1. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
2. Messer, Henry Roe Cloud; Pfister, Yale Indian; Crum, “Henry Roe Cloud”; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud”; Ramirez, “Henry Roe Cloud”; Ramirez, “Ho-Chunk Warrior.” See also PhD dissertations about Henry Roe Cloud: J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” and Goodwin, “Without Destroying Ourselves.”
3. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
4. Ramirez, Native Hubs.
5. Rosaldo, “Cultural Citizenship,” in Flores and Benmayor, Latino Cultural Citizenship, 27–39.
6. Ramirez, “Henry Roe Cloud.”
7. Maddox, Citizen Indians.
8. Pfister, Yale Indian.
9. See, for example, Maddox, Citizen Indians; P. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places; Vigil, Indigenous Intellectuals; and Ackley and Stanciu, Laura Cornelius Kellogg.
10. Bhabha, Location of Culture. See Bhabha for a discussion on mimic men.
11. See, for example, Denetdale, Reclaiming Diné History; Miles, Ties That Bind; P. Deloria, “Of the Body,” in P. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places, 109–35; and Miranda, Bad Indians.
12. Radin and Densmore were classic anthropologists who followed static notions of culture and identity while assuming that Natives were “primitives” and their intellectual, cultural, and philosophical ideas were lower on the socioevolutionary scale. See, for example, Radin, Winnebago Tribe; Densmore, Chippewa Customs; and Moon, “Quest for Music’s Origin.” See also Arjun Appadurai, “Hierarchy in Its Place,” for a discussion of the “incarceration” of Natives in the land.
13. Pfister, Yale Indian; Messer, Henry Roe Cloud; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good”; L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
14. Hoxie, Talking Back to Civilization; Iverson, Carlos Montezuma; Cahill, Federal Fathers and Mothers; Ackley and Stanciu, Laura Cornelius Kellogg; Porter, To Be an Indian; Martinez, Dakota Philosopher.
15. See Hall, “Introduction,” in Hall and Gay, Questions of Cultural Identity, 1–17. He discusses identity as flexible and fluid rather than static.
16. See Ramirez, Native Hubs, for a discussion of Roberts’s notion of the hub.
17. Sinclair, “Trickster Reflections,” in Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters, 21–59; Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters.
18. North, “Informal Education”; Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters.
19. Blaeser, Stories Migrating Home.
20. Ballinger, Living Sideways; Madsen, Understanding Gerald Vizenor.
21. Radin, Winnebago Tribe.
22. Sinclair, “Trickster Reflections,” in Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters, 21–59; Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters.
23. Radin, Trickster, 22, 39, 53; Sinclair, “Trickster Reflections,” in Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters, 21–59; Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters.
24. Sinclair, “Trickster Reflections,” in Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters, 21–59; Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters.
25. Sinclair, “Trickster Reflections,” in Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters, 21–59; Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters.
26. Martin, Dancing the Colorline; Gates, Signifying Monkey; Scott, Domination and the Arts.
27. M. Pratt, Imperial Eyes; Scott, Domination and the Arts.
28. M. Pratt, “Contact Zone.”
29. Green, “Pocahontas Perplex,” in Lobo and Talbot, Native American Voices, 203–11.
30. See Maddox, Citizen Indians.
31. North, “Informal Education”; Radin, Trickster; Blaeser, Gerald Vizenor; Vizenor, “Trickster Discourse,” in Vizenor, Narrative Chance, 187–213; Ballinger, Living Sideways; Hinzo, “Dialoging with Ho-Chunk Tricksters.”
32. Vizenor, “Trickster Discourse,” in Vizenor, Narrative Chance, 187–213.
33. Berkhofer, White Man’s Indian.
34. Miranda, Bad Indians. Miranda argues that her ancestors were “bad Indians,” giving me an insight about my ancestors, who were both “good” and “bad” Indians.
35. See Reder and Morra, Troubling Tricksters. This collection of essays is a revisioning of trickster criticism in light of recent critique against it. See also Blaeser, Gerald Vizenor. Blaeser analyzes Vizenor’s (“Trickster Discourse,” in Vizenor, Narrative Chance, 187–213) use of the trickster.
36. See Bhabha, “Foreword to the 1986 Edition”; and Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, xxi–xxxviii.
37. Scott, Domination and the Arts, Scott, an anthropologist and political theorist, argues that the oppressed often rely on subtle forms of resistance to oppose the abuse of power, such as disguises, folktales, linguistic tricks, ritual gestures, anonymity, metaphors, and euphemisms. These approaches are especially useful in moments where violence and abuse are used to control the oppressed, allowing for a veiled discourse of dignity and self. See also Martin, Dancing the Colorline.
38. See, for example, Child, My Grandfather’s Knocking Sticks; Child, Holding Our World Together; North, “Informal Education”; Jones et al., Big Voice; Vizenor and Doerfler, White Earth Nation; Hinzo, “Voicing across Space”; Harper, “French Africans”; D. Smith, Folklore; and Buffalohead, “Farmers, Warriors, Traders.”
39. Miranda, Bad Indians.
40. For a discussion of Native American history, see, for example, Mihesuah, Native and Academics; P. Deloria, “Historiography,” in Deloria and Salisbury, Companion, 6–24; L. Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies; and Denetdale, Reclaiming Diné History.
41. For new imperial histories, see, for example, Burton, Colonial Modernities; Burton, Heart of Empire; Briggs, Reproducing Empire; Chaudhuri and Strobel, Western Women and Imperialism; and Clancy-Smith and Gouda, Domesticating the Empire.
42. Articles in the journal, Settler Colonial Studies, include, for example, Morgensen, “Theorizing Gender”; and Erai, “Responding.” Other settler-colonial scholarly efforts include, for example, Snelgrove, Dhamoon, and Corntassel, “Unsettling Settler Colonialism”; Veracini, Settler Colonialism; Coombes, Rethinking Settler Colonialism; Driskill et al., Queer Indigenous Studies; Tuck, Arvin, and Morrill, “Decolonizing Feminism.”
43. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native”; Wolfe, Settler Colonialism, 2–22.
44. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native”; Wolfe, Settler Colonialism, 2–22; Jacobs, White Mother; Glenn, “Settler Colonialism as Structure.”
45. Hoelscher, Picturing Indians; Jones et al., Big Voice.
46. See Appadurai, “Hierarchy in Its Place,” for a discussion of “incarceration” of Natives in the land. See also Ramirez, Native Hubs.
47. Kat Anderson, Tending the Wild.
48. May et al., Salmon Is Everything.
49. V. Anderson, Creatures of Empire; Hernandez, “Agents of Pollination.”
50. See, for example, the special issue, Salamanca et al., “Past Is Present,” in Settler Colonial Studies.
51. While some scholars may disagree with putting the words “settler” and “colonialism” together, as they could fear that readers of their scholarly work might feel attacked or threatened if they are settlers or descendants of settlers. This fear of facing our ancestors’ role in settler colonialism or our own involvement in colonialism is certainly problematic and is a way to live in denial.
52. Stoler, Carnal Knowledge.
53. Morgensen, Spaces between Us; Avalos et al., “Standing with Standing Rock”; Dhillon and Estes, “Standing Rock”; Tallbear, “Badass (Indigenous) Women.”
54. Snelgrove, Dhamoon, and Corntassel, “Unsettling Settler Colonialism.”
55. Foucault, Discipline and Punish; Foucault, Order of Discourse.
56. Stromberg, “Rhetoric of Irony,” in Stromberg, American Indian Rhetorics, 95–110.
57. See Bobroff, “Retelling Allotment”; for allotment’s specific impact on women, see Dussias, “Squaw Drudges.”
58. Glenn, “Settler Colonialism as Structure.”
59. Jacobs, “Maternal Colonialism,” 462; Estelle Reel, “Her Work for the Indians,” n.d., folder: “Articles,” box 1, WSA.
60. Glenn, “Settler Colonialism as Structure.”
61. R. Pratt, “Advantages,” in Prucha, Americanizing the American Indians, 260–71.
62. Palmer and Rundstrom, “Internal Colonialism.”
63. Cahill, Federal Fathers and Mothers, 9.
64. Miner, Corporation and the Indian, 26–27.
65. Stromberg, “Rhetoric of Irony,” in Stromberg, American Indian Rhetorics, 95–110.
66. Hertzberg, American Indian Identity.
67. Maddox, Citizen Indians.
68. Simpson, Mohawk Interruptus; Cattelino, High Stakes; Bruyneel, Third Space of Sovereignty; Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within; Barker, Native Acts; Fixico, Treaties with American Indians.
69. Maddox, Citizen Indians.
70. P. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places; Hoxie, Talking Back to Civilization; Ackley and Stanciu, Laura Cornelius Kellogg; Cahill, Federal Fathers and Mothers.
71. Warrior, Tribal Secrets; Goeman, Mark My Words.
72. See, for example, Maracle, I Am Woman; Shanley, “Thoughts on Indian Feminism,” in Brant, Gathering of Spirit, 214–16; Ramirez, “Tribal Nation”; Goeman and Denetdale, “Native Feminisms”; A. Smith, “Native American Feminism”; and Suzack et al., Indigenous Women.
73. After reading Pfister’s book, The Yale Indian, I began my research and writing journey that culminated in this family-tribal history. The title The Yale Indian elucidates the central problem of the book, and that is to view Cloud as an individual, the Indian removed from his Ho-Chunk people. Pfister portrays him as mainly a product of white cultural and institutional education, especially with Yale and his white adoptive family, the Roes. Pfister, therefore, removes Cloud from his tribe and Native people. As Pfister himself admits, his book is primarily based on Cloud’s personal writings and his letters to the Roes. Many of these letters, however, very likely discuss what Cloud strategically chose to write in the context of colonial dynamics related to race, class, and gender. Indeed, these power dynamics can make subordinated people feel uncomfortable to express their true feelings or perspectives. Even so, there is correspondence in the Yale archive in the Sterling Library that emphasizes Ho-Chunk viewpoints missed by Pfister entirely. Pfister makes a mistake about Cloud’s clan, calling him a member of the Bear Clan. This error shows his lack of care regarding a pivotal Ho-Chunk cultural attribute and his lack of knowledge about the powerful importance of clan membership in Ho-Chunk educational training and upbringing. He also makes a mistake about Elizabeth’s tribal affiliation. She grew up on the White Earth Ojibwe (Chippewa) Reservation in Minnesota and was not a Bad River Chippewa. Pfister chose not to conduct research in many archives but rather to focus only on Yale’s Sterling Library. He also did not conduct interviews of Ho-Chunks or get permission from our tribe or Clouds’ descendants. Furthermore, Pfister uses my grandfather, Henry Roe Cloud, as a case study to support his argument about individuality and Native Americans. The main goal of The Yale Indian, according to Pfister, is to use Cloud to discuss “interconnected reproductive processes of emotion making, race making, class making, and incentive making” (xiv). Therefore, it seems that Pfister uses Henry as a theoretical point rather than as a human being with complications and contradictions as well as family relations outside of his involvement with a white missionary couple, the Roes. See also Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
74. A Native-led nonprofit organization, the Association of Tribal Archives, Libraries, and Museums provides culturally relevant instruction to our nation’s 519 tribal archives, libraries, and museums. Researchers should contact this organization for further information and training; see Speed et. al, “Remapping Gender”; L. Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies.
75. Ramirez, “Henry Roe Cloud.”
76. P. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places; Lyons, X-marks.
1. Marion Cloud Hughes, interview, April 27, 1987, CFPC.
2. Hinzo, Voicing across Space.
3. Lonetree, “Visualizing Native Survivance.”
4. Henry Roe Cloud to Mary Roe, July 18, 1907, folder 1078, box 67, SL.
5. North, “Informal Education.”
6. H. Cloud to M. Roe, July 18, 1907, SL.
7. “Son Fulfills Prophecy Made by Old Indian,” unidentified newspaper article, n.d., CFPC; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
8. North, “Informal Education.”
9. It is difficult to read Hard-to-See’s Ho-Chunk name in the genealogy. It could be “Na-gees-na-pingah.”
10. Francis Cassiman and Alice Mallory Porter, with Robin Butterfield, “Genealogy,” CFPC.
11. H. E. Bruce to Sidney Nyhus, August 9, 1950, CFPC. Bruce, superintendent of the Winnebago Reservation, enclosed a certificate that showed Henry was enrolled and born in 1883. See also Sheridan Fahnestock and Thomas Sorci, “Roe Cloud” (unpublished book manuscript, 1991) chs. 1–11, CFPC.
12. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit”; Ramirez, “Henry Roe Cloud.”
13. Cloud, “Graduation Speech to Mount Edgecumbe High School Students,” May 1949, Sitka, Alaska, CFPC.
14. Jacobs, White Mother.
15. North, “Informal Education”; Radin, Trickster.
16. Minnie Littlebear, interview by Woesha Cloud North, June, 17, 1976, CFPC; North, “Informal Education.”
17. Felix White Sr., interview by W. Cloud North, May 15, 1976, CFPC; North, “Informal Education.”
18. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
19. H. Cloud, “Graduation Speech,” CFPC.
20. Felix White Sr., interview by W. Cloud North, May 15, 1976, CFPC; North, “Informal Education.”
21. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
22. Lomawaima, Prairie Light.
23. See DeCoteau, 2017 Annual Report. This group documents the abuses against Native children in Indian boarding schools for healing and reparation.
24. H. Cloud, “Graduation Speech,” CFPC.
25. H. Cloud, “An Anthropologist’s View of Reservation Life,” address delivered at the Northwest, Inter-mountain, and Montana Superintendents’ Conference, Pendleton OR, September 11–13, 1941, CFPC, 5–6,.
26. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
27. Steinmetz, “New Missiology,” in Holler, Black Elk Reader, 262–82. Steinmetz argues that Black Elk was able to accommodate Christianity into his strong belief of the Lakota religion. Rather than arguing this, I am arguing that Henry Cloud kept his Ho-Chunk identity intact while accommodating Christianity.
28. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
29. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
30. Guenther, “Santee Normal Training School.”
31. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 15.
32. Lillian Alberta Cloud Freed (unpublished manuscript, n.d.), CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, p. 28.
33. Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, p. 27.
34. Sinnema, introd. to Smiles, Self-Help, vii–xxix.
35. Oskison, “Making an Individual.”
36. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 17.
37. H. Cloud, application, Cloud, student file, NMHSA; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, pp. 29, 30.
38. A. L. Riggs to Henry F. Cutler, June 7, 1901, Cloud, student file, NMHSA; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, p. 30.
39. William T. Findley to Henry F. Cutler, June 15, 1901, Cloud, student file, NMHSA; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, p. 30.
40. Morgan, Ancient Society, xxix–xxx; Maddox, Citizen Indians, 60.
41. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native”; Jacobs, White Mother.
42. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
43. Cloud’s academic record, Records of the Office of the Registrar, NMHSA; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 19.
44. H. Cloud, “Graduation Speech,” CFPC.
45. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 19.
46. Carrol, American Masculinities, 206; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
47. L. McCall, introd. to Basso, McCall, and Garceau, Across the Great Divide, 1–25.
48. Ellinghaus, Taking Assimilation to Heart, 65.
49. Ellinghaus, Taking Assimilation to Heart, 65.
50. H. Cloud’s yearbook, Cloud, student file, NMHSA; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, pp. 35–36.
51. Ellinghaus, Taking Assimilation to Heart.
52. Culin, Games; Fletcher, Indian Games.
53. H. Cloud’s yearbook, Cloud, student file, NMHSA; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, p. 36.
54. Cloud, “Salutatory.”
55. Hughes, interview, April 27, 1987, CFPC, 1, 2; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 2, p. 8.
56. Hughes, interview, 9–10.
57. Hughes, interview, 4–5.
58. Hughes, interview, 4–5.
59. H. Cloud, “Graduation Speech,” CFPC.
60. Denetdale, Reclaiming Diné History.
61. H. Cloud to M. Roe, January 7, 1908, folder 1082, box 67, SL.
62. Cloud, “From Wigwam to Pulpit.”
63. Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud”; for Native masculinities, see Hokowhitu, “Maori Masculinity”; Tengan, Native Men Remade; and Anthony, Clark, and Nagle, “White Men, Red Masks,” in Basso, McCall, and Garceau, Across the Great Divide, 109–30.
64. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 23.
65. Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
66. M. Roe to H. Cloud, November 12, 1909, folder 1097, box 67, SL.
67. Jacobs, White Mother.
68. M. Roe to H. Cloud, September 1911, folder 1137, box 67, SL.
69. Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
70. M. Roe to H. Cloud, March 21, 1909, folder 1090, box 67, SL.
71. See, for example, M. Roe to H. Cloud, November 5, 1912, folder 1149, box 70, SL.
72. M. Roe to H. Cloud, [August?] 1911, folder 1134, box 69, SL; see also Pfister, Yale Indian.
73. M. Roe to H. Cloud, September 3, 1911, folder 1135, box 69, SL; see also Pfister, Yale Indian.
74. H. Cloud to M. Roe, November 1909, folder 1098, box 67, SL.
75. H. Cloud to M. Roe, July 18, 1907, SL.
76. H. Cloud to M. Roe, September 29, 1907, folder 1079, box 67, SL.
77. Elizabeth Bender Cloud to Mary Roe, November 22, 1915, folder 1166, box 71, SL; Pfister, Yale Indian.
78. After Henry Cloud’s marriage to Elizabeth Bender, the frequency of his letters to Mary Roe greatly decreased.
79. H. Cloud to Walter Roe, April 4, 1910, folder 1108, box 68, SL.
80. Silko, Gardens in the Dunes.
81. Garland, “Red Man’s Present Needs.”
82. P. Deloria, Playing Indian.
83. H. Cloud to W. Roe, January 30, 1912, folder 1142, box 70, SL.
84. H. Cloud to M. Roe, September 29, 1907, SL.
85. H. Cloud to Elizabeth Page, October 6, 1907, folder 1980, box 67, SL.
86. H. Cloud to Page, October 6, 1907, SL.
87. E. Cloud to Page, September 15, 1950, CFPC.
88. H. Cloud to M. Roe, April 13, 1910, folder 1109, box 68, SL.
89. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 26, 22–23.
90. Cloud, “Missions,” 520.
91. Jacobs, White Mother; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
92. H. Cloud to W. Roe, January 30, 1912, SL.
93. Hughes, interview, April 27, 1987, CFPC.
94. Hughes, interview, April 27, 1987, CFPC.
95. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 29.
96. H. Cloud, “Anthropologist’s View,” CFPC.
97. Sixteenth Annual Meeting, 14–16.
98. Maddox, Citizen Indians.
99. H. Cloud, untitled, August 13, 1931, CFPC, 1–4.
100. Rosaldo, Culture and Truth.
101. Cloud, “Education,” 15.
102. Cloud, “Social and Economic Aspects,” 155.
103. H. Cloud, untitled, n.d., CFPC, 1–5.
104. Radin, Winnebago Tribe; Cloud, “Winnebago Medicine Lodge”; H. Cloud, “Among the Winnebago,” folder 1188, box 72, SL; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 52–53.
105. “Statement by the Winnebago Delegation on Behalf of the Nebraska Branch,” frame 0807-16, series A: Indian Delegations to Washington, Central Classified Files, 1907–39, BIA-W; H. Cloud to Robert Valentine, July 5, 1912, file 74294-12, Classified Files 34-013, RG 75, Tomah Agency, BIA-W; H. Cloud to Walter Roe, September 2, 1912, folder 1148, box 70, SL; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 54–55.
106. H. Cloud to M. Roe, February 9, 1915, SL.
107. Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
1. Wishart, “Roe Cloud, Henry,” in Wishart, Encyclopedia, 176; Turcheneske, Chiricahua Apache Prisoners.
2. Ramirez, “Ho-Chunk Warrior.”
3. Maddox, Citizen Indians, 11. Maddox argues that Cloud’s Society of American Indian contemporaries were strategic about what they spoke and wrote about because of power dynamics.
4. Maddox, Citizen Indians, 11–12.
5. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 40; Larner, Papers, 1–9.
6. H. Cloud to Arthur Parker, August 4, 1914, folder 1157, box 70, SL.
7. Watermulder, “Injustice to the Apaches”; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 31–32.
8. “New Haskell Head Came from Wigwam to Lead His People,” Kansas City Star, August 6, 1933; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 32.
9. Hillaire and Fields, Rights Remembered.
10. See Coppersmith, “Cultural Survival”; Turcheneske, Chiricahua Apache Prisoners; and Stockel, Apache Nation.
11. H. Cloud to Cato Sells, November 3, 1912; December 13, 1913, file 18700/13, Kiowa Agency, RG 75, Central Classified Files, 1907–39, BIA-W; Larner, Papers; H. Cloud, “The Case of the Fort Sill Apaches, Again,” October 25, 1913, frame 0447-52, reel 10, SAIA.
12. H. Cloud to M. Roe, October 7, 1913; October 16, 1913, folder 1156, box 70, SL.
13. Wolfe, Settler Colonialism. The Allotment Act revolved around settler colonialism and taking land away from Natives.
14. H. Cloud to M. Roe, October 21, 1913, folder 1156, box 70, SL.
15. H. Cloud, “Fort Sill Apaches,” SAIA.
16. H. Cloud to M. Roe, October 7, 1913, SL.
17. H. Cloud, “Fort Sill Apaches,” SAIA.
18. E. Bender to Society of American Indians, July 27, 1914, SAIA.
19. Molin, “Training the Hand.”
20. Hughes, interview, September 15, 1987, CFPC.
21. “School Registration Form,” E. Bender, student file, HUA; Hughes, interview, December 14, 1989, CFPC.
22. Hughes, interview, September 15, 1987, CFPC.
23. Molin, “Training the Hand,” 94.
24. Woesha Cloud North, untitled, n.d., memoir notes, CFPC.
25. Buffalohead, “Farmers, Warriors, Traders.”
26. Buffalohead, “Farmers, Warriors, Traders,” 242–43, 240–41.
27. W. North, memoir notes, untitled, n.d., CFPC.
28. E. Bender to Friend, 1905, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
29. E. Bender to Miss Jay, January 1906, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
30. E. Bender to Friend, March 15, 1904, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
31. W. North, memoir notes, n.d., CFPC.
32. E. Bender to Friend, March 15, 1904, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
33. E. Bender to Friend, 1905, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
34. E. Bender to Dr. Hollis Frissel, October 2, 1900, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
35. E. Bender to Friend, February 1905, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
36. Silko, “Language and Literature,” in Silko, Yellow Woman, 58.
37. E. Bender to Jay, January 1906, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
38. E. Bender to Jay, January 1906, E. Bender, student file, HUA.
39. Anna Bender to Scholarship Benefactor, February 1905, Anna Bender, student file, HUA; Molin, “Training the Hand,” 95.
40. A. Bender to Scholarship Benefactor, February 1905, A. Bender, student file, HUA; Molin, “Training the Hand,” 95.
41. A. Bender to Mrs. Pierce, May 4, 1903, A. Bender, student file, HUA; Molin, “Training the Hand,” 95.
42. Molin, “Training the Hand”; Spack, “English, Pedagogy, and Ideology.”
43. Molin, “Training the Hand.”
44. Emery, “Writing against Erasure.”
45. E. Bender, “From Hampton to New York,” Talks and Thoughts, February 1905, HUA, 3.
46. Molin, “Training the Hand.”
47. For more on Natives working for the Indian Service, see Cahill, Federal Fathers and Mothers.
48. Molin, “Training the Hand,” 98.
49. E. Bender to Hampton Endeavors, January 6, 1913, CFPC.
50. E. Bender to Caroline Andrus, October 22, 1914, CFPC.
51. Bender, “Hampton Graduate’s Experience,” CFPC, 112, 109.
52. Bender, “Hampton Graduate’s Experience,” CFPC, 112.
53. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud,” 85.
54. E. Bender to Caroline Andrus, E. Bender, student file, June 2, 1915, HUA.
55. DeCora, “Angel DeCora.”
56. E. Bender, “Training Indian Girls.”
57. Maddox, Citizen Indians; Batker, Reforming Fictions.
58. E. Bender, “Training Indian Girls,” 155.
59. Hale, “Acceptance and Rejection.”
60. Harold Buchannan, interview by Robin Butterfield, n.d., CFPC.
61. H. Cloud to M. Roe, August 6, 1916, CFPC; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
62. Madigan, “Education of Girls.”
63. “Girls to Join Indian School,” Wichita Beacon, July 22, 1932, CFPC.
64. Hughes, interview April 22, 1987, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 3, p. 6.
65. Hughes, interview, September 15, 1987, CFPC.
66. Hughes, interview, September 15, 1987, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 3, p. 21.
67. Pawnee council meeting minutes, untitled, April 22, 1927, CFPC.
68. Pawnee council meeting minutes, untitled, April 22, 1927, CFPC.
69. Robertson, Power of Land.
70. Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
71. H. Cloud, “Graduation Speech,” CFPC.
72. Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within.
73. H. Cloud, “Graduation Speech,” CFPC.
74. Helene Lincoln, informal interview by Renya Ramirez, July 15, 2001, CFPC.
75. Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 3, p. 24.
76. Cuban, How Teachers Taught.
77. Woesha Cloud North, “Autobiography of a Winnebago-Ojibwa Family,” n.d., CFPC; Crum, “Henry Roe Cloud”; for a discussion of Ho-Chunk powwows, see Arndt, Ho-Chunk Powwows.
78. See H. Cloud, “Winnebago Story,” n.d., CFPC.
79. For a discussion of Indigenous philosophy, see, for example, Martinez, Dakota Philosopher; see also North, “Informal Education,” and North’s discussion of Ho-Chunk stories as traditional Ho-Chunk education that encourages Ho-Chunk children to behave appropriately.
80. Hughes, interview, April 27, 1987, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 3, p. 21.
81. H. Cloud, untitled, August 13, 1931, CFPC, 1–4.
82. Rosaldo, Culture and Truth.
83. For more discussions on Native-studies programs and curriculum, see, for example, Champagne and Stauss, Native American Studies; and Forbes et. al, “Hemispheric Approach,” in Champagne and Stauss, Native American Studies, 97–123. The authors argue that traditional Native American–studies scholars before colonization searched for knowledge and wisdom that could be relied on to live in balance with one another and all living things. With the coming of the Europeans, Native studies changed to deal with the onslaught of colonialism. An early Indigenous-studies scholar is Felipe Huaman Poma de Ayala, an Incan Quechua-speaking scholar who wrote about the Spanish invasion before and after 1600; see North, “Informal Education.” Henry Cloud’s daughter, Woesha Cloud North, discusses how Ho-Chunk stories were fundamental to Ho-Chunk traditional education.
84. See Bailey, “UC Davis Scholar.” Forbes helped develop Native-studies programs after Indigenous activism in the 1960s. See also Goodwin, “Without Destroying Ourselves.” Goodwin argues that Henry Cloud’s Native leadership training was an early example of Native-studies pedagogy. Forbes et. al, “A Hemispheric Approach,” in Champagne and Stauss, Native American Studies, 97–123.
85. E. Bender to Andrus, May 12, 1919; February 28, 1917; April, 19, 1923, CFPC.
86. Robert North, interview, March 25, 1988, CFPC.
87. E. Bender to Mother Townsend, E. Bender, student file, January 14, 1920, HUA.
88. E. Bender to H. Cloud, March 12, 1920, CFPC; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”.
89. E. Bender to H. Cloud, March 23, 1920, CFPC; Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
90. E. Bender to H. Cloud, March 23, 1920, CFPC.
91. M. Roe to H. Cloud, December 21, 1919, CFPC.
92. Hughes, interview by Thomas Sorci, n.d., CFPC.
93. Cloud North, interview, August 15, 1987, CFPC.
94. Wichita Eagle, untitled, June 6, 1933, CFPC.
95. H. Cloud to Edna R. Voss, May 15, 1934, folder: “American Indian Institute,” PHSA; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 207.
96. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
1. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
2. Edward E. Dale to Lewis Meriam, folder 11, box 45, October 9, 1928, WHC.
3. J. Tetzloff “To Do Some Good.”
4. Meriam, Problem of Indian Administration, 81, 72.
5. Parman, “Lewis Meriam’s Letters.”
6. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good.”
7. H. Cloud, “Rosebud Boarding School Report,” n.d., CFPC.
8. H. Cloud, “Yankton Indian School Report,” n.d., CFPC.
9. See books and films on Indian boarding schools, for example, Lomawaima, Prairie Light; Child, Boarding School Seasons; Adams, Education for Extinction; and Gibbons and Thomas, Residential School Experience. See Jacobs, White Mother, for a discussion of the linkage between settler colonialism and federal boarding schools.
10. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native.”
11. Meriam to Dale, September 25, 1928, WHC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 5, p. 6.
12. Young, Politics of Difference.
13. Dale to Meriam, October 9, 1928, WHC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 5, p. 7.
14. See Meriam to Dale, October 29, 1928, WHC. In this letter to Dale, Meriam discusses correspondence he had received from Cloud asking for the endorsement from the survey staff to become commissioner of Indian affairs.
15. Meriam to H. Cloud, October 26, 1928; copy sent to Dale, WHC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 5, pp. 7–8.
16. Dale to Meriam, November 1, 1928, WHC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 5, p. 8.
17. Dale to Meriam, February 21, 1929, WHC.
18. Meriam to Dale, February 18, 1929, WHC.
19. Dale to Meriam, October 9, 1928; February 21, 1929, WHC.
20. W. North, interview, August 15, 1987, CFPC.
21. Critchlow, “Lewis Meriam.”
22. Parman, “Lewis Meriam’s Letters”; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 66–67.
23. “Roe Cloud Endorsed by Navajos,” Gallup Independent 44, no. 29 (1933), CFPC.
24. Crum, “Henry Roe Cloud,”
25. Hughes, interview by Sorci and Fahnestock, n.d., CFPC.
26. Hughes, interview by Sorci and Fahnestock, n.d., CFPC.
27. Hughes, interview by Sorci and Fahnestock, n.d., CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, chs. 9–10. The engraving is a line from “Work,” a poem by Henry Van Dyke.
28. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 75; Ramirez, “Henry Roe Cloud.”
29. R. North, interview, March 25, 1988, CFPC.
30. Philp, John Collier’s Crusade; Kelly, Assault on Assimilation.
31. Hughes, interview, April 27, 1987, CFPC.
32. Samuel Anderson to H. Cloud, September 12, 1933, August–November 1933, box 135, RG 75, BIA-K.
33. Warren, Quest for Citizenship.
34. Jacobs, White Mother.
35. Stoler, “Tense and Tender Ties,” 830; Stoler, Carnal Knowledge, 10; Hurtado, Intimate Frontiers, xxix. Hurtado refers to “intimate frontiers” as “frontiers of the mind, frontiers of the heart, frontiers of difference.”
36. Warren, Quest for Citizenship.
37. H. Cloud, “Her New Frontiers,” 14, 16, 15.
38. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 126–27.
39. H. Cloud to E. C. Little, September 12, 1933, file: “Henry Roe Cloud Correspondence,” BIA-K.
40. H. Cloud to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, November 24, 1933, file: “Henry Roe Cloud Correspondence,” BIA-K.
41. Albert Hensley to H. Cloud, November 11, 1933, file: “Henry Roe Cloud Correspondence,” BIA-K.
42. H. Cloud to A. Hensley, November 23, 1933, file: “Henry Roe Cloud Correspondence,” BIA-K.
43. H. Cloud, “The Wheeler-Howard Bill,” speech, April 10, 1934, Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota, folder 45: “Addresses and Speeches,” box 160, RG 75, BIA-K; Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land; Otis, Dawes Act.
44. H. Cloud, “Wheeler-Howard Bill.”
45. As white settlers greedily snatched up more and more land, the earth, our mother, could no longer care for us by providing animals to hunt, plants to eat, or botanical medicine to heal us. Our loss of connection to our mother and our lands also broke our spirit, and this combined emotional and physical illness made us sick, causing us to die too soon.
46. Minutes, meeting held by H. Cloud, April 9, 1934, Wanblee, South Dakota, folder 45: “Addresses and Speeches,” box 160, RG 75, BIA-K.
47. McDonnell, Dispossession.
48. For more discussion regarding economic culture, see Champagne, “Economic Culture,” in T. Anderson, Property Rights, 195–213.
49. H. Cloud, “Wheeler-Howard Bill,” BIA-K; H. Cloud, speech, April 10, 1934, ECW Camp, Allen, South Dakota, folder 45: “Addresses and Speeches,” box 160, RG 75, BIA-K.
50. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
51. Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within, 66–80.
52. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
53. H. Cloud, “Anthropologist’s View,” CFPC.
54. Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within.
55. John Collier to William O. Roberts, April 17, 1934, Central Classified Rosebud Decimal O66-File 56439-33, RG 75, BIA-W; Clow, Indian Reorganization Act”; Kalt and Singer, “Myths and Realities.”
56. Kalt and Singer, “Myths and Realities.”
57. Deloria and Lytle, Nations Within.
58. Prucha, Great Father, 324–25.
59. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
60. “Dr. Roe Cloud Wins Achievement Award,” Indian Leader, October 11, 1935, CFPC.
61. Buchannan, interview by R. Butterfield, August, 1988, CFPC.
62. Buchannan, interview by R. Butterfield, August, 1988, CFPC.
63. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
1. Antone Minthorn; Viola Wocatse; Sonny Picard; Margarite Red Elk; Elizie Farrow, interviews, July 14–27, 1988, CFPC.
2. Hughes, interview, May 14, 1987, CFPC.
3. Luce and Johnson, “Modern Tribal Governance,” in Karson, As Days Go By, 151–71.
4. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native”; Palmer and Rundstrom, “Internal Colonialism.”
5. Luce and Johnson, “Modern Tribal Governance,” in Karson, As Days Go By, 151–71.
6. Hughes, interview, May 14, 1987, CFPC.
7. H. Cloud to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, attention E. J. Skidmore, March 12, 1940, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, p. 16.
8. Cahill, Federal Fathers and Mothers, 137.
9. R. North, interview, March 25, 1988, CFPC.
10. John Blackhawk, interview by Renya Ramirez, August 20, 2011, CFPC.
11. Jon Greendeer, interview by Ramirez, August 15, 2011, CFPC.
12. Hughes, interview, May 14, 1987, CFPC.
13. Leah Conner, interview, July 25, 1988, CFPC.
14. Hughes, interview, May 14, 1987, CFPC.
15. H. Cloud, handwritten sermon, n.d., reference to war indicates it was given sometime from 1942 to 1945, CFPC.
16. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native”; Jacobs, White Mother; Glenn, “Settler Colonialism as Structure.”
17. Jacobs, White Mother; Arvin, Tuck, and Morrill, “Decolonizing Feminism”; Morgensen, Spaces between Us.
18. H. Cloud to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, draft letter, February 2, 1940, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, pp. 18–19.
19. Moses, Wild West Shows.
20. Furlong, Let ’er Buck; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, p. 17.
21. D. McCall, Ranch under the Rimrock, 58–59.
22. Waggoner, Happy Canyon.
23. H. Cloud to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, draft letter, February 2, 1940, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, pp. 19–20.
24. Foucault, Discipline and Punish.
25. Goeman, “Introduction to Indigenous Performances.”
26. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud”; L. Tetzloff, “Indian Remain Indian.”
27. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud”; L. Tetzloff, “Indian Remain Indian.”
28. Jacobs, White Mother.
29. Conner, interview, July 25, 1988; Conner, interview by Ramirez, July 1, 2010, CFPC.
30. Kinser, Motherhood and Feminism, 61.
31. Conner, interview, July 25, 1988; July 1, 2010, CFPC.
32. E. Bender to “Dear Bee,” September 15, 1942, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, pp. 69–70.
33. Page to H. and E. Cloud, 1942, CFPC.
34. H. Cloud to Page, September 28, 1942, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, pp. 70–71.
35. Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, p. 73.
36. Ramirez, “From Henry Roe Cloud.”
37. H. Cloud to Page, September 24, 1944, CFPC.
38. Furness, “Challenging the Myth,” in Coombes, Rethinking Settler Colonialism, 172–92.
39. Jones et al., Big Voice; Walker, Every Warrior; D. Smith, Folklore; North, “Informal Education”; Hinzo, Voicing across Space.”
40. Elsie Dickson, “Indians Heap Provoked Blonde Writer ‘The Hat’ May Lose Part of Scalp,” [late 1946 or early 1947?], unidentified newspaper clipping, probably East Oregonian or Oregon Journal, CFPC.
41. Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, pp. 23–24.
42. Wolfe, “Elimination of the Native”; Jacobs, White Mother.
43. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
44. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 172; Fisher, Tangled Nets.
45. H. Cloud, “Remarks,” speech to Wildlife Society, Pendleton OR, October 10, 1941, CFPC.
46. Raleigh Butterfield, interview, March 24, 1988, CFPC.
47. M. A. Johnson to Commissioner of Indian Affairs, with copy to Cloud, August 17, 1939, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, p. 61.
48. May et al., Salmon Is Everything.
49. Hernandez, “Agents of Pollination”; Silko, Gardens in the Dunes.
50. H. Cloud memo, January 5, 1944, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, p. 63.
51. Wilkins and Lomawaima, Uneven Ground, 125.
52. Fisher, “Tangled Nets.”
53. Fisher, “Tangled Nets.”
54. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 175.
55. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 175–76; Donald L. Parman, “The Tulee Decision,” paper delivered at the 1994 Pacific Northwest History Conference, March 22, 1994, Bellingham WA, 5; Walter Woehlke to M. A. Johnson, October 21, 1940, folder: “Celilo Fishing,” box 4, RG 75, Umatilla Agency Records, BIA-S.
56. H. Cloud, interview, ca. late 1949–early 1950, CFPC.
57. Fisher, “Tangled Nets.”
58. H. Cloud, interview, ca. late 1949–early 1950, CFPC.
59. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 176; Fisher, “Tangled Nets.”
60. C. R. Whitlock and others to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, John Collier, August 18, 1934, folder: “Hunting and Fishing as Pertains to Celilo, 1932–36,” box 4, RG 75, Umatilla Agency Records, BIA-S; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 177.
61. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 177.
62. H. Cloud, “Sampson Tulee Supreme Court Decision and It’s Implication on Conservation of Wildlife on Indian Reservations” (paper presented at Superintendents’ Conference, December 8–9, 1944, Portland OR), CFPC.
63. Edmonds, “Urban Strategies.”
64. H. Cloud, “Sampson Tulee,” CFPC.
65. H. Cloud, “Sampson Tulee,” CFPC.
66. H. Cloud, “Sampson Tulee,” CFPC.
67. H. Cloud, “Sampson Tulee,” CFPC.
68. Wilkins and Lomawaima, Uneven Ground; V. Deloria, Behind the Trail; Deloria and Wilkins, Constitutional Tribulations.
69. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 172; “Winnebago Graduate of Yale Named Dr. Henry Roe Cloud, Nebraska Boy under Babcock, His Successor,” Eastern Oregonian, July 29, 1939.
70. Jack Forbes, for example, helped to found Deganawidah-Quetzacoatl University (DQ University), a two-year Indigenous university, in 1971 and was a co-founder of Native American Studies at UC Davis. See Bailey, “UC Davis Scholar.”
71. Tribal Council meeting, minutes, December 22, 1939, folder 064: “Councils, Tribal Misc. 1935–41,” box 9, RG 75, Umatilla Agency Records, BIA-S; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 184.
72. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good.”
73. Coordination Council of Northwest Superintendents, quarterly meeting, minutes, March 8, 1940, Chemawa Tribal Councils, 1940, box 1541, RG 75, Tribal Operations Branch General Subject Files, Portland Area Office, BIA-S; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 185–86.
74. Tribal Council meeting, minutes, November 24, 1941, cover letter, H. Cloud to J. Collier, January 7, 1942, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 7, pp. 38–39, 44.
75. Regular Tribal Council meeting, minutes, December 15, 1944; May 26, 1944, folder 064: “Tribal Council Meetings, 1944,” box 12, RG 75, Umatilla Agency Records, BIA-S; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 186–87.
76. Luce and Johnson, “Modern Tribal Governance,” Karson, As Days Go By, 151–71.
77. Doris Bounds, interview, July 24–27, 1988, CFPC.
78. For Jim Kanine’s complaints against Cloud, see Kanine to President Roosevelt, April 18, 1941, file 25692-41-155, box 274, Umatilla Records, Central Classified Files, 1940–43, RG 75, BIA-W. For one example of Barnhart’s complaints, see Cloud to William Zimmerman, March 31, 1942, file 3-42-155, box 274, BIA-W; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 187.
79. Tribal Council meeting, minutes, February 1, 1946; March 5, 1946, folder: “Tribal Council Minutes, 1946 (Part 1),” box 12, RG 75, Umatilla Agency Records, BIA-S; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 188–89.
80. Cornell, Return of the Native, 156
81. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 188.
82. H. Cloud, “Confidential Report and Recommendations on the Candidacy of Charles Luce, Attorney, for Tribal Attorney for the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Reservation,” March 1948, file 37222-47-174, box 130, Umatilla Agency, Central Classified Files, BIA-W; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 189.
83. E. Morgan Pryse to John H. Provinse, Assistant to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, March 12, 1948; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 190–91.
84. Sheridan Z. Fahnestock, notes, July 11, 1988, CFPC.
85. “Tribal Bill Covers Land,” Oregonian, January 29, 1951, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 9, p. 3.
86. H. Cloud to L. P. Towle, July 1, 1949, folder 051: “Reports, Annual Progress Grand-Ronde-Siletz Administration, 1949,” box 52, Grand Ronde Siletz Agency Records, RG 75, BIA-S; J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 192.
87. R. C. Butterfield, interview, March 24, 1988, CFPC.
88. H. Cloud, interview, n.d., CFPC.
89. “Oregon Indians Win Land Claim of $16,515,604,” Oregonian, January 4, 1950, CFPC.
90. “Gold Rush, 1950 Style, Is On! Coast Indians Speaking Up for Share of $16 Million Award,” Oregon Sunday Journal, January 8, 1950, CFPC.
91. “Four Oregon Tribes Ask U.S. for $65,000,000 for Lands Illegally Claimed by Settlers,” Oregonian, October 21, 1947, CFPC.
92. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good,” 191.
93. Pryse to Acting Commissioner of Indian Affairs, telegram, October 28, 1948, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 9, p. 6.
94. W. North, interview, August 15, 1987, CFPC.
95. Gretchen Freed-Rowland, interview, May 10, 1988, CFPC.
96. H. Cloud to Francis LaFrances, October 17, 1949, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 9, pp. 25–26.
1. Maddox, Citizen Indians.
2. Ness, Encyclopedia, 703.
3. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
4. L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
5. Cowger, National Congress.
6. Beaulieu, “Place among Nations,” in Clark, Minnesota, 397–433.
7. See Fixico, Termination and Relocation; and Burt, Tribalism in Crisis.
8. Cowger, National Congress, 100.
9. Philp, “Termination.”
10. Beaulieu, “Place among Nations,” in Clark, Minnesota, 397–433.
11. Prucha, Great Father.
12. Kinser, Motherhood and Feminism.
13. Kim Anderson, Life Stages.
14. “Mrs. Henry Roe Cloud Oregon Mother of ’50,” Oregon Journal, April 5, 1950, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, pp. 2–3.
15. Lillian Alberta Cloud Freed to Page, March 20, 1950, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 2.
16. Page to Golden Rule Foundation, April 12, 1950, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 4.
17. “Mrs. Roe Cloud ‘Princess’ Now,” Oregonian, June 20, 1950; Minnesota Chippewa Tribal Executive Committee Resolution, November 6, 1950, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 13; Elizabeth’s being honored as an Indian princess is interesting. The Indian princess stereotype includes Native women who are lighter, more assimilated, and helpers of whites, whereas the savage drudge stereotype pertains to Native women who are uncivilized, savage, and antagonistic to whites. This “Indian princess” honoring could allude to Elizabeth being viewed as closer to modern and a “good Indian” instead of a “bad Indian.” See Green, “Pocahontas Perplex.”
18. “Indian Woman Wins U.S. ‘Mother Award,” Christian Science Monitor, April 28, 1950, file: “Elizabeth Roe Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
19. “The American Mother of 1950” and “Mothers of the United Nations,” International Mothers’ Digest 1, no. 1 (1950), file: “Elizabeth Roe Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
20. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
21. “Mother of Year Happy at “Fair Deal for Indians,” May 20, 1950, no newspaper identified, file: “Elizabeth Roe Cloud,” box 68, NMAI; Bomberry, “Indigenous Memory and Imagination.”
22. Mrs. Henry Roe Cloud, “Acceptance Remarks,” file: “Elizabeth Roe Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
23. Richard L. Neuberger, “Religion Is Dominant Influence in Life of Elizabeth Roe Cloud, American Mother of the Year—‘Wonderful Woman, True Leader,’” Post Dispatch, n.d., CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 9.
24. Kat Anderson, Tending the Wild.
25. Neuberger, “Religion Is Dominant Influence”; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, pp. 9–11.
26. Cloud North, memoir notes, n.d., CFPC.
27. Buffalohead, “Farmers, Warriors, Traders.”
28. Cloud North, memoir notes, n.d., CFPC.
29. “Mother of Year Title Awarded to Half-Indian,” New York Herald Tribune, April 28, 1950, CFPC.
30. Ramirez, Native Hubs.
31. Washington Merry-Go-Round, Newport News, June 4, 1950, CFPC.
32. “Mothers as Good or Better Than Ever, Says ‘Champion,’” Wichita Eagle, June 4, 1950, CFPC.
33. Kinser, Motherhood and Feminism, 52–53.
34. “Indian Hope Gets Support,” Oregonian, October 1, 1950, CFPC.
35. “American Mother of the Year Enjoyed Audience with Queen,” Wichita Eagle, October 30, 1950, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” ch. 10, pp. 17–18, CFPC.
36. Thrush, Indigenous London.
37. E. Cloud, “Parents Declared to Hold Key to Democratic World,” Oregonian, n.d., PHSA; L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
38. Proceedings of the Sixtieth Annual Convention of the General Federation of Women’s Clubs, May 1951, Houston, GFWCH, 40; L. Tetzloff, “Elizabeth Bender Cloud.”
39. Indian Council Fire, information sheet, n.d., CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 17.
40. Indian Achievement Award winners, information book, n.d., CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 17.
41. Cowger, National Congress, 123.
42. E. Bender, “New Frontiers for the American Indian,” 1950–52, file: “Program Records,” box 3, GFWCH.
43. Cowger, National Congress, 123.
44. “Antagonism Rife over Indian Policy,” New York Times, November 2, 1951, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 22.
45. E. Bender, “New Frontiers for the American Indian,” 1950–52, file: “Program Records,” box 3, GFWCH.
46. E. Bender, “Charter of Indian Rights,” 1950–52, file: “Program Records,” box 4, GFWCH.
47. Elizabeth Roe Cloud, “Statement by Participants,” guest editorial, Amerindian, September–October 1953, CFPC.
48. Elizabeth Roe Cloud, “Statement by Participants”; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, pp. 32–33.
49. E. Bender to Marion, Ed, Buzz, and Mark Hughes, June 22, 1953, CFPC.
50. E. Bender to Sophie Van S. Thies, May 18, 1954, file: “Elizabeth Bender Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
51. E. Bender to Helen Peterson, May 26, 1954, file: “Elizabeth Bender Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
52. E. Bender, “Six Weeks: Field Visits to Indian Communities in California and Arizona,” file: “Elizabeth Bender Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
53. Some Native feminist texts include Ramirez, “Tribal Nation”; A. Smith, “Native American Feminism”; Suzack et al., Indigenous Women and Feminism; Goeman and Denetdale, “Native Feminisms”; A. Smith, Conquest; and Shanley, “Thoughts on Indian Feminism.”
54. E. Bender to Douglas McKay, November 21, 1952, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, pp. 23–24.
55. E. Bender to McKay, November 21, 1952, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 24.
56. Cowger, National Congress.
57. E. Bender to McKay, November 21, 1952, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 24.
58. Woody Crumbo to McKay, January 5, 1953, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 25.
59. “Indian Leader Gives Support to Emmons,” Gallup Independent, June 13, 1953, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, pp. 26–27.
60. Cowger, National Congress, 110.
61. Swift, Chief Bender’s Burden.
62. Cowger, National Congress, 111.
63. Cowger, National Congress, 110–12.
64. E. Bender, “Policy Statement on American Indian Legislation,” February 27, 1954, file: “Committees and Special Issues,” box 257, NMAI.
65. E. Bender to Helen Peterson, March 30, 1954, file: “Elizabeth Bender Cloud,” box 68, NMAI.
66. E. Bender to Louis Bruce, January 5, 1956, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 43.
67. Zelma Zimmerman to E. Bender, September 26, 1954, CFPC; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 43.
68. “Parade Scenario,” unknown newspaper, 115, file: “1965 Inaugural Committee Records,” box 38, LBJL, 115, located by librarian Katherine Frankum; Fahnestock and Sorci, “Roe Cloud,” CFPC, ch. 10, p. 49.
69. “Honored Indian Woman Dies at 77 in Portland,” Oregonian, September 19, 1965, CFPC.
1. See Ramirez, Native Hubs, for a discussion of Roberts’s notion of the hub.
2. Ramirez, Native Hubs.
3. W. North, interview, August 15, 1987, CFPC. When Natives called him a “white bull with a red face,” my mother, Woesha, said, it “crushed” her dad.
4. J. Tetzloff, “To Do Some Good.”
5. “Script,” Northwest Neighbors radio program, April 11, 1945, Portland OR, CFPC.
6. Washington Merry-Go-Round, Newport News, June 4, 1950, CFPC.