Poisonous Wild Mushrooms
Gomphus floccosus
Scaly Vase Chanterelle (Gomphus floccosus)
DESCRIPTION: This funnel- or vase-shaped mushroom is two to seven inches tall and two to five inches wide at the top. The upper-inner surface is yellowish orange to orangish brown or red, depressed, and covered with coarse scales that are the same color. The outer-undersurface, which is continuous with the “stalk,” is wrinkled or veined but smooth to the touch; it is creamy yellow to yellowish brown. The flesh is white. The spore print is brownish yellow.
FRUITING: This colorful mushroom is usually found singly or in groups, rarely in clusters of two or three specimens, on the ground in coniferous or mixed deciduous and coniferous woods. It fruits from early summer through midfall, and its range includes most of North America.
SIMILAR SPECIES: G. kauffmanii (suspected of being poisonous) is similar, but it is much larger, has coarser scales, and is tan to dull orangish brown. It is found in western North America.
TOXICITY: The Scaly Vase Chanterelle is collected and eaten by some mushroom hunters, but it should be avoided. It often causes abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. These symptoms usually appear within four hours after consumption. This is a wonderful photographic subject, though. You’ll be better off if you take only pictures and keep your specimens off the dining room table. Even some of those who do eat this species readily admit that it’s frequently unpalatable.
JACK O’LANTERN MUSHROOM
Omphalotus illudens
DESCRIPTION: The cap is two to seven inches wide, yellowish orange to orange, rounded to flat or sunken at the center. The cap flesh is yellow. The gills are yellowish orange, closely spaced, and sharp edged; they are attached to the stalk and descend it somewhat.
Jack O’Lantern Mushroom (Omphalotus illudens), showing cap color and gills
Jack O’Lantern Mushroom (Omphalotus illudens), showing fused stalks
The stalk is pale yellow to orange, two to eight inches long, and three-eighths to three-fourths inch thick, narrowing toward the base. The spore print is pale cream.
FRUITING: The Jack O’Lantern is found clustered on deciduous stumps and buried wood. It fruits from midsummer through late fall, but also through winter in California. It is found throughout much of eastern North America and also in California and Arizona.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Western Jack O’Lantern (O. olivascens) is equally poisonous. It has a darker orange cap, which is often tinted olive green, and a white spore print. It is found from British Columbia to California. O. illudens is also known as O. olearius and Clitocybe illudens.
TOXICITY: This species causes gastrointestinal upset, including abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Symptoms typically appear within four hours and may last for up to two days.
DESTROYING ANGEL
Amanita virosa
Destroying Angel (Amanita virosa)
DESCRIPTION: The cap is white, two to five inches wide, rounded to flat; the cap surface is smooth and dry. The cap flesh is white. The gills are white and free from the stalk or barely attached to it. In young button specimens, the gills are covered by a membranous white veil. The stalk is white, smooth, solid, and fairly slender, 2-1/2–7 inches tall and one-fourth to three-fourths inch thick. There is a membranous white volva around the base of the stalk, and mature specimens have a membranous white ring around the upper part of the stalk. Initially, the entire button is enclosed in a membranous white tissue called a universal veil. These buttons resemble small puffballs, but close examination of a longitudinal section will reveal the enclosed stalk, cap, and gills. The spore print is white.
FRUITING: Found under trees singly or in groups from early summer through midautumn throughout most of North America.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Several other white Amanita species, some of which are equally deadly, occur in North America. All share the characteristic volva and white spore print, and all should be avoided.
TOXICITY: The Destroying Angel, like several of its close relatives, contains amatoxins; it is fatally poisonous (see p. 145). Unlike some poisonous mushrooms, the Destroying Angel does not have an unpleasant odor or taste. Some who have been poisoned have even reported that it tastes quite good. This certainly refutes any misguided preconceptions that all poisonous mushrooms have an unpleasant odor, taste, or both.
Amanita phalloides
Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)
DESCRIPTION: The cap surface is yellowish green to yellowish brown; it is smooth overall, but has tiny, dark, flattened hairs over the center. The cap is initially dome shaped, expanding until nearly flat; it is 2-1/2–6 inches wide. The cap flesh is white and has a slightly disagreeable odor. The gills are white, rather closely spaced, free from the stalk or barely attached to it. The gills of young specimens are covered by a white, membranous partial veil. The stalk is white, two to five inches tall, and one-half to three-fourths inch thick; mature specimens have a white, membranous ring around the upper portion of the stalk. The stalk is enlarged downward, and quite bulbous at the base. The base of the stalk is enclosed by a white, membranous, saclike volva. Very young specimens are entirely enclosed by a membranous, white tissue called a universal veil. These buttons resemble small puffballs, but a longitudinal section will reveal the enclosed stalk, cap, and gills. The spore print is white.
FRUITING: The Death Cap is found singly or in groups, sometimes in great numbers, on the ground in woods. It fruits primarily in the fall, but frequently as late as January (especially in California). Its range is apparently spreading. A few decades ago, it was known only from California; it has since been found in Oregon and Washington, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and other parts of eastern North America.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Several closely related Amanitas are colored differently; many are deadly, and all should be avoided. The most common one is the Destroying Angel (A. virosa), which is fatally poisonous (see preceding entry). All of these related species share the characteristic volva and white spore print. The button stage of the Death Cap and several other dangerous Amanitas somewhat resembles an edible puffball. The stern warning to section longitudinally all edible puffballs to make sure that no stalk, cap, or gills are present cannot be overemphasized.
TOXICITY: As its common name implies, the Death Cap is fatally poisonous. Since it could appear in areas where it has not yet been reported, everyone gathering mushrooms for the table should be aware of this and other mushrooms that contain amatoxins (see p. 145).
FLY AGARIC
Amanita muscaria
Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria var. formosa)
Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria var. muscaria)
DESCRIPTION: The cap is two to ten inches wide, first dome shaped and then expanding until nearly flat; the cap surface is slightly sticky, yellowish orange to red or creamy white, with white wartlike patches. The cap flesh is white. The gills are white, closely spaced, and free from the stalk or barely attached to it; they are covered by a white, membranous partial veil in young specimens. The stalk is white, sometimes tinted pale yellowish; it is two to seven inches tall and 3/8–1-1/8 inches thick, enlarging toward the base. In mature specimens, there is a white, membranous ring around the upper portion of the stalk. The stalk is surrounded at the base by two or three concentric bands of white, cottony tissue. The spore print is white.
FRUITING: The Fly Agaric is found throughout much of North America, fruiting on the ground in conifer or mixed woods. It generally appears in summer or fall but is also found in January and February in the southern United States.
SIMILAR SPECIES: There are several closely related species in North America. Most often recognized are two varieties: A. muscaria var. muscaria, with a decidedly red cap, and A. muscaria var. formosa, with a yellowish orange cap. All the related species are considered poisonous and should be avoided.
TOXICITY: This is the North American equivalent of the vision-inducing Fly Agaric of Siberia. Our varieties, however, are more poisonous than hallucinogenic. They typically cause delirium and profuse sweating, sometimes accompanied by violent muscle spasms instead of the psychedelic visions some experimenters expect. While there have been some reports that some North American specimens have induced altered depth perception and a craving for intense physical activity, typically followed by a very deep sleep (with or without visions), in others these effects were consistently accompanied by the universally undesirable ones. Nausea and vomiting are also a frequent part of this “magical” experience.
We strongly urge adventurous mushroom hunters who may be looking for a mood-altering fungal experience to try the Golden Chanterelle—with a nice white wine.
YELLOW-FOOT AGARICUS
Agaricus xanthodermus
DESCRIPTION: The cap is two to seven inches wide, somewhat rounded when young but nearly flat at maturity. The cap surface is smooth and white to pale gray but quickly stains yellow when bruised. The gills are free from the stalk and closely spaced; they are initially white, turning pink and eventually dark brown. As in all species of Agaricus, the gills of young button specimens are covered by a white, membranous veil. The stalk is two to six inches tall and one-half to one inch thick; it is thickest near its base. The stalk is dingy white and rapidly stains yellow when cut, especially near the base. There is a white, membranous, often flaring ring on the stalk. The mushroom—the gills and cut flesh, especially—have an unpleasant, creosotelike odor. The spore print is dark chocolate brown.
FRUITING: This is a West Coast species, found from British Columbia to California; it fruits from fall through spring. It is typically found scattered or in groups on the ground, especially in urban areas and usually near trees. Closely related poisonous species of this genus may be found throughout North America.
DA Yellow-foot Agaricus (Agaricus xanthodermus)
SIMILAR SPECIES: Several Agaricus species have an unpleasant, creosotelike odor and/or stain yellow when bruised. Many of these are poisonous and should be avoided. The notable exceptions are the edible Horse Mushroom (A. arvensis; see p. 38) and the edible Prince (A. augustus; see p. 40). Each of these has a yellow bruising reaction, but neither has an unpleasant odor.
TOXICITY: The Yellow-foot Agaricus is just one of the numerous poisonous species of this genus. Fortunately, each has an unpleasant odor, a yellow bruising reaction, or both. Avoid specimens with either or both of these characteristics, except for the Prince and the Horse mushrooms. Symptoms of poisoning by the Yellow-foot Agaricus and its close, toxic relatives include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, which typically commence within two hours after eating the culprit species.
GREEN-SPORED LEPIOTA
Chlorophyllum molybdites
DESCRIPTION: The cap is two and one-half inches to one foot wide, first shaped somewhat like a partly opened parasol, then expanding until nearly flat; the cap surface is dry and white, with a pale brown center and scales. The cap flesh is white, bruising orange and then reddish brown. The gills are white in young specimens and then become green; they are closely spaced and free from the stalk. In young specimens, the gills are covered by a white, membranous partial veil. The stalk is white to dingy white, bruising reddish brown; it is four to ten inches tall and three-eighths to one inch thick, enlarging slightly toward the base. In mature specimens, there is a white, thick-edged, flaring membranous ring around the stalk. The spore print is pale green.
FRUITING: This species is found in many parts of North America, but it’s most common in the southern United States. It appears mostly on lawns or grasslands but also in woodchips and along roadsides, usually fruiting in late summer or early fall. It is particularly frequent on lawns that are watered regularly.
Green-spored Lepiota (Chlorophyllum molybdites)
SIMILAR SPECIES: This is a dead ringer look-alike for the edible Parasol Mushroom (Lepiota procera; see p. 43), especially in young specimens whose gills have not developed their tell-tale greenish coloration. Even in such cases, the Green-spored Lepiota can be distinguished by the bruising reaction of the cap flesh; the Parasol lacks this characteristic. Nonetheless, a spore print should always be made before consuming what you think is an edible Lepiota. Other poisonous species in the Lepiota family (some are deadly!) bear little resemblance to the Green-spored Lepiota, which is sometimes called Lepiota morgani.
TOXICITY: This is a dreadful sickener, frequently mistaken for the Parasol Mushroom in areas where both species occur. Symptoms usually begin within two hours after consumption. They include thirst, nausea, confusion, chills, sweating, abdominal pain, vomiting (often violent) and diarrhea (sometimes bloody). These symptoms have reportedly been suffered by people who ate only a “tiny morsel” of the mushroom. Sickness may last as long as forty-eight hours, sometimes requiring hospitalization to alleviate the symptoms.
ALCOHOL INKY
Coprinus atramentarius
DESCRIPTION: Grayish to grayish brown, the entire mushroom stands two to six inches (or slightly more) in height. The cap is 1-1/2–3 inches wide, first oval and then somewhat bell shaped, with or without a central knob, or umbo. The surface of the cap is slightly to distinctly pleated, especially at the edge of the cap, but smooth to the touch. The gills are very crowded and free from the stalk; they are white in young specimens, turning gray and then black as the mushroom matures. Finally, the gills dissolve into a thick, inky black fluid. A cross-section reveals that the interior flesh is pale grayish white. The stalk is white and hollow, 1-1/4–6 inches tall, and three-eighths to one inch thick; a ringlike zone of fibers can usually be seen on the stalk near the base. The spore print is inky black.
Alcohol Inky (Coprinus atramentarius)
FRUITING: The Alcohol Inky is found throughout most of North America, usually in dense clusters, on grass, wood chips, near wood debris or buried wood, and around the bases of tree trunks. It fruits from midspring through early fall in most areas but from midfall through midspring on the Pacific Coast.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Scaly Inky Cap (C. variegatus; see next entry) is similar in stature and should also be avoided; it has a distinctly scaly cap that is grayish brown overall, and it usually has an unpleasant odor.
TOXICITY: The Alcohol Inky is, technically, edible, and it is enjoyed by some people; however, it can cause coprine poisoning if alcoholic beverages are consumed soon before or within several days after eating the mushroom. For this reason, it should be carefully avoided by all but the strictest teetotalers, lest one should forget about this species’ interesting but most unpleasant interaction with alcohol. The typical symptoms—marked flushing, rapid breathing, severe headache, nausea, and vomiting—usually commence within thirty minutes after consumption of alcohol or the mushroom itself.
SCALY INKY CAP
Coprinus variegatus
DESCRIPTION: The entire mushroom is two to six inches (or slightly more) high; the cap itself is one to three inches wide, first egg and then bell shaped. It is grayish brown between coarse, white to dingy yellow scales and patches that wash off easily. The gills are very crowded and free from the stalk; they are white in young specimens, graying and finally turning black before dissolving into a thick, inky black fluid. The stalk is white and hollow, two to six inches tall, and one-fourth to one-half inch thick; brown “threads” are usually evident at the base of the stalk. The mushroom usually has an unpleasant odor. The spore print is inky black.
Scaly Inky Cap (Coprinus variegatus)
FRUITING: This species of Inky Cap is found occasionally in groups, usually in clusters, on decaying deciduous wood, including buried wood—especially on or about stumps in lawns—throughout summer in northeastern North America. Its range extends west to Minnesota and south to the Carolinas.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Alcohol Inky (C. atramentarius; see preceding entry) is similar in stature; it, too, should be avoided. It typically has a gray to grayish tan cap, and it lacks coarse scales; it doesn’t have an unpleasant odor.
C. americanus is suspect, though we have no reports of adverse reactions associated with it. It is nearly identical to the Scaly Inky Cap, but it has a silvery gray cap with whitish scales when young, darkening until the mushroom is mature. It has been found in the southeastern United States, and some mycologists classify it as C. variegatus var. americanus. The Scaly Inky Cap has previously been classified as C. quadrifidus and C. ebulbosus.
TOXICITY: The Scaly Inky Cap has been collected and eaten by some people, but it is best avoided. Like the Alcohol Inky, it may contain chemical compounds that inhibit the human body’s metabolism of alcohol, causing—in some people—marked flushing, rapid breathing, severe headache, nausea, and vomiting. These symptoms can arise if alcoholic beverages are consumed soon before or within several days after eating the mushroom.
Additionally, some specimens of the Scaly Inky Cap, particularly those with a foul odor, have been known to cause gastric upset even without consumption of alcohol. In either case, symptoms typically appear from thirty minutes to one hour after consumption of alcohol or the mushroom itself.
SWEATING MUSHROOM
Clitocybe dealbata
Sweating Mushroom (Clitocybe dealbata)
DESCRIPTION: The cap is white to gray when young; it is 1–2-1/4 inches wide, rounded to nearly flat, dry and smooth, with an incurved edge. Mature caps often develop pinkish tones; they usually have sunken centers, and the cap edge becomes wavy and upturned. The cap flesh is thin, whitish, and mild-tasting. The gills are closely spaced to crowded, attached to the stalk or partially descending it; they are white to pale gray. The stalk is white, smooth, and tough; it is often curved and is typically hollow in age. It is one to two inches tall and one-sixteenth to one-fourth inch thick, and either nearly equal in thickness overall or slightly enlarged near the base. The spore print is white to pale creamy white.
FRUITING: The Sweating Mushroom grows scattered or in groups on the ground in grassy areas. It is found throughout most of North America, fruiting during summer and fall.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Crowded White Clitocybe (C. dilatata), which is poisonous, is a much larger, white mushroom with a wavy, often split edge. It grows in clusters on the ground in the Pacific Northwest.
The Fairy Ring Mushroom (Marasmius oreades), which is edible (see p. 50), has a light tan, slightly velvety cap and stalk; its gills are barely attached to the stalk. Also, the Fairy Ring Mushroom’s stalk is exceedingly pliable. It can be bent or twisted a great deal without breaking; the Sweating Mushroom’s stalk is tough but not pliable.
TOXICITY: The Sweating Mushroom causes muscarine poisoning. Symptoms begin about fifteen to thirty minutes after ingestion. They include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, painful constriction of the muscles at the back of the mouth, painful urination, intense sweating, and profuse secretion of tears and saliva.
SULPHUR TUFT
Naematoloma fasciculare
Sulphur Tuft (Naematoloma fasciculare)
DESCRIPTION: The cap is one to three inches wide, rounded in young specimens but nearly flat in mature ones. The cap surface is smooth and moist and greenish yellow to yellowish orange. The cap flesh is pale yellow, bruising brown; the taste is very bitter. The gills are greenish yellow to yellow in young specimens, maturing to purple-brown. They are closely spaced and attached to the stalk. In very young specimens, the gills are covered by a white to pale yellow, fibrous partial veil. The stalk is pale yellow to yellowish brown, two to four inches long, one-eighth to three-eighths inch thick, and not noticeably enlarged at the base. A ringlike zone of brown fibers (remnants of the partial veil) may be visible around the stalk near the top, especially in dry weather. The spore print is purple-brown.
FRUITING: The Sulphur Tuft is found in dense clusters on deciduous logs and stumps throughout much of North America, fruiting from spring through autumn.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Smoky-gilled Naematoloma and the Brick Cap (N. capnoides and N. sublateritium), which are both edible (see p. 80), lack the Sulphur Tuft’s distinctive (in immature specimens) gill color. The Brick Cap’s red cap color makes confusion with its poisonous brother unlikely, but the Smoky-gilled Naematoloma could possibly be confused with the Sulphur Tuft, especially if one is uncertain of whether the substrate (log or stump) is from a coniferous or deciduous tree. However, the Sulphur Tuft will be ruled out by the key identifying characteristics listed for the Smoky-gilled Naematoloma.
TOXICITY: This is a decidedly poisonous species. Although fatalities from eating this mushroom have been reported in Europe and Japan, symptoms from ingestion of North American specimens are limited to nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. These symptoms are typically delayed until about nine hours after ingestion.
DEADLY GALERINA
Galerina autumnalis
Deadly Galerina (Galerina autumnalis)
DESCRIPTION: The cap is 1–2-1/2 inches wide, rounded at first but nearly flat in mature specimens. The cap surface is smooth, moist, and sticky; it is yellowish brown to chestnut brown. The cap flesh is pale brown. The gills are yellowish brown to rusty brown, darkening as the mushroom matures; they are closely spaced and attached to the stalk. In young specimens, the gills are covered by a white, thin, membranous partial veil. The stalk is one to four inches long and one-eighth to three-eighths inch thick; it is white near the top but brown on the lower portion. It is not noticeably enlarged toward the base. Mature specimens have a tiny, fibrous white ring on the upper portion of the stalk; this ring is often coated with rusty brown spores. The spore print is rusty brown.
FRUITING: This little brown mushroom, or “LBM,” is common throughout much of North America; it is found singly or in groups on decaying logs and stumps (coniferous or deciduous). As its scientific name implies, it fruits primarily in the fall, but it can also be found in the spring or at other times under favorable weather conditions.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Many other closely related species of Galerina, some of which are equally deadly, occur in North America. All should be avoided. The Deadly Galerina was previously classified in the genus Pholiota.
TOXICITY: This innocent-looking mushroom is fatally poisonous. It is partly responsible for the mycophagist’s maxim, “Stay away from LBMs.” Like many species of Galerina, Amanita, and other genera, the Deadly Galerina contains amatoxins (see p. 145).
Some experienced mycologists have heard an old folk myth claiming that all brown mushrooms that grow on wood are safe edibles. Considering that the Deadly Galerina is invariably brown and grows only on wood, this serves to emphasize the danger of trusting folk wisdom when it comes to selecting wild mushrooms for the table.
RED-MOUTH BOLETE
Boletus subvelutipes
Red-mouth Bolete (Boletus subvelutipes)
DESCRIPTION: The cap surface varies in color from brownish orange to orangish red or dull red, often a paler orangish yellow near the edge. The cap surface is smooth and dry but often minutely fibrous or velvety; it quickly tints dark blue where bruised. The cap is 2–5-1/2 inches wide, well rounded in small specimens but usually nearly flat in larger ones. The undersurface of the cap bears small, round pores that meet or slightly descend the stalk; this pore surface is orange, orangish red, or dull red. The pore surface, like the cap, quickly turns dark blue where bruised. The stalk is one to four inches tall, three-eighths to three-fourths inch thick, and yellowish but with a varying degree of reddish tints; the base of the stalk is usually streaked with reddish, hairlike fibers. The stalk also quickly turns dark blue where bruised. The flesh is yellow, but—again—it quickly turns dark blue where bruised. The spore print is dark greenish brown.
FRUITING: This toxic species is found on the ground scattered or in groups in deciduous forests or mixed conifer and deciduous wòods, displaying some preference for beech and hemlock. It appears from early summer through early fall; its range includes eastern North America from eastern Canada south to Virginia and west to Minnesota.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Many other Boletus species are orange to red on the undersurface of the cap, and/or stain blue (more or less) where bruised. Many of these are poisonous, so either of these characteristics—or both—should be viewed as a warning to anyone collecting boletes for the table. The scientific name subvelutipes means having a slightly velvety foot, a reference to the typical reddish hairlike fibers on the lower part of the stalk.
TOXICITY: The Red-mouth Bolete is just one of many poisonous boletes that have orange to red pore surfaces and/or a blue staining reaction when bruised. Symptoms of toxic bolete poisoning, which may be delayed by as much as four hours or more after consumption, include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. These symptoms can be quite painful.
Boletes are a fairly safe group of mushrooms, as long as the mushroom hunter avoids the “red flags”: orange or red pore surfaces under the cap and/or a blue bruising reaction. Some species that exhibit neither of these characteristics may be bitter or otherwise unpalatable, but none are known to be poisonous.
BRICK-CAP BOLETE
Boletus sensibilis
Brick-cap Bolete (Boletus sensibilis)
DESCRIPTION: The cap is two to eight inches wide; it is dome shaped and dark brick-red to pale brick-red when young, becoming nearly flat and fading to pale rose or dull reddish brown in age. The cap surface is dry, dull, and smooth to minutely velvety. The cap flesh is pale yellow and stains blue instantly when cut. The pore surface is bright yellow, instantly staining blue and then slowly staining reddish brown where bruised. The pores are tiny and round; the pore surface is attached to the stalk. The stalk is bright yellow, usually with dull red streaks on the lower half; it is three to six inches high and 1/2–1-1/2 inches thick, often somewhat thicker at the base. A very fine pattern of netlike ridges may be present near the top of the stalk, though these are often difficult to see. The spore print is greenish brown.
FRUITING: The Brick-cap Bolete is found scattered or in groups on the ground under mixed deciduous trees, especially beech, maple, and oak. It fruits during summer and fall and is widely distributed in eastern North America.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Two-colored Bolete (B. bicolor), which is edible (see p. 98), has a rose-red cap and a yellow stalk with red tints on the lower portion. It has a yellow pore surface that bruises blue slowly, not immediately.
TOXICITY: The Brick-cap Bolete is reportedly poisonous. The symptoms may not begin until four hours or more after the meal. The typical symptoms—abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea—can be very painful.
BITTER BOLETE
Tylopilus felleus
Bitter Bolete (Tylopilus felleus)
DESCRIPTION: The cap surface is light to dark brown and nearly smooth but fairly sticky when wet. The cap is two inches to one foot wide and somewhat dome shaped or rounded, especially in small specimens. The undersurface of the cap bears small pores that meet the stalk, though in mature specimens they are sunken into the cap up and away from the stalk. The pore surface is white in young specimens and gradually turns pinkish as the mushroom matures; it slowly turns brownish where bruised. The stalk is one to four inches tall, 3/8–1-1/4 inches thick, usually thicker near the base; it is pale brown, with darker, netlike ridges usually covering most of the stalk surface. The flesh is soft and white, slowly staining light pink where bruised. The flesh has a distinctly bitter taste. The spore print is pink to pinkish brown.
FRUITING: This species is typically found scattered on the ground in woods—deciduous, coniferous, or mixed. It has a long season—early summer through midfall—in its range, which includes much of the eastern half of the continent, extending west to Missouri and Michigan; it has also been found in Arizona.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Other bitter Tylopilus species are very similar in appearance. The Bitter Bolete has been called a dead ringer for the prized edible King Bolete (Boletus edulis; see p. 95). Considering that young specimens of this bitter species have white pore surfaces like the King, the easiest way to distinguish between the two (other than taste) is to note that the Bitter Bolete has dark netlike ridges on most of its stalk, whereas the King Bolete has white netlike ridges on the upper portion of the stalk.
TOXICITY: The Bitter Bolete is not toxic. We have included it in this section because its taste is so unpleasant and we wanted to warn the reader who has found some boletes. Even while cooking, it smells terrific, but one taste of the Bitter Bolete would not only disappoint but perhaps depress the novice mushroom hunter. Not all individuals are sensitive to bitter tastes; some mushroom hunters with this genetic peculiarity have apparently eaten and enjoyed this species, and none reportedly has become ill as a result.
PIGSKIN POISON PUFFBALL
Scleroderma citrinum
DESCRIPTION: This mushroom closely resembles a true puffball: it is nearly round (somewhat so overall, but especially when viewed from above); one to three inches wide; and one-half to two inches high; yellowish brown; and completely covered with small, dark brown, slightly raised “warts.” The outer “skin” is fairly thick, tough, and rubbery; it is not easily broken except in overripe specimens with powdery interiors. The smallest young specimens have white flesh; maturing specimens have purplish black interior flesh with white marbling, which finally becomes grayish black and powdery when the mushroom is fully mature. At maturity, the outer rindlike skin develops a pore on top through which spores are released. The stalk, when a discernible one is present, is very short and thick, whitish to yellowish brown, and irregularly folded.
FRUITING: This common “earthball” is found on the ground or on well-decayed wood in a variety of wooded areas throughout much of North America. It usually grows in groups or singly but sometimes in clusters. It fruits from midsummer through midfall. Special note: Sometimes the Pigskin Poison Puffball is parasitized by an unusual species of bolete, Boletus parasiticus. This strange bolete species, whose only known host is the Pigskin Poison Puffball, is reportedly edible, but there is not yet sufficient information to recommend trying it.
Pigskin Poison Puffball (Scleroderma citrinum)
SIMILAR SPECIES: Several other species of Scleroderma with a thick, rubbery skin are known; many are reportedly poisonous. Avoid any “puffball” with a thick rubbery skin. The Pigskin Poison Puffball is sometimes classified as S. aurantium.
TOXICITY: Although thin, cooked slices of S. citrinum are sometimes used as false truffles in Europe, this species cannot be recommended for the table. Signs and symptoms, which typically include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, may occur within four hours after consuming the mushroom.
WRINKLED THIMBLE-CAP
Verpa bohemica
DESCRIPTION: The cap is yellowish brown and bell shaped, 3/4–1-1/2 inches high and 1/2–1-1/4 inches wide, and coarsely wrinkled, draping from its point of attachment at the top of the stalk. The stalk is two to five inches tall and 1/2–1-1/2 inches wide, not noticeably tapered; it is white to pale yellow, with a smooth to slightly roughened surface. A longitudinal section reveals that the stalk is either hollow or stuffed with soft, cottony tissue.
FRUITING: The Wrinkled Thimble-cap grows on the ground in hardwoods and mixed woods singly or scattered during spring. Specimens of Verpa are particularly easy to overlook, because they are often covered by leaves. This species is-found in many parts of North America, but it is most common in the northern part of the continent.
SIMILAR SPECIES: The Smooth Thimble-cap (V. conica), which is suspected of being toxic, is much smaller and has a smooth or only slightly wrinkled cap surface. The cap of the Half-free Morel (Morchella semilibera), which is edible (see p. 134), like the caps of all true morels, has distinct ridges surrounding pits; the Verpa mushrooms do not. The Wrinkled Thimble-cap is sometimes classified as Ptychoverpa bohemica.
Wrinkled Thimble-cap (Verpa bohemica)
TOXICITY: Some people, calling this species the Early Morel, have gathered and eaten it for years without apparent adverse effects; however, it is now regarded as poisonous—at least for some people—especially if it is consumed in quantity. Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination. We cannot recommend any mushrooms of this genus for the table; they are better regarded as a sure sign that the season for true morels is not far behind.
CONIFER FALSE MOREL
Gyromitra esculenta
DESCRIPTION: The cap is reddish brown, so wrinkled and folded that it appears brainlike; it’s two to four inches wide, 1-1/2–3-1/2 inches tall, and fairly brittle. In longitudinal section, the cap interior is typically multichambered. The stalk is dull white to pale yellowish brown, one to four inches tall and 1/2–1-1/2 inches wide, with a smooth to slightly roughened outer surface. The stalk is usually somewhat enlarged near the base, and is hollow, usually with a single chamber but sometimes with multiple chambers.
FRUITING: The Conifer False Morel is found on the ground under conifer trees singly or in groups from midspring through early summer. It occurs mostly across northern North America but may be found elsewhere, especially in mountainous areas.
SIMILAR SPECIES: Several other species of the genus Gyromitra are found in North America; they differ a little in color and require microscopic examination for accurate identification. All species of this genus should be avoided for the table. This and other Gyromitra species are sometimes classified as members of the genus Helvella. The Conifer False Morel is also commonly called the Brain Mushroom.
OM Conifer False Morel (Gyromitra esculenta)
TOXICITY: This is a potentially deadly mushroom, even though the scientific name esculenta means “edible.” Symptoms of Gyromitra poisoning include abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, bloody diarrhea, and muscle cramps; fatalities have been reported in some cases.
Some longtime mushroom hunters collect and eat this and other Gyromitra species, insisting that either drying or a process of repeated boiling and rinsing will remove all toxins. There is no good evidence to support this view, and there are reported cases in which the person doing the boiling became ill. Regardless, these false morels are also known to contain carcinogens that cause tumors in animals. We advise all mycophagists to steer clear of Gyromitra species when gathering mushrooms for the table.
