If the previous chapters have been followed carefully, you should now have a good idea of how to play chess. Should you still be uncertain on any point turn back here and dispel any doubts before proceeding further.
The last chapter was devoted to actual games, as a means of breaking the inevitable boredom that the study of page upon page of theory engenders; but now it is necessary to return to the elements of play.
As has been seen, the functions and values of the chess pieces vary from stage to stage individually, collectively and relatively.
It is possible to generalize on the powers and limitations of the various pieces throughout the game, and to lay down broad principles for handling them.
It will be as well to repeat here that the three phases through which a game can pass are:
1. The opening – development of the pieces.
2. The middle game – the main struggle.
3. The end game – the fight for pawn promotion.
A game can be concluded in the opening or the middle game without ever reaching the end game (as in the illustrative examples in Chapter 3), the three divisions having no relation to the duration of a game; that is to say, the end game is not the last moves of any chess game, but specifically that field of play in which the majority of the pieces are off the board and the kings and pawns dominate the play.
Bearing this in mind, let us examine the pieces individually under these three headings.
(a) King
The king should be kept closely guarded in the opening, when a surprise attack is always a danger. Early castling is advisable, and in this respect the K-side is to be preferred to the queen’s, since after the latter the a-pawn is unprotected.
(b) Queen
It is usually inadvisable to move the queen beyond the third rank where she is prone to attack from the enemy minor pieces. Contravention of this maxim may result in loss of time occasioned by the queen having to seek sanctuary.
(c) Rook
The rooks should be united (i.e. one guarding the other) as soon as possible. Castling is a means of achieving this aim.
Rooks should be retained on the back rank, preferably on open files.
(d) Bishop
The bishops should be developed early in the game. The best squares for posting the white bishops (corresponding squares for the black bishop) are (1) c4/f4; (2) b5/g5 if pinning an enemy knight; (3) b2/g2 – the fianchetto; (4) d2/e2; (5) d3/e3 if here they do not block the advance of their respective centre pawns.
Knights are employed to their best advantage in the opening. They should be developed towards the centre of the board unless there are good tactical reasons for not doing so.
(f) Pawn
The first thing to remember about the pawn move – and this applies to all stages of the game – is that, unlike the moves of other pieces, it may not be retraced. Therefore all pawn moves should be made only after careful deliberation. Ask yourself: “If I advance this pawn, am I likely to regret it later?”
A pawn advance on one or more of the four central files is normal and necessary in the opening. A single exception may be noted: f3 (f6) is almost invariably bad as it seriously weakens the king’s position and takes away the best square for the king’s knight.
A knight’s pawn may be moved a single square to permit the development of a bishop; a rook’s pawn a single square to prevent the pinning of a knight by a hostile bishop. But a good rule is: if in doubt, don’t move a pawn.
(a) King
As in the opening, the king must be protected against attack. Towards the end of the middle game with most of the pieces off the board, an uncastled king which is required for active service is best advanced to the second rank rather than relegated to a wing position by the no-longer useful castling.
(b) Queen
The queen is a real power, and can often by manoeuvred to attack two undefended units simultaneously, thereby winning one of them. The queen should avoid picking up stray pawns if they beguile her from the scene of activities. On the other hand, a pawn safely won is a clear advantage.
This is a further point on which the expert can be distinguished from the ordinary player – he knows which pawn can be safely captured and which pawn should be left alone.
(c) Rook
The rooks are best placed on the four centre files, particularly if any should be “open” (a file is said to be open if there are no friendly pawns on it). Doubled rooks (one behind the other) are very strong on an open file.
A rook (or better still, doubled rooks) on the seventh rank is something to be played for, as here the major pieces are immune from pawn attack, and assume the role of “cats among the pigeons”.
Rooks are especially vulnerable to attack from the bishops – particularly if the latter are working in conjunction: therefore they should, if possible, be confined to the first two ranks unless an occupation of the seventh is feasible.
(d) Bishop
The bishops are the real workers – they never relax their activities throughout the game.
They are dangerous attacking pieces, but operate best like the rooks, from a distance where they are less open to attack themselves.
A common task of the bishop is to pin potentially active hostile knights.
As has been observed, the bishop, like the rook and the queen, operates to greater advantage on an open board.
The efficacy of the bishops depends on free diagonals, therefore avoid curtailing their range by obstructive pawn moves.
(e) Knight
Knights are quite at home in the middle game, and are best posted on advanced squares free from pawn attack.
They are economical in defence and very effective in attack.
Knights are least effective when guarding one another, since, if both are attacked by a piece, neither can move without loss of the other. They are most effective when working in conjunction on opposite-coloured squares.
(f) Pawn
The pawns are as important in the middle game as they are in the other stages.
In defence, they present a united front to direct onslaught; the more they are moved, the weaker they become as a body, creating “holes”, or undefended squares, for occupation by enemy pieces.
In attack, the pawns are the battering-rams used to breach the enemy position. A spearhead of pawns, supported by pieces, advancing on a king position usually stands a greater chance of success than an attack by pieces alone.
Pawns are well-employed defending pieces from attack by hostile pieces, and they are also the best with which to attack hostile pieces because of their relatively inferior value.
It must be kept in mind throughout the middle game that all pawns are potential queens. Try to picture the skeleton when the meat is off, and play for a favourable end game position before forcing the exchange of too many pieces.
(a) King
In the ending, the king assumes the role of attacker, and his transitory function is to assist in pawn-promotion.
The versatility of the king at close range allows him to penetrate weak pawn structures.
Too often, when the end game is reached, players continue to manoeuvre their other pieces instead of bringing the kings forward.
If the opposing pieces are too strong, an early advance of the king is likely to prove an embarrassment.
With the reduction in forces, the queen’s power augments. If in a bad position in the middle game, the retention of the queen will at least offer chances of a “perpetual” in the ending, for a lone queen can sometimes force the draw in this manner.
(c) Rook
The rooks, since they are generally the last pieces to go into action in a game, are most commonly met with in end games; king, rook and pawns versus king, rook and pawns being by far the most frequent.
Several books have been written on the function of this piece in the ending alone, but briefly the work of the rook is confined to three fields:
1. Restricting the movements of the hostile king.
2. “Mopping up” and obstructing the advance of hostile pawns.
3. Protecting friendly pawns advancing to promotion.
A rook on the seventh rank – particularly if the enemy king is still on the eighth – is almost always strong, as in the middle game.
Two rooks on the seventh with the enemy king on the eighth usually draws by perpetual check against a similar piece-force, even if a pawn or two down.
Whereas an extra pawn in a king and pawn end game is usually sufficient to win, with rooks on the board there are more chances for a draw. Therefore if a pawn or more down in the ending, endeavour to retain a rook on the board.
All these factors should be borne in mind when the middle game is drawing to a close.
(d) Bishop
A paramount maxim to remember here is that if each side is left with a bishop and pawns, and the two bishops are on opposite coloured squares, the game is often drawn, even if one side is a pawn or even two pawns ahead.
If a disadvantageous end game is foreshadowed, play to obtain bishops of opposite colours.
With bishops on squares of the same colour, however, even a small advantage on one side is often sufficient to win.
The reason for this is that, with bishops of opposite colours, the play of each side tends to be channelled onto the same colour squares as the respective bishops, leaving one party playing on the black squares and the other party operating on the white, thereby creating a deadlock. With bishops operating on the same coloured squares, force will be met by force, and an impasse is less likely to occur.
Another important fact to remember in the ending is that K, B and RP versus bare K is a draw where the bishop stands on a square the opposite colour to the pawn’s promotion square; always provided that the solitary king can get in front of the advancing pawn. As in K and RP versus K, the superior force is compelled to surrender the pawn (leaving insufficient mating force) or give stalemate. With a bishop on the same-colour square as the promotion square, the stronger side always wins in this type of ending.
Bishops can be employed to good purpose preventing hostile pawn advances. For example, a white bishop on f1 prevents the advance of any black pawn in a chain of squares extending from f2 to e3, d4, c5 and b6. This is an elaborate case, but it demonstrates the power of the bishop in the end game.
If, in an ending, you are left with a bishop and pawns, the pawns should be advanced to squares of the opposite colour to that on which the bishop stands.
This may appear strange, since the bishop cannot then guard the pawns, but this drawback is outweighed by the bishop’s greatly increased mobility, and the elimination of duplicated square control. It is quite a common sight to see a bishop reduced to the role of a pawn when the pieces stand on the squares of one colour.
In the ending the powers of the knight are limited, owing to the comparative impotence of its march on a free board.
A player left with knight and pawns against a bishop and pawns should, if possible, force off by exchanges the pawns on one side of the board, as knight is seriously handicapped in having to watch both wings. The converse, of course, holds good – if left with a bishop and pawns against a knight and pawns, try to keep pawns on both wings, on which the bishop, with its greater powers, is able to operate simultaneously.
(f) Pawn
When we talk of the end game we are really discussing pawns, and their handling is therefore of the utmost importance.
Their play is examined at length in the chapter on the end game; it suffices here to quote a few general rules.
When there is a choice of pawn moves in the ending, the one that is farthest from the scene of operations (usually centred around the kings) should be made.
Remember always that a rook’s pawn is insufficient to win, other things being equal, therefore pawn exchanges must be planned accordingly.
The advance of a pawn can be arrested by the sacrifice of a piece if necessary, a device which should not be overlooked.
In the ending, the remote wing pawns play their part, the centre struggle no longer dominating the game. A king cannot possibly stop two pawns, one advancing on each wing, but he can successfully blockade two centre pawns advancing together.
As with the other pieces, a cautionary eye must be kept on the pawns in the middle game, in order that they may be deployed to the best advantage when the final phase is reached.
So much for the general manipulation of the pieces at the various stages. Let us now see how they can combine effectively. The joint action of two or more pieces, working to achieve a desired object – to checkmate the opposing king, or capture material – is known as a combination; a sound combination if its purpose cannot be resisted, an unsound combination if there exists a plausible defence. Combinations are often initialized by a sacrifice.
There are a number of standard mates which keep occurring in one form or another, the dispersal of the majority of the pieces being purely incidental to the position.
A player should be able to recognize these positions at once, regardless of the camouflage concealing them.
The following examples are all quite common in practice, and cover many types of mating attack in the middle game. Be on guard against any and every similar position, however secure it may appear, for a deflective sacrifice, that cannot be declined, may be the prelude to catastrophe.
Example A (Diagram 15)
A variation of Fool’s Mate, involving the sacrifice of a piece, is commonly encountered in play. It can occur in the opening: 1. f4 e5 2. fxe5 d6 3. exd6 Bxd6 4. Nc3? Qh4+ 5. g3 Qxg3+ 6. hxg3 Bxg3#.
Example B (Diagram 16)
A typical middle game sacrifice is to take the h-pawn with a bishop when the enemy king has castled on the king’s side. A conclusive combination is often possible. In diagram 16 White wins by 1. Bxh7+ Kxh7? 2. Qh5+ Kg8 3. Ng5 Rfe8 4. Qh7+ Kf8 5. Qh8#.
Example C (Diagram 17)
After the sacrifice of a bishop for the h-pawn, the most common mating attack begins with the sacrifice of a bishop for the f-pawn against an unmoved king. Diagram 17 shows a typical example. White wins by 1. Bxf7+ Kxf7 2. Ne5++ (that fearsome double check again! – the king must move) Ke6 (if 2. . . . Ke8 3. Qh5+ and mate in two; if 2. . . . Ke7 3. Ng6+ Ke6 4. Qg4#) 3. Qg4+ Kxe5 (again . . . Ke7 4. Ng6+) 4. Qf4+ Kd4 (or 4. . . . Ke6 5. Qf5+ with mate to follow) 5. Be3#. The forced march of the black king into the centre of the board is a feature of this type of attack.
Example D (Diagram 18)
Mate on the back rank by a rook or the queen is common if the pawns in front of the king have not been moved. In diagram 18 White wins by: 1. Re8+ Rxe8 2. Rxe8+ Rxe8 3. Qxe8#. Always be alert to this possibility: decoy sacrifices are common.
Example E (Diagram 19)
An ingenious attack, involving a queen sacrifice on the penultimate move, is known as Philidor’s Legacy, after a famous French player. White forces mate in five moves: 1. Qc4+ Kh8 (if 1. . . . Kf8 2. Qf7#) 2. Nf7+ Kg8 3. Nh6++ Kh8 (otherwise mate as above: note once again the power of the double check which White here uses to manoeuvre the knight to the desired square); 4. Qg8+ Rxg8 (the king cannot capture as the knight guards the queen) 5. Nf7#.
Example F (Diagram 20)
Philidor’s Legacy demonstrates what is commonly known as a “smothered mate”. The description is a good one; all the escape squares for the king being occupied by friendly(?) pieces who stifle the luckless monarch. Smothered mate can only be given by a knight, and is not uncommonly preceded by a sacrifice, as in the previous example. This device can occur in the opening: 1. e4 e5 2. Ne2 Nc6 3. Nbc3 Nd4 4. g3 Nf3#.
Example G (Diagram 21)
A position to be played for if your opponent has castled on the queen’s side. White wins quickly by 1. Qxc6+ bxc6 2. Ba6#. Note the power of the two bishops working together.
Example H (Diagram 22)
A king behind a fianchettoed position from which the bishop has departed is very weak if the queens are still on the board, particularly if the other player has retained the bishop on the same coloured squares as the departed bishop, and/or a knight. Examples of this type are common, the strategy being to attack the weak squares in the king’s field. In diagram 22 White wins by 1. Qh6 (threatening mate on the move) Bf8 2. Ne7+ Bxe7 3. Qg7#. In this type of position a pawn at f6 is often as good as a bishop; and with a queen established at h6, Nf6+ followed by Qxh7# is also a common finale.
Example I (Diagram 23)
A device against a fianchettoed position (normally difficult to attack). White mates in four by 1. Nf6+ Bxf6 2. Rxe8+ Kg7 3. Bf8+ K moves 4. Bh6#. If 1. . . . Kh8 2. Rxe8+ Bf8 3. Bxf8 and mates next move.
Example J (Diagram 24)
Another mating position often reached when the bishop has vacated the fianchetto. White mates in three by 1. Qxh7+ Kxh7 2. Rh3+ Kg8 3. Rh8#.
Example K (Diagram 25)
An end game attack on a castled king. White mates in three: 1. Re8+ Kh7 2. Bf5+ g6 3. Rh8#. The pawn move closes the line of one bishop only to open a line for the other. All Black’s moves are forced.
Example L (Diagram 26)
With the hostile king in the corner, a typical mating set-up starts with a queen sacrifice: 1. Qxh7+ Kxh7 2. Rh3#.
Example M (Diagram 27)
A less usual position, but nevertheless frequently occurring in one form or another. White wins by 1. Rxg7 + Rxg7 2. Nf6+ Kh8 3. Qh5 and mate is unavoidable. If 1. . . . Kh8 White can win in a number of ways, for example 2. Qg2 Be6 3. Qg6 and mate next move. Black can prolong the agony by sacrificing the queen.
Material-Winning Combinations
There exist a number of typical combinations for winning material (i.e. gaining an enemy piece or pieces for nothing, or for the loss of a weaker piece) arising from certain positions that are met with time and again in one form or another.
A sound knowledge of these basic positions and how to exploit them will prove of inestimable value to the student.
Three good rules to observe in order to avoid loss of material are:
1. Watch all checks.
2. Watch all discovered checks.
3. Do not leave pieces undefended or insufficiently defended unless absolutely necessary.
Type A
An attack on the king (a check) may often succeed in winning material out of hand.
1. It may force the defender to interpose a stronger piece than the piece checking, which then captures it.
2. The checking piece may simultaneously attack an undefended piece, or a more valuable piece (a knight fork is a good example of this).
3. The move may uncover an attack on another piece (a discovered attack).
4. If a piece on each side is attacked, and the player to move can evade the attack by a checking move, then the other piece, still en prise, will fall.
5. The skewer, illustrated in diagram 10, page 35, is yet another means of winning material in this fashion.
An example of (1) taken from play: 1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 d6 3. Nc3 Bg4 4. h3 Bxf3 5. Qxf3 Na6 6. Bb5+ and the queen must interpose. To illustrate (2), another example from actual play: 1. d3 c6 2. Nf3 e5 3. Nxe5 Qa5+ and the undefended knight is captured next move.
A trap in a well-known defence demonstrates the discovered attack (3): 1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. e5 c5 4. c3 Nc6 5. Nf3 Qb6 6. Bd3 cxd4 7. cxd4 Nxd4 8. Nxd4 – the trap is sprung – 8. . . Qxd4? 9. Bb5+ and the black queen is lost (diagram 28).
A game opening will serve to make (4) clear: 1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 d6 3. Bc4 Bg4 4. Nc3 Nc6 5. h3 Bh5 6. g4 (attacking the bishop again) Na5 (attacking White’s bishop) 7. Bb5+ winning a piece (diagram 29). These opening examples, given to demonstrate elementary strategy, are not, of course, intended as patterns of model play.
Type B
When two undefended pieces are attacked simultaneously, one is frequently lost. In diagram 30 the rook threatens both the knight and the bishop and must win one of them.
Type C – The Overworked Piece
A common failing of inexperienced players is to use one piece to perform two functions – for example, guarding two pieces. In diagram 31, the black king is defending both the knight and the bishop. White wins a piece by: 1. Nxa1 Kxa1 2. Kxc1.
Type D
Two knights guarding one another are weak. In diagram 32, the rook is attacking both knights. The white bishop is threatening to capture one of them, and Black must lose a piece.
Type E
A similar type of manoeuvre to type A is the threat of mate combined with an attack on an undefended piece. Such a position may occur early in the game. Examine diagram 33, a position which can arise from an opening called the Colle System: Black has just exchanged on e4, which was bad because White now threatens both Qh7# and Qxa8. The mate must be attended to, and the rook is consequently lost.
Type F
The discovered attack often wins material: 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6 4. d3 Nh5? 5. Nxe5 (discovering the queen attack on the unprotected knight) Nxe5 6. Qxh5 and White has won a pawn.
Type G
A similar device to F which also wins a pawn: 1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. e5 c5 4. c3 Nc6 5. Bb5 Bd7 6. Nf3? Nxe5. And now if 7. Bxd7+ Nxd7 and if 7. Nxe5 (or dxe5) Bxb5.
This very common trap continues to net a large haul of victims (including quite experienced players) year after year. Diagram 34 gives the position after Black’s sixth move.
Type H
A common material winning device, particularly in the opening, is the advance on a hemmed-in bishop: 1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bc4 d6 4. 0-0 a6 5. Qe2 b5 6. Bd3? (likewise Bb3?, but White should prefer Bd5), c4 (diagram 35). White must give up the bishop for two pawns, an exchange we know to be unfavourable.
Type I
A pinned piece, being immobile, is particularly vulnerable to pawn attack. In the opening after, for example, 1. c4 e5 2. Nc3 Nc6 3. e3 Nf6 4. d4 d6 5. Qa4 Bf5? White wins a piece for a pawn by 6. d5 and Black’s pinned knight must fall. Diagram 36 shows the position after White’s final move.
Type J
A king may be lured from the defence of a piece by a check – very often by a sacrifice. This is also liable to occur in the opening. A good example is offered: 1. e4 c5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. d4 cxd4 4. Nxd4 Nf6 5. Nc3 d6 6. Bc4 g6 7. Nxc6 bxc6 8. e5 dxe5? 9. Bxf7+ (see diagram 37). Now Black must take with the king leaving the queen undefended.
Type K
A “forced” move, that is to say a move that must be made either to save the game or as a matter of legality, may frequently concede material. Diagram 38 shows a common stratagem. White plays here Bh6, threatening Qxg7#. The bishop cannot be taken as the g-pawn is pinned, and g5 would allow mate in two by Qxg5+, followed by Qg7. So g6 is forced, and now White wins the exchange by Bxf8.
