Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 99, 100.
32. Mary Johnstone to her mother, [September 1862], November 9, 1862; Mary Johnstone to sister Emma, [October 26, 1862], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
33. A. H. Elliott to [?], n.d., Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Schwalm, A Hard Fight for We, 112.
34. Mary Johnstone to her mother, March 15, [1863? 1864?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
35. Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 240–41; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 143; Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 40; Mary Johnstone to her mother, March 15, [1864?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Calvin Cowles to Gov. Zebulon Vance, April 4, 1864, Calvin Cowles Papers, NCDAH.
36. Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 41–42; Mary Johnstone to her mother, March 15, [1864?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
37. Laura Norwood to Walter Lenoir, March 15, 1864, Lenoir Family Papers, SHC; Mary Johnstone to her sister Emma, [October 26, 1862], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
38. Mary Johnstone to her mother, [November 1861], November 9, 1862, [April 25, 1863?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; medical ledger, Mitchell King Papers, SHC; Pinckney, “Register of St. John-i n-the-Wilderness” (October 1962): 233–34.
39. Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 176–81; Inscoe, “Mountain Masters as Confederate Opportunists,” 85–100.
40. Inscoe, “Civil War’s Empowerment of an Appalachian Woman”; Inscoe, “Mountain Masters as Confederate Opportunists,” 94–95; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 218–22.
41. Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 205; Katherine Polk Gale, “Recollections of the Southern Confederacy,” Gale and Polk Family Papers, SHC.
42. Trotter, Bushwhackers, 142; Mary Johnstone to her mother, December 1, 1861, [September 1862?], n.d., Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers; New Orleans Architecture, 5:38.
43. Mary Johnstone to her mother, July 13, 1862, [June 1863?], August 15, [1863], n.d., Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Katherine Polk Gale, “Recollections of the Southern Confederacy,” Gale and Polk Family Papers, SHC; Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 217; Mitchell King diary, May 13, 1862, Mitchell King Papers, SHC; Charleston Mercury, June 4, 1863.
44. Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 218; Webber, “St. John’s in the Wilderness,” 56; Annie Stuart to Emmie, January 29, [1863?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
45. T. W. Atkin to J. A. Seddon, July 29, 1863, Z. B. Vance Papers, NCDAH, quoted in Barrett, The Civil War in North Carolina, 184; Sarepta Revis to Daniel W. Revis, June 7, 1863, Daniel Revis Letters, NCDAH.
46. Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 99, 212; Mary Johnstone to her mother, April 10, [1863?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
47. Leland, “Middleton Correspondence,” 217–18.
48. “Murder of Mr. Andrew Johnstone,” SCL; Charleston Daily Courier, June 10, 1864; Daily Confederate, June 20, 1864; Memminger, Historical Sketch of Flat Rock, 15–16; Patton, Flat Rock, 42–43; “Murder of Andrew Johnstone, Esq.,” Special Collections, University of Tennessee, Knoxville; Ralph Elliott to his mother, June 15, 1864, Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 128–29; Trotter, Bushwhackers, 176–78.
49. “Murder of Mr. Andrew Johnstone,” SCL.
50. Patton, Flat Rock, 43.
51. “Murder of Mr. Andrew Johnstone,” SCL; “Murder of Andrew Johnstone, Esq.,” Special Collections, University of Tennessee, Knoxville; Mary Boykin William Harrison Ames, “Childhood Recollections,” Williams-Chesnut Manning Family Papers, SCL; Allston, Early Sketch, 35; Ralph Elliott to his mother, June 15, 1864, Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Asheville News quoted in Daily Confederate, June 20, 1864.
52. Ralph Elliott to his mother, June 15, 1864, Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Mary Johnstone to her mother, June 24, 1864; Ralph Elliott to his mother, June 20, 25, 1864; Mary Johnstone to her sister, [July 1864?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
53. Mary Boykin Williams Harrison Ames, “Childhood Recollections,” SCL.
54. Mary Johnstone to her sister, [July 1864?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
55. Memminger, Historical Sketch of Flat Rock, 14; Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site, Connemara Main House, 61–62; Papers of Jefferson Davis, 11:199–202; OR, ser. 1, vol. 46, pt. 2, p. 1013.
56. Hadley, Seven Months a Prisoner, 120–25.
57. Ibid., 125–33.
58. The sisters have been identified as Martha, Elizabeth, and Alice Hollingsworth. See Helsley and Jones, Guide to Historic Henderson County, 48; Patton, Flat Rock, 44–45; Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site, The Swedish House, 21.
59. Hadley, Seven Months a Prisoner, 133–40.
60. Ibid., 145–46. The painting in question may be a Rembrandt Peale portrait of George Washington, now housed in the Detroit Museum of Art. The painting was once owned by Mrs. Lewis S. Jervey, a South Carolina refugee in Flat Rock, who was a descendant of the painting’s original owner, Gen. Christopher Gadsden.
61. Letter fragment, [November 1864], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC. On Martha Singleton, see Crawford, “Martha Rutledge Kinloch Singleton.”
62. Asheville News, quoted in Western Democrat, November 8, 1864; OR, ser. 4, vol. 2, p. 732; Inscoe and McKinney, The Heart of Confederate Appalachia, 129; letter fragment, [November 1864], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
63. Letter fragment, [November 1864], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC.
64. Ibid.
65. Mary Johnstone to her mother, [1864?], Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers, SHC; Memminger, Historical Sketch of Flat Rock, 14.
66. O’Connell, Catholicity in the Carolinas and Georgia, 443.
67. Robertson, A Small Boy’s Recollections, 102–4.
1. MacLean, “Return of a Refugee.”
2. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction, 70–107; G. Downs, After Appomattox.
3. Mrs. F. Roberts, “The Aftermath”; Mrs. F. Roberts, “Historical Incidents”; Ashe, Cyclopedia of Eminent and Representative Men, 2:127–28.
4. Bellamy, Back with the Tide, 3–8; Bishir, The Bellamy Mansion. Mrs. Hawley’s version of entertaining the Bellamys came be found in W. Reid, After the War, 47.
5. Judkin Browning, The Southern Mind under Union Rule, 176; W. Reid, After the War, 49.
6. W. Reid, After the War, 29.
7. Hesseltine, Dr. J. G. M. Ramsey, 220–77; Diary of Margaret Ramsey, 7–12, James Gettys McGready Ramsey Papers, SHC.
8. Rawick, The American Slave, 14:400–404.
9. Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 229–32, 292–301; W. Cohen, At Freedom’s Edge, 3; Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 187; W. Reid, After the War, 49; Dennett, The South As It Is, 130; H. Williams, Help Me Find My People, 157.
10. Report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, 182–87; Union Banner, June 30, 1865.
11. Price, “John C. Barnett.”
12. Raleigh Daily Standard, September 29, 1865; R. Alexander, North Carolina Faces the Freedman, 7; J. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 65–145.
13. “From Miss Ella Roper,” American Missionary 9 (July 1865): 157–58; Hahn, A Nation under Our Feet, 123–24; Cecelski, Fire of Freedom, 186.
14. Escott, Many Excellent People, 119–22, 130–31; R. Alexander, North Carolina Faces the Freedman, 1–14, 40–49; Sternhell, Routes of War, 176; Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long, 367–68, 379–86; James Browning, “The North Carolina Black Code,” 467.
15. James, Annual Report, 24; Click, Time Full of Trial, 154–55.
16. Click, Time Full of Trial, 153–90.
17. Mobley, James City, 55, 61, 64–65.
18. Ibid., 76–88.
19. Southern ideas of home are explored in Levine, Fall of the House of Dixie; Glymph, Out of the House of Bondage; Sternhell, Routes of War.