NOTES

Chapter 1: Children and War

1. Quoted in “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​index.​html.

2. John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Knopf, 1993).

3. Michael Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars: A Moral Argument with Historical Illustrations (New York: Basic Books, 1992).

4. Michael Ignatieff, The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience (New York: Holt, 1998).

5. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry”: Child Combatants in Columbia (New York, September 2003), p. 95.

6. Jane Green Schaller, “Children, Child Health, and War,” paper presented at the IPA/WHO/UNICEF Pre-Congress Workshop on Assessment of the Mid-Decade Goals: Evaluation and Recommendations, Cairo, September 9–10, 1995.

7. Michael Klare, “The Kalashnikov Age,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 55, no. 1 (January/February 1999), http://www.​bullat​omsci.​org/​issues/​1999/​jf99/​jf99klare.​html.

8. United Nations, Report of the Expert of the Secretary General Graça Machel, “Impact of Armed Conflict on Children,” Document A/51/306 & Add. 1., August 26, 1996; BBC, Children of Conflict, 1999, http://www.​bbc.​co.​uk/​world​service/​people/​features/​children​srights/​children​ofconflict/​soldtxt.​shtml.

9. “Doctrine is defined as the body of theory within which the armed forces must operate prescribing the methods and circumstances of their employment. Doctrinal provisions are generalizations gleaned from past experience about what functions well.” David Keithley and Paul Melshein, “Past as Prologue: USMC Small Wars Doctrine,” Small Wars and Insurgencies 8, no. 2 (autumn 1997): 88. For other extrapolations on “doctrine,” please see U.S. Department of Defense, Joint Publication 1-02, DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, http://www.​dtic.​mil/​doctr​ineljel/​doddict/​data/​d/​02018.​html; Gunther E. Rothenberg, “Maurice of Nassau, Gustavus Adolphus, Raimondo Montecuccoli, and the ‘Military Revolution’ of the Seventeenth Century,” in Peter Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), esp. pp. 40–42.

10. Quoted in Rory Carroll, “Sham Demobilization Hides Rise in Congo’s Child Armies,” The Guardian (London), September 9, 2003.

11. The eighteen-year-old definition is drawn from the UNICEF international standard of age of maturity and is encoded in the international laws of war described later.

12. T. W. Bennet, Using Children in Armed Conflict: A Legitimate African Tradition? (Essex, UK: Institute for Security Studies, 2002), at http://www.​essex.​ac.​uk/​arme​dcon/​Issues/​Texts/​Soldiers​002.​htm.

13. Many hold that the eighteen-year definition has its basis in cultural relativism. In addition to the aforementioned points that refute it, such an argument is undermined by the fact that during negotiations over the Additional Protocol, it was primarily the Western countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, that argued that they should be able to recruit under-eighteen-year-olds. Interestingly, eighteen is also the most common age that former child soldiers cite as being the proper minimum age for recruitment. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers (Geneva, 2003), p. 58.

Chapter 2: It’s a Small World After All

1. “Stopping the Use of Child Soldiers,” New York Times, April 22, 2002.

2. John Keegan, with Richard Holmes and John Gau, Soldiers: A History of Men in Battle (London: Sphere Books, 1987).

3. T. W. Bennet, Using Children in Armed Conflict: A Legitimate African Tradition? (Essex, UK: Institute for Security Studies, 2000), http://www.​essex.​ac.​uk/​armedcon/​Issues/​Texts/​Soldiers002.​htm.

4. John Paden, “Muslim Civic Culture and Conflict Resolution,” Brookings manuscript, 2003, p. 127.

5. Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Against All Odds: Surviving the War on Adolescents, July 2001.

6. Speech available at http://www.​208.​184.​41.​83/​English/​Normsand​Values.​html (accessed May 5, 2001).

7. William Shakespeare, The Life of King Henry the Fifth, Act IV, Scene 7, in The Oxford Shakespeare, http://www.​bartleby.​com.

8. James Brundage, The Crusades: A Documentary History (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 1962), p. 213.

9. Esther Forbes, Johnny Tremain (New York: Yearly, 1944; reissued 1987).

10. Eleanor Bishop, Ponies, Patriots, and Powder Monkeys: A History of Children in America’s Armed Forces, 1776–1916 (Del Mar, CA: Bishop, 1982), p. 4.

11. Ibid., pp. 50–51.

12. John Cook, quoted in “Battery B, 4th Light Artillery’s Medal of Honor Winners,” http://www.​Batteryb.​com.

13. “Report on the Battle of New Market Virginia and aftermath, part 1, May 15, 1864,” VMI Annual Report, July 1864, http://www.​vmi.​edu/​~archtml/​cwnmrpt.​html.

14. Guido Knopp, Hitler’s Kinder (Munich: Bertelsmann, 2000); Philip Baker, Youth Led by Youth (London: Vilmor, 1989).

15. Harendra de Silva, “Conscription of Children in Armed Conflict: Is It Martyrdom or Child Abuse?,” paper presented at the British Association for the Study and Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Congress, Edinburgh, July 1997.

16. Save the Children, “Children of the Gun,” Children in Crisis project report, September 2000, http://www.​savethe​children.​org/​crisis.

17. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry”: Child Combatants in Colombia (New York, September 2003), pp. 4–5; Karl Penhaul, “Colombia’s Force of Child Soldiers,” Boston Globe, March 4, 2001.

18. Jan Mckirk, “Brutality of Child Army Shocks Colombia,” The Independent (London), May 2, 2001.

19. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (CSC), “The Use of Child Soldiers in the Americas: An Overview,” 2001, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org; Human Rights Watch, “Child Soldiers Used by All Sides in Colombia’s Armed Conflict,” press release, New York, October 8, 1998, http://www.​hrw.​org/​hrw/​press98/​oct/​child​sold1008.​htm.

20. CSC, “Action Appeal: Colombia,” September 2002; UNHCR News, May 21, 2002.

21. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 64.

22. Quoted in Jason Chrudy, “From Bosnian Child Soldier to U.S. Army Leader,” Stars and Stripes, August 17, 2004.

23. Colonel Boris Okhtinsky, quoted in “Sausage, Shahid’s Dream,” Moskovskie Novosti, July 2, 2002.

24. CSC, “The Use of Children by OSCE Member States,” Human Dimension Seminar on Children and Armed Conflict, Warsaw, May 23–26, 2000, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org.

25. “PKK Child Recruitment in Sweden,” Children of War, September 1998.

26. Richard Reid, “The Impact of Armed Conflict on Children’s Rights,” International Pediatric Association Journal 6, no. 4 (October 1995), http://www.​ipa-​france.​net/​pubs/​inches/​inch6_​4/reid.​htm.

27. “Liberia: Child Soldiers Are Back on the Frontline,” Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), June 9, 2003; Somini Sengupta, “Soldiers of Misfortune,” The Hindu (Madras), December 2, 2003.

28. The RUF in Sierra Leone is next with a six-year-old, closely followed by a number of armed groups with seven- and eight-year-olds. Rädda Barnen, Childwar Database, principal investigator: Henric Häggström, at http://www.​rb.​se (accessed November 2000).

29. Quoted in “Up to 15,000 Child Soldiers in Liberia, UN Says,” IRIN, September 24, 2003.

30. Even after the overthrow of the regime behind the genocide, the fighting by children still continues. The Army for the Liberation of Rwanda (ALIR) rebel group recruits and sometimes abducts children for military service, some as young as ten years old. Rädda Barnen, Children of War Newsletter, no. 1/01 (March 2001), at http://www.​rb.​se.

31. “Up to 14,000 Children Used in War,” IRIN, June 12, 2001.

32. Barnen, Children of War Newsletter.

33. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood: The Use of Children in Armed Conflict in Central Africa (Geneva, 2003), p. 5.

34. Evelyn Leopold, “Congolese Kids Face Horrific Conditions,” Reuters, June 17, 2003; “UN Finds Congo Child Soldiers,” BBC News, February 21, 2001; “Amman Conference to Seek Ban on Use of Child Soldiers in Region, World,” AFP, April 7, 2001; “DRC Child Soldiers,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 3 (March 2002).

35. Emily Wax, “Boy Soldiers Toting AK-47s Put at Front of Congo’s War,” Washington Post, June 13, 2003; Anne Edgerton, “Rapid Deployment of Emergency Multinational Force Critical,” Refugees International press release, June 2, 2003; AFP report, June 6, 2003.

36. Interviews with DRC experts, spring 2003.

37. “Articles Tell Palestinians’ Side of Fight,” Los Angeles Times, March 31, 2002. For one of the more reliable statistics on the intifada, please see the Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, http://www.​btselem.​org.

38. Ian Brown, Khomeini’s Forgotten Sons: The Story of Iran’s Boy Soldiers (London: Grey Seal, 1990), p. 2.

39. Quoted in Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God (New York: Knopf, 2000), pp. 327–28.

40. Brown, Khomeini’s Forgotten Sons, p. 39.

41. P. W. Singer, “Facing Saddam’s Child Soldiers,” Brookings Iraq Memo 8, January 2003.

42. Matthew Cox, “War Even Uglier When a Child Is the Enemy,” USA Today, April 8, 2003; “Report: Marines Wounded in Fighting Late Wednesday in Iraq,” AP, March 27, 2003; Alex Perry, “When Kids Are in the Cross Hairs,” Time, April 21, 2003.

43. Martin Bentham, “Fedeyeen Use Children as Shields,” The Telegraph (London), April 4, 2003.

44. Barbara Slavin, “U.S. Troops Clash with Exile Leader’s Militia,” USA Today, May 2, 2003.

45. Mary Beth Sheridan, “For Help in Rebuilding Mosul, U.S. Turns to Its Former Foes,” Washington Post, April 25, 2003.

46. “Enemy Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTP) and Recommendations,” Third Corps Support Command briefing document, LSA Anaconda, Iraq, September 2003; Joseph Galloway, “Hurt Still Arriving at Army Hospital,” Charlotte Observer, November 3, 2003; interviews with U.S. Army officers, November–December 2003.

47. Quoted in “Child Soldiers Square Up to U.S. Tanks,” Daily Telegraph (London), August 23, 2004.

48. Ibid.

49. Neil Mackay, “Iraq’s Child Prisoners,” Sunday Herald, August 1, 2004; Richard Sisk, “Teen Held, U.S. Admits Juveniles in Abu Ghraib,” New York Daily News, July 15, 2004.

50. U.S. Army Lt. Col. Barry Johnson, quoted in Sisk, “Teen Held.”

51. Human Rights Watch, Children in Sudan: Slaves, Street Children and Child Soldiers (New York, September 1995).

52. CSC, Child Soldier Use 2003: A Briefing for the 4th UN Security Council Open Debate on Children and Armed Conflict, January 2004.

53. Rachel Stohl, “Child Soldiers Released in Sudan, Still No U.S. Action,” Weekly Defense Monitor 5, no. 9 (March 1, 2001).

54. Carol Ann Berger, “From Cattle Camp to Slaughterhouse: The Politics of Identity Among Cuban-Educated Dinka Refugees in Canada” (master’s thesis, University of Alberta, 2001); Human Rights Watch/Africa, Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan (New York, 1994).

55. Ellen Barry, “The Lost Boys,” Boston Globe, January 7, 2001; Women’s Commission, Against All Odds.

56. Colin Nickerson, “A Boy’s Journey from Canada to Al Qaeda,” Boston Globe, March 9, 2003; Joseph Farah, “Family of Canadian Teen Has Extensive al Qaida Ties,” World Net Daily, September 6, 2002.

57. CSC, “Action Appeal: Afghanistan,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 2 (December 2001).

58. P. W. Singer, “Pakistan’s Madrassahs: Ensuring a System of Education, Not Jihad,” Brookings Analysis Paper, no. 14, January 2002.

59. Hannah Beech Farkhar, “The Child Soldiers,” Time, November 7, 2001.

60. Quoted in “Rescuing Former Child Soldiers,” Afghan Recovery Report, Institute for War and Peace Reporting, May 19, 2004.

61. Adnan Laeeq, “Flowers on the Frontline,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 5 (September 2002).

62. “Too Small to Be Fighting in Anyone’s War,” IRIN, December 12, 2003.

63. Interviews with U.S. Army officer, March 2004; Keith Richburg, “Taliban Maintans Grip Rooted in Fear,” Washington Post, August 9, 2004.

64. CSC, 1379 Country Report, 2002.

65. Quoted in Jessica Stern, Terror in the Name of God (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 210.

66. Recent reports indicate that children between the ages of seven and twelve are fighting on both sides in Ambon. CSC, “Child Soldiers: A Human Security Challenge for ASEAN (Association of South East Asia Nations),” July 24, 2000, at http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org.

67. Quoted in John McBeth, “Children of War,” Far Eastern Economic Review, May 2, 2002.

68. Human Rights Watch, My Gun Was as Tall as Me (New York, 2002), p. 46; Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, Child Soldier Use 2003.

69. “Philippines: Children Captured by Philippines Army,” Child Soldiers 3 (March 2002). Amnesty International, “Child Soldiers Are the Real Victims,” appeal, February 22, 2002.

70. Philip Pan, “Some Filipinos Say US Presence May Fuel Rebel Support,” Washington Post, February 7, 2002, p. 13.

71. Rädda Barnen, Children of War Newsletter.

72. Robert Kaplan, “The Coming Anarchy,” Atlantic Monthly, February 1994; Kaplan, The Ends of the Earth: A Journey at the Dawn of the 21st Century (New York: Random House, 1996); Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver, and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 1998); Chester A. Crocker and Fen Osler Hampson, Managing Global Chaos (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996); Robert Cooper, The Post Modern State and the World Order, demos paper no. 19, 2d ed., 2000; Max Singer and Aaron Wildavsky, Real World Order: Zones of Peace/Zones of Turmoil (Chatham, UK: Chatham House, 1993); Yahya Sadowski, The Myth of Global Chaos (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1998).

73. Data on Rädda Barnen, Childwar Database; Taylor Seyboldt, ed., SIPRI Yearbook 2002: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2002), Appendix IA, Uppsala Conflict Data Project.

74. Data from Rädda Barnen, Childwar Database. These figures also blunt the spurious arguments that the standards against use of child soldiers are Western derived. No culture considers its members mature at these young ages, nor do their prior histories of warfare indicate such use of pre-teen warriors.

75. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers (Geneva, 2003), p. 19.

76. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood, p. 36.

77. Ilse Derluyn et al., “Post Traumatic Stress in Former Child Soldiers,” The Lancet, March 13, 2004.

78. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​index.​html.

79. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 64.

80. Save the Children, “Children of the Gun”; United Nations, Report of the Expert of the Secretary General, Graça Machel, “Impact of Armed Conflict on Children,” Document A/51/306 & Add. 1, August 26, 1996.

81. Data on overall combatant figures from Taylor Seyboldt, ed., SIPRI Yearbook 2000: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000), Appendix IA, Uppsala Conflict Data Project.

82. United Nations, Report of the Expert of the Secretary General, 1996.

83. Stohl, “Child Soldiers Released.”

84. BBC, Children of Conflict, 1999, http://www.​bbc.​co.​uk/​worldservice/​people/​features/​children​srights/​childreno​fconflict/soldtxt.​shtml.

85. CSC, “The Use of Child Soldiers in the Americas: An Overview,” 2001; Human Rights Watch, “Child Soldiers Used by All Sides in Colombia’s Armed Conflict.”

86. Amnesty International news release, AMR 45/003/200159/01, April 5, 2001.

87. Center for Defense Information (CDI), “The Invisible Soldiers: Child Combatants,” Defense Monitor 26, no. 4 (1997), http://www.​cdi.​org/​oldsite/​dm/​1997/​issue​4 (accessed September 2000).

88. Robyn Dixon, “In Russia, Military Helps Orphaned Boys Soldier On,” Los Angeles Times, February 24, 2001.

89. Data from Barnen, Childwar Database. See also Dyan Mazurana and Susan Mckay, “Child Soldiers: What About the Girls?,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 57, no. 5 (September/October 2001) 31–35. Mazurana and Mckay, “Girls in Militaries, Paramilitaries, and Armed Opposition Groups,” paper presented at International Conference on War-affected Children, Winnipeg, Canada, September 2000.

90. Mike Wessells, “Child Soldiers,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 6 (November/December 1997); CSC, Child Soldier Use 2003: A Briefing for the 4th UN Security Council Open Debate.

91. Rory Carroll, “Everyone’s Afraid of Her,” The Guardian (London), August 25, 2003.

92. Quoted in Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 19.

93. Quoted in “Girls Without Guns: An Agenda on Child Soldiers for Beijing Plus Five,” CSC, June 4, 2000, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org; see also “Sri Lanka, Stop Inciting Children to Kill,” http://www.​opsick.​com, April 2002.

94. P. G. Rajamohan, “Arming the Children,” South Asia Intelligence Review 2, no. 35 (March 15, 2004).

95. Alex Spillius, “Red Army Brings Terror to Land of the Gurkhas,” Electronic Telegraph 1961 (October 7, 2000), http://www.​telegraph.​co.​uk/et?​ac=​003586312​928943&pg=/​et/​00/​10/​7/​wgurk07.​html; quote from “Girls Without Guns”; Asia Child Rights Newsletter, January 22, 2003.

96. Interviews with military analyst, June 2001; “Nepal Accuses Sri Lanka’s Tamil Tigers of Supporting Maoists Rebels,” AFP, June 14, 2002.

97. Yvonne Kearins, “The Voices of Girl Child Soldiers,” Quaker UN Office (New York, October 2002), p. 7.

98. Women’s Commission, Against All Odds, p. 20.

99. CSC, “The Use of Child Soldiers in the Americas: An Overview,” 2000, http://www.​us-​child​soldiers.​org/​child_​soldiers/​child-​sold.​html.

100. Greg Taylor, “Innocence Stolen,” Christianity Today, July 10, 2000; Danna Harman, “Hard Return for Uganda’s Lost Children,” Christian Science Monitor, August 27, 2002.

Chapter 3: The Underlying Causes

1. The book won the French equivalent of the Pulitzer Prize. The title means that Allah is not obliged to be just in everything below, or, in other words, “Life ain’t fair.” Ahmadou Kourouma, Allah n’est pas obligé (Paris: Seuil, 2000).

2. Population Institute, briefing notes, March 2003.

3. Figures from UN Human Settlements Program, “The Challenge of Slums,” October 2003; Paul Collier, “How to Stem Civil Wars, It’s the Economy, Stupid,” International Herald Tribune, May 21, 2003; Michael Renner, “The Global Divide: Socioeconomic Disparities and International Security,” in Michael Klare and Yogesh Chandrani, World Security: Challenges for a New Century (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), p. 275.

4. Figures from the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs (Washington, DC, 2003) and UN Population Fund, State of World Population: Making 1 Billion Count (New York: UNFPA, 2003).

5. Karl Vick, “Big Rise in Hunger Projected for Africa,” Washington Post, September 4, 2001.

6. Renner, “Global Divide,” p. 273.

7. Population Institute, briefing notes.

8. Thomas Homer-Dixon, “Synchronous Failure: The Real Danger of the 21st Century,” paper presented to Security for a New Century Group, December 1, 2003.

9. Brian A. Nichipork, The Security Dynamics of Demographic Factors (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2001); Thomas Homer-Dixon, “Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases,” International Security 19, no. 1 (summer 1994): 5–40; J. P. Platteau and C. André, “Land Relations Under Unbearable Stress: Rwanda Caught in the Malthusian Trap” (CRED paper, University of Namur, Belgium, February 1996), pp. 1–39. See also the Project on Environment, Population, and Security, http://www.​library.​utoronto.​ca/​pcs/​eps.​htm.

10. Richard Cincotta, Robert Engelman, and Daniele Anastasion, The Security Demographic: Population Issues in Post–Cold War Armed Conflict (Washington, DC: Population Action International Report, 2003).

11. P. W. Singer, “AIDS and International Security,” Survival 44, no. 1 (spring 2002): 145–58.

12. Additionally, this is heightened for adult woman, killing at even higher rates, such that the death rate for women in Africa in their twenties is twice that of women in their sixties. Rachel Swarns, “Study Says AIDS Is Now Chief Cause of Death in South Africa,” CNN.​com, October 16, 2001.

13. Christian Mesquida and Neil I. Warner, “Male Age Composition and Severity of Conflicts,” Politics and Life Sciences 18, no. 2 (September 1999): 181–89; Richard Morin, “Boy Trouble,” Washington Post, June 24, 2001; “Natural-Born Killers,” Profiles, May 1999.

14. Jack Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991); Richard P. Cincotta, “Are Proportions of Young Males and Measures of Institutional Capacity Meaningful Predictors of Vulnerability to IntraState Conflict?,” paper presented at Population Association of America meeting, Atlanta, May 9, 2002; H. Moller, “Youth as a Force in the Modern World,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 10 (1967): 237–60; Valkerie Hudson and Andrea den Boer, Bare Branches: The Security Implications of Asia’s Surplus Male Population (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004).

15. Cincotta, Engelman, and Anastasion, Security Demographic, p. 48.

16. Raymond Copson, “AIDS in Africa,” Congressional Research Service Issue Brief IB10050, May 14, 2001; International Crisis Group (ICG), “HIV/AIDS as a Security Threat,” ICG Report, June 19, 2001, www.crisi​sgroup.​org/​en/​regions/​africa/​001-​hiv-aids-​as-a-​security-​issue.​aspx; National Intelligence Council, “The Global Infectious Disease Threat and Its Implications for the United States,” NIE 99-17D, January 2000, http://www.​cia.​gov/​cia/​publications/​nie/​report/​nie99-​17d.​html; P. W. Singer, “AIDS and International Security,” Survival 44, no. 1 (spring 2002): 145–58.

17. Sharon LaFraniere, “Millions of AIDS Orphans Strain Southern Africa,” New York Times, December 24, 2003.

18. “South Africa AIDS Orphans Struggle to Survive,” CNN.​com, June 21, 2001; “HIV/AIDS: The Impact on Social and Economic Development,” 2001; National Intelligence Council, 2001; UN Population Fund, State of World Population.

19. Claire Bisseker, “Africa’s Military Time Bomb,” Johannesburg Financial Mail, December 11, 1998.

20. Mark Duffield, “Internal Conflict: Adoption and Reaction to Globalisation,” The Cornerhouse, Briefing 12, 1999.

21. There were 59 wars in 2001, 53 in 2002. The determination of what is a “war” or conflict zone is one of those odd political science disputes over something that should be quite simple. Many studies use raw statistical measures, such as whether a thousand people have been killed or not, but this appears to be driven by arbitrary, and often inaccurate, figures and not connected to the context of the violence and its impact. For example, the respected Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, uses whether there were 1,000 battle deaths in the year. Project Ploughshares, a well-regarded Canadian organization, defines a war on 1,000 deaths cumulative. For a deeper discussion of the problems in such measures, please see Nicholas Sambanis, “Defining and Measuring Civil War: Conceptual and Empirical Complexities,” manuscript, Yale University, 2002. For the purposes of this book, the more policy-relevant National Defense Council Foundation count, which combined political, social, economic, and military measures, both qualitative and quantitative, to determine whether a state is at conflict or not, is used. It has also been among the best predictors of future violence. National Defense Council Foundation, World Conflict List 2002 (December 2002). It also closely matches the Control Risks Group firm’s International Political and Security “Risk Map,” the general standard used by businesses and the insurance industry in evaluating risk. The CRG report, though, also contains a forward-looking element. Unfortunately, it finds that the security situation will worsen in the next few years, with risk ratings jumping by 23 percent from 2003 to 2004. Control Risks Group, RiskMap, http://www.​crg.​com/​html, 2003. The International Crisis Group, one of the most widely respected policy research units, concurred with these findings of global distress, finding some seventy situations of current or potential conflict. International Crisis Group, Crisis Watch, November 2003.

22. Jon Lee Anderson, Guerillas (New York: Times Books, 1992), p. 161.

23. Deborah Smith, “Children in the Heat of War,” Monitor on Psychology 32, no. 8 (September 2001).

24. UN Population Fund, State of World Population, p. 8.

25. Save the Children-UK, War Brought Us Here, (London, 2000). Some refugee experts think that this figure may be a high estimate, potentially exaggerated for political reasons.

26. “Children of War,” International Regional Information Networks (IRIN), June 14, 2001.

27. Renuka Senanayake, “Sri Lanka: Peace Garden for Children in War Zone,” Inter Press Service, April 19, 2001.

28. Save the Children, “Children of the Gun,” Children in Crisis project report, September 2000, http://www.​savethe​children.​org/​crisis.

29. Dan Jacobs, “Protecting Children from the Scourge of War,” Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development, Coordinator’s Notebook, no. 10 (October 1991): 6.

30. Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Against All Odds: Surviving the War on Adolescents, July 2001, p. 8.

31. Daniel Bergner, In the Land of Magic Soldiers: A Story of Black and White in West Africa (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003), p. 45.

32. Quoted in Hamilton Wende, “From Schoolboy to Soldier,” BBC, September 20, 2003.

33. R. L. Punamaki, “Can Ideological Commitment Protect Children’s Psychological Well-being in Situations of Political Violence?” Child Development 67 (1996): 55-69.

34. Theresa Stichick and Claude Bruderlein, “Children Facing Insecurity: New Strategies for Survival in a Global Era,” Harvard Program in Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research Policy Paper, March 2001.

35. Paul Salopek, “The Guns of Africa: Violence-Wracked Nations Are Dumping Grounds for World’s Arsenals,” Seattle Times, February 27, 2002; Daniel Smith and Rachel Stohl, “Small Arms in Failed States: A Deadly Combination,” paper written for Failed States and International Security Conference, Purdue University, April 8–11, 1999.

36. Michael Klare, “The Kalashnikov Age,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 55, no. 1 (January/February 1999).

37. Robert Neild, “Expose the Unsavory Business Behind Cruel Wars,” International Herald Tribune. February 17, 2000.

38. Center for Defense Information (CDI), “The Invisible Soldiers: Child Combatants,” Defense Monitor 26, no. 4 (1997).

39. Quoted in “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​index.​html.

40. Charles Cobb, “Arms and Africa on UN Agenda This Week,” AllAfrica.​com, July 9, 2001.

41. Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC), An Army Surplus—The NVA’s Heritage, BICC Brief No. 3 (1997).

42. Cobb, “Arms and Africa on UN Agenda This Week.”

43. Klare, “Kalashnikov Age.”

44. Sarah Aird et al., “Mozambique: The Battle Continues for Former Child Soldiers,” Youth Advocate Program International Resource Paper, 2001.

45. Stavros Stavou and Robert Stewart, “The Reintegration of Child Soldiers and Abducted Children: A Case Study of Palaro and Pabbo Gulu District,” in Act Against Child Soldiers in Africa: A Reader (South Africa: ISS, 2002).

46. United Nations, Report of the Expert of the Secretary General, Graça Machel, “Impact of Armed Conflict on Children,” Document A/51/306 & Add. 1, August 26, 1996.

47. Quoted in Rachel Stohl, “Targeting Children: Small Arms and Children in Conflict,” Brown Journal of International Affairs 9, no. 1 (Spring 2002): 281.

48. Sam Kona, quoted in Karl Vick, “Small Arms’ Global Reach Uproots Tribal Traditions,” Washington Post, July 8, 2001.

49. Peter Lock, “Illicit Small Arms Availability,” paper presented at Third International Berlin Workshop—Consolidating Peace through Practical Disarmament, Berlin, July 2–5, 1998.

50. David Kaiser, Politics and War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990).

51. Brian Wood and Johan Peleman, “The Arms Fixers,” PRIO Report, (Oslo, March 1999).

52. Michael Ignatieff, The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience (New York: Holt, 1998).

53. Mats Berdal and David Malone, Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 2001); Tamara Makarenko, “A Model of Terrorist-Criminal Relations,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, August 2003, pp. 6–10.

54. Metz, Armed Conflict, p. 24.

55. Collier, “How to Stem Civil Wars.”

56. Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” World Bank Policy Research Paper, no. 2355, May 2000.

57. Paul Collier, Economic Causes of Civil Conflict and Their Implications for Policy, World Bank Report, June 15, 2000.

58. Blaine Harden, “Africa’s Gems: Warfare’s Best Friend,” New York Times, April 6, 2000.

59. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. Peter Paret and Michael Howard (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 75.

60. Scott Wilson, “Colombian Fighters Drug Trade Is Detailed,” Washington Post, June 25, 2003; Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999), p. 102.

61. James Dao, “The War on Terrorism Takes an Aim at Crime,” New York Times, April 7, 2002.

62. A typical example is the FARC in Colombia, which started out as a Marxist revolutionary group and is now a prime player in the international cocaine trade. Klare, “Kalashnikov Age.”

63. Duffield, “Internal Conflict.”

64. UNICEF, Children Affected by Armed Conflict: UNICEF Actions (New York, 2002), p. 3.

65. Kaldor, New and Old Wars, p. 1.

66. Crawford Young, Ethnic Diversity and Public Policy (New York: St. Martin’s Press in association with UNRISD, 1998), p. 114.

67. Stephen Metz, Refining American Strategy in Africa (Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College, Strategic Studies Institute, April 2000), p. 11, http://carlisle-​www.​army.​mil/​usassi/​ssipubs/​pubs​2000.​htm.

68. Christopher Clapham, Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 156.

69. “They’d Make You Kill Your Parents,” Toronto Star News, July 23, 2000.

70. Human Rights Watch, Children in Sudan: Slaves, Street Children and Child Soldiers (New York, 1995), http://www.​hrw.​org/​reports/​1995/​Sudan.​htm.

71. “Children in the North East War: 1985–1995,” University Teachers for Human Rights briefing, no. 2 (June 20, 1995); Ilene Cohen and Guy Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1994).

72. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood: The Use of Children in Armed Conflict in Central Africa (Geneva, 2003), p. 26.

73. John Otis, “Rebel Held: Child Soldiers,” Houston Chronicle, August 3, 2001.

74. “To Child Soldier, 14, War Was ‘Shoot or Be Killed,’ ” Reuters, June 12, 2001.

75. Alcinda Honwana, “Children of War: Understanding War and War Cleansing in Mozambique and Angola,” in Simon Chesterman, ed., Civilians in War (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 2001), p. 128.

76. Remy Ourdan, “Africa’s Small Soldiers,” Foreign Policy, (May/June 2001): 74–75.

Chapter 4: How Children Are Recruited into War

1. UN panel, “Reclaiming Our Children,” UN headquarters, transcript, May 7, 2002.

2. “MONUC Denounces Recruitment of Child Soldiers by Lubanga’s UPC/RP,” International Regional Information Networks (IRIN), February 7, 2003.

3. Amnesty International, “Breaking God’s Commands”; “The Destruction of Childhood by the Lord’s Resistance Army Report,” AFR 59/01/97, September 18, 1997.

4. Rohan Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, July 1998.

5. Rachel Stohl, “Targeting Children: Small Arms and Children in Conflict,” Brown Journal of International Affairs 9, no. 1 (spring 2002): 281.

6. Ilene Cohen and Guy Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1994).

7. One child interviewed in May 1997 claimed, “Rebels who had captured girls who were not beautiful or smart were beaten by the others for shaming them.” Amnesty International, “Breaking God’s Commands.”

8. Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants.”

9. Human Rights Watch, Children in Sudan: Slaves, Street Children and Child Soldiers (New York, September 1995).

10. Ibid.

11. Tom Masland, “Leaders Gather at the U.N. This Week to Discuss the World’s Kids, Including Child Soldiers,” Newsweek, May 6, 2002.

12. Mike Wessells, “Child Soldiers,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 6 (November/December 1997).

13. Ibid.

14. International Children’s Institute, “Children Forced to Fight,” http://www.​icich​ildren.​org.

15. Amnesty International, “Breaking God’s Commands.”

16. John Otis, “Rebel Held: Child Soldiers,” Houston Chronicle, August 3, 2001.

17. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers (Geneva, 2003), p. 19.

18. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood: The Use of Children in Armed Conflict in Central Africa (Geneva, 2003).

19. Center for Defense Information (CDI), “The Invisible Soldiers: Child Combatants,” Defense Monitor 26, no. 4 (1997), http://www.​cdi.​org/​dm/​1997/​issue4.

20. American Morning, CNN, transcript, May 10, 2002.

21. Save the Children, “Children of the Gun,” Children in Crisis project report, September 2000, http://www.​savethe​children.​org/​crisis.

22. Refugees International, “Children in the Eastern Congo: Adrift in a Sea of War and Poverty,” February 6, 2002; “DRC: Minimal Net Reductions in Child Soldiers,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 3 (March 2002).

23. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers (Geneva: 2003), p. 19.

24. Document provided to author by I., a former child soldier, June 2002.

25. Ed Cairns, Children and Political Violence (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1996), p. 114–15.

26. Hannah Beech Farkhar, “The Child Soldiers,” Time, November 7, 2001.

27. Quoted in Paul Salopek, “The Guns of Africa,” Seattle Times, February 27, 2002.

28. CDI, “Invisible Soldiers.”

29. Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants.”

30. “Girl Soldiers: Challenging the Assumptions,” Geneva Reporter 21, no. 3 (July 2002); Yvonne Kearins, “The Voices of Girl Child Soldiers,” Quaker UN Office newsletter (New York, October 2002).

31. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood, p. 25.

32. ICI Oregon Foundation, “War: A Child’s Perspective,” 2001. Note: His best friend was later captured by his unit. Despite his speaking up for him, the friend was knifed to death.

33. CDI, “Invisible Soldiers.”

34. Ibid.

35. Cairns, Children and Political Violence, p. 130.

36. UNICEF, “Child Soldiers: Demobilization in Southern Sudan,” February 2001.

37. Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1965); Kim Triandis, Individualism and Collectivism (London: Sage, 1994); Ruth Benedict, The Chrysanthemum and the Sword (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967); David Pryce-Jones, “Priests of Killing,” National Review, April 22, 2002, pp. 19–20. These differ from “guilt” cultures, which are more individualistic. Both clearly have their issues.

38. Interviews with former child soldiers, Arlington, Virginia, 1998.

39. ICI Oregon Foundation, “War: A Child’s Perspective.”

40. Roger Rosenblatt, Children of War (New York: Doubleday, 1983), p. 101.

41. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood, p. 31.

42. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, at http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​index.​html.

43. Tom Kamara, “Children Remain ‘Useful,’ ” The Perspective, January 24, 2001. Note: Taylor won the war and obviously did not keep his promise.

44. John Hughes, “Children at War,” Christian Science Monitor, October 28, 1987.

45. Cohen and Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers.

46. Quoted in Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry”: Child Combatants in Colombia (New York, September 2003), p. 5.

47. Craig Davis, “A Is for Allah, J Is for Jihad,” World Policy Journal 19, no. 1 (spring 2002): 90–94.

48. Shah Muhammad, Riyazi Barayi inf-I chaharum (Peshawar, Pakistan: Taj Mahal Company, 1987), p. 50. Information kindly supplied by Craig Davis.

49. Wessells, “Child Soldiers.”

50. Jon Lee Anderson, Guerrillas (New York: Times Books, 1992), p. 68.

51. BBC, Children of Conflict, 2002, at http://www.​bbc.​co.​uk/​world​service/​people/​features/​children​srights/​childreno​fconflict/​soldtxt.​shtml.

52. Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants.”

53. Harendra de Silva, “Conscription of Children in Armed Conflict: Is It Martyrdom or Child Abuse?,” paper presented at the British Association for the Study and Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Congress, Edinburgh, July 1997.

54. “Children in the North East War: 1985–1995,” University Teachers for Human Rights briefing, no. 2 (June 20, 1995).

55. Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants.”

Chapter 5: Turning a Child into a Soldier

1. Quoted in “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​index.​html.

2. John Lynn, The Bayonets of the Republic: Motivation and Tactics in the Army of Revolutionary France, 1791–94 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984).

3. Ibid., pp. 23–24.

4. Elbridge Colby, Masters of Mobile Warfare (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1943), p. 83.

5. Anthony Kellett, Combat Motivation: The Behavior of Soldiers in Battle (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), p. 134.

6. Steven T. Ross, From Flintlock to Rifle: Infantry Tactics, 1740–1866 (London: Cass, 1979), p. 24.

7. Mike Wessells, “Child Soldiers,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 6 (November/December 1997).

8. U.S. Department of State, Human Rights Report, 2002 (Washington, DC, 2003).

9. M. Deutch, “Psychological Roots of Moral Exclusion,” Journal of Social Issues 46, no. 1 (1990): 21–25; Albert Bandura, “Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement,” in Walter Reich, ed., Origins of Terrorism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 161–191.

10. For instance, one eleven-year-old veteran of the group is able to talk about how in one village raid he took a baby by the legs and bashed its head against the walls till its brain matter came out. When inactive, the child soldier felt bored and restless. The sight of blood obsesses him; Harendra de Silva, “Conscription of Children in Armed Conflict: Is It Martyrdom or Child Abuse?,” paper presented at the British Association for the Study and Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect Congress, Edinburgh, July 1997.

11. Deutch, “Psychological Roots of Moral Exclusion,” pp. 21–25; Bandura, “Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement.”

12. Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 1986), pp. 126, 427.

13. They came up with this from watching videos of Hollywood action movies.

14. Emily Wax, “Toting AK-47s Instead of Bookbags,” Washington Post, August 25, 2003.

15. “Children in the North East War: 1985–1995,” University Teachers for Human Rights Briefing, no. 2 (June 20, 1995).

16. Danna Harman, “Aid Agencies Help to Rid Child Soldiers of War’s Scars,” Christian Science Monitor, October 30, 2001.

17. Tom Masland, “Leaders Gather at the U.N. This Week to Discuss the World’s Kids, Including Child Soldiers,” Newsweek, May 6, 2002.

18. Cole Dodge, Reaching Children in War (Oslo, Norway: Sigma Forlut, 1991), p. 57.

19. Basildon Peta, “Mass Murder and Cannibalism Claims Emerge in Congo,” The Independent (London), May 24, 2003.

20. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

21. Ibid.

22. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry”: Child Combatants in Colombia (New York, September 2003), p. 96.

23. Mike Wessells, “Child Soldiers.”

24. Ilene Cohen and Guy Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1994).

25. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

26. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers (Geneva, 2003), p. 19.

27. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 80.

28. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood: The Use of Children in Armed Conflict in Central Africa (Geneva, 2003), p. 43.

29. “Release Child Soldiers, UNICEF Tells Fighting Groups,” IRIN, October 9, 2003.

30. Rohan Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, July 1998; Yvonne Kearins, “The Voices of Girl Child Soldiers,” Quaker UN Office, October 2002, p. 7.

31. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 47.

32. Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Against All Odds: Surviving the War on Adolescents, July 2001.

33. As one eight-year-old put it, “At a camp we were trained to use guns. Those who disobeyed had their ears and fingers cut off. I didn’t want to participate in the killing but they threatened to shoot me if I refused to do it.” “Over 100,000 Children Bear Arms in Africa,” Ofeibea Quist-Arcton (Johannesburg), June 13, 2001.

34. Cohen and Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers.

35. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 76.

36. Ellen Nakashima, “Burma’s Child Soldiers Tell of Army Atrocities,” Washington Post, February 10, 2003.

37. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, Yearly Report 2001.

38. M. Fraser, Children in Conflict (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1974).

39. Jessica Reaves, “Should the Law Treat Kids and Adults Differently?,” Time, May 17, 2001.

40. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

41. Ismene Zarifis, “Sierra Leone’s Search for Justice and Accountability of Child Soldiers,” Human Rights Brief 9, no. 3 (Spring 2002): 18-21.

42. Masland, “Leaders Gather at the U.N.”

43. “Sierra Leone: IRIN Focus on Children with an Uncertain Future,” International Regional Information Networks (IRIN), July 9, 2001; Sue Loughlin, “A Preliminary Assessment of Past and Current Drug Use Among Former Child Ex-Combatants in Sierra Leone,” UNICEF Report, August 2000.

44. Wessells, “Child Soldiers.”

45. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

46. Quoted in Ivan Watson, “Sierra Leone: Redeeming Child Soldiers,” Chronicle of Foreign Service, July 23, 2001.

47. Jean H. Lee, “Ex-U.N. Leader: Children Define War,” AP, March 21, 2001.

48. Masland, “Leaders Gather at the U.N.”

49. Wessells, “Child Soldiers.”

50. Quoting a Defense Intelligence Agency interview; Cohen and Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers.

51. Quoted in “Children in Armed Conflict,” World Vision position paper, Policy and Research Department, June 1999.

52. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

53. Ibid.

54. Document provided to author by I., a former child soldier, June 2002.

55. Interview with British military officer, Quantico, Virginia, May 2002.

56. United Nations, Report of the Expert of the Secretary General, Graça Machel, “Impact of Armed Conflict on Children,” Document A/51/306 & Add. 1., August 26, 1996.

57. Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants.”

58. A tactic later copied by al Qaeda for use against the USS Cole. From its use of suicide bombings to child soldiers, the LTTE has been one of the more innovative terrorist groups.

59. F. B. Abagye, “Perspective on the Problems and Challenges of ECOWAS Regional Security Paradigm: The Role of the Military in the Protection of War-affected Children in West Africa,” paper presented at the International Conference on War-affected Children, Winnipeg, Canada, September 11, 2000.

60. Interview with private military soldier, September 2004. Report corroborated by CENTCOM briefing slides, April 2004.

61. Interview with military expert, Washington, DC, August 2001.

62. Interview with military expert, Washington, DC, August 2001.

63. Hannah Beech Farkhar, “The Child Soldiers,” Time, November 7, 2001.

64. Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants.”

65. Interview with British military expert, August 2001.

66. E. Gargan, “In Uganda, a Children’s Army,” International Herald Tribune, August 5, 1986.

67. Neil Boothby, “Working in the War Zone: A Look at Psychological Theory and Practice from the Field,” Mind and Human Interaction 2, no. 2 (1990): 33.

68. Adnan Laeeq, “Flowers on the Frontline,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 5 (September 2002).

69. Christopher Hamner, “An Army of One? Combat Motivation, Unit Cohesion, and Technological Change in Infantry Combat,” John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, presentation, October 2001.

70. Jon Lee Anderson, Guerrillas (New York: Times Books, 1992), p. 217.

71. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

72. Ibid.

73. Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Against All Odds.

74. Ibid.

75. Quoted in Human Rights Watch, The Scars of Death (New York, 2001).

76. “Army: Mourners Forced to Eat Corpse,” Reuters, April 29, 2002; “Uganda: Horrors of LRA Child Captivity,” IRIN, April 24, 2003.

77. de Silva, “Conscription of Children in Armed Conflict”; Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry.”

78. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 111.

79. Women’s Commission, Against All Odds, p. 19.

80. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

Chapter 6: The Implications of Children on the Battlefield

1. Quoted in CSC, Child Soldiers Newsletter 4 (June 2002).

2. F. B. Abagye, “Perspective on the Problems and Challenges of ECOWAS Regional Security Paradigm: The Role of the Military in the Protection of War-affected Children in West Africa,” paper presented at the International Conference on War-affected Children, Winnipeg, Canada, September 11, 2000.

3. Robert Rotberg, “Failed States in a World of Terror,” Foreign Affairs 81, no. 4 (July/August 2002): 127–40.

4. “Africa: Clinton Legacy Alive Under Bush,” IRIN, February 8, 2001.

5. “UN Envoy Considering Taliban Meeting,” CNN.​com, October 30, 2001.

6. “Al-Qaida Bomb Suspects Hid in Liberia,” AP, June 1, 2004.

7. The rebel RUF and agents of al Qaeda traded in millions of dollars of “blood diamonds,” with a reported rise in purchasing before the 9/11 attacks in New York City as the groups tried to gain hard assets. Douglas Farah, “Al Qaeda Cash Tied to Diamond Trade,” Washington Post, November 2, 2001.

8. UNICEF, Children Affected by Armed Conflict: UNICEF Actions (New York, 2002), p. 35.

9. For more on this, please see P. W. Singer, Corporate Warriors (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003).

10. “Uganda: Increased Abduction and Recruitment of Child Soldiers,” International Regional Information Networks (IRIN), August 16, 2003.

11. Unfortunately, the current literature on civil war termination fails to take this new doctrine into account. For example, Barbara Walter’s work is the touchstone of the field, but looks only at civil wars prior to 1990, thus not accounting for the advent of child soldier doctrine. Walter, “Designing Transitions from Civil War,” International Security 24, no. 1 (summer 1999); Walter and Jack Snyder, Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); Walter, “The Critical Barrier to Civil War Settlements,” International Organization 51, no. 3 (summer 1997).

12. International Crisis Group, Sierra Leone: Time for a New Military and Political Strategy, ICG Africa Report, no. 28 (April 11, 2001).

13. Human Rights Watch, The Scars of Death (New York, 2001).

14. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​index.​html.

15. Robert Bates, “Prosperity and Violence: The Political Economy of Development,” unpublished paper, 2000.

16. Tom Kamara, “Sierra Leone: A Search for Peace Against the Odds,” WriteNet Country Papers, paper no. 21 (1999).

17. Amnesty International, “Breaking God’s Commands.”

18. Samson Mulugeta, “Rebels of Terror in Uganda,” Newsday, March 28, 2004.

19. Stavros Stavou and Robert Stewart, “The Reintegration of Child Soldiers and Abducted Children: A Case Study of Palaro and Pabbo Gulu District,” in Act Against Child Soldiers in Africa: A Reader (South Africa: ISS, 2002), available at www.​iss.​co.za.

20. Peter Strandberg, “End of a Long Nightmare,” Mail & Guardian, July 26, 2002.

21. T. R. Gurr, ed., A Global Survey of Armed Conflicts, Self-Determination Movements and Democracy (College Park: Center for International Development and Conflict Management, University of Maryland, 2000); Chaim Kaufmann, “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars,” International Security 20, no. 4 (spring 1996): 136–75, esp. p. 142; Jacob Bercovitch, “The Nature of the Dispute and the Effectiveness of International Mediation,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 37, no. 4 (1993): 3–25. For an opposite view, see David Mason and Patrick Fett, “How Civil Wars End: A Rational Choice Approach,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 40, no. 4 (December 1996): 545–568, Mason and Fett did not find the number of deaths statistically significant, but like the other literature on civil wars, their data was backward looking, not accounting for the introduction of the new doctrine. Moreover, they measured only battle deaths, missing the true shift of civil wars towards primarily civilian-directed violence.

22. Tom Masland, “Leaders Gather at the U.N. This Week to Discuss the World’s Kids, Including Child Soldiers,” Newsweek, May 6, 2002.

23. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry”: Child Combatants in Colombia (New York, September 2003), p. 88.

24. Ibid., p. 67.

25. Today, NBC, transcript May 10, 2002.

26. In cases in Latin America, government forces reportedly have deliberately killed even the youngest children in peasant communities on the grounds that they, too, could be “dangerous.” Center for Defense Information (CDI), “The Invisible Soldiers: Child Combatants,” Defense Monitor 26, no. 4 (1997), http://www.​cdi.​org/​dm/​1997/​issue4.

27. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (CSC), 1379 Country Reports, 2002, p. 25.

28. Stavou and Stewart, “Reintegration of Child Soldiers.”

29. Physicians for Human Rights, “War-related Sexual Violence in Sierra Leone,” Population Assessment Report, 2002.

30. P. W. Singer, “AIDS and International Security,” Survival 44, no. 1 (spring 2002): 145–58.

31. In fact Oxygen network did a documentary on it. Operation Fine Girl at http://www.​witness.​org.

32. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

33. Reported being abducted, beaten, raped, and forced to become a rebel’s “wife.” She was released during the latter stages of her pregnancy and now has a baby girl. Physicians for Human Rights, “War-related Sexual Violence in Sierra Leone.”

34. Khadija Alia Bah, “Rural Women and Girls in the War in Sierra Leone,” Conciliation Resources Occasional Paper, 1999.

35. Strandberg, “End of a Long Nightmare.”

36. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry,” p. 58.

37. Mark Frankel, “Boy Soldiers,” Newsweek, August 14, 1995, p. 45.

38. Interview with former child soldier, June 2002.

39. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

40. Ian Brown, Khomeini’s Forgotten Sons: The Story of Iran’s Boy Soldiers (London: Grey Seal, 1990).

41. United Nations, Report of the Expert of the Secretary General, Graça Machel, “Impact of Armed Conflict on Children,” Document A/51/306 & Add 1., August 26, 1996.

42. Ibid.

43. Human Rights Watch, Scars of Death.

44. Amnesty International, “Breaking God’s Commands.”

45. Interview with DRC expert and NGO representative, June 2001.

46. Figures from http://www.​reality.​lanka.​com, accessed November 2000.

47. Quoted in The Use of Children by OSCE Member States, CSC, Human Dimension Seminar on Children and Armed Conflict, Warsaw, May 23–26, 2000, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org.

48. CSC, “Girls Without Guns: An Agenda on Child Soldiers for Beijing Plus Five,” June 4, 2000, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org.

49. Sarah Aird et al., “Mozambique: The Battle Continues for Former Child Soldiers,” Youth Advocate Program International Resource paper, 2001.

50. United Nations, “Impact of Armed Conflict on Children.”

51. Jane Green Schaller, “Children, Child Health, and War,” paper presented at the IPA/WHO/UNICEF Pre-Congress Workshop on Assessment of the Mid-Decade Goals: Evaluation and Recommendations, Cairo, September 9–10, 1995.

52. Mike Wessells, “Child Soldiers,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 6 (November/December 1997).

53. Interview with expert on Sudan, July 2002.

54. Tom Kamara, “Children Remain ‘Useful,’ ” The Perspective, January 24, 2001.

55. Douglas Farah, “Sierra Leone Rebels Contemplate Life Without Guns,” Washington Post, April 14, 2001; Ivan Watson, “Sierra Leone: Redeeming Child Soldiers,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 23, 2001.

56. Bory Seyni, “After Liberia, Sierra Leone, Is Guinea Next?” Panafrican News Agency, October 20, 2000; Human Rights Watch, “Back to the Brink: War Crimes by Liberian Government and Rebels, a Call for Greater International Attention to Liberia and the Sub Region,” Action Appeal, 2002.

57. Human Rights Watch, “Trapped Between Two Wars,” August 2003; International Regional Information Networks (IRIN), January 29, 2003.

58. “Peace Here Means War Somewhere Else,” The Economist, June 23, 2001.

59. Interview with former child soldier, June 2002.

60. Human Rights Watch, Scars of Death.

61. Physicians for Human Rights, “March 2000 Delegation to Sierra Leone Preliminary Findings and Recommendations,” March 2000.

62. Aird et al., “Mozambique.”

63. Dan Jacobs, “Protecting Children from the Scourge of War,” Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development, no. 10 (October 1991): 8.

64. BBC, “Children of Conflict,” 1997, http://www.​bbc.​co.​uk/​worldservice/​people/​features/​childrensrights/​childrenof​conflict/​soldtxt.​shtml.

65. Human Rights Watch, Scars of Death.

66. UNICEF, Children Affected by Armed Conflict: UNICEF Actions (New York, 2002).

67. Information from United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 2004. Emily Wax, “In Uganda, Terror Forces Children’s Nightly Flight,” Washington Post, February 13, 2004.

68. Martin Teicher, “Scars That Won’t Heal: The Neurobiology of Child Abuse,” Scientific American, March 2002.

69. Ilse Derluyn et al., “Post Traumatic Stress in Former Child Soldiers,” Lancet, March 13, 2004.

70. CDI, “Invisible Soldiers.”

71. International Children’s Institute, “Children Forced to Fight,” http://www.​children​sinstitute.​org.

72. A. Dawes, “The Effects of Political Violence on Children,” International Journal of Psychology 25, no. 2 (1990): 13–31.

73. Aird et al., “Mozambique.”

74. Phil Ashby, “Child Combatants: A Soldier’s Perspective,” The Lancet 360 (December 2002): s11–12.

75. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

Chapter 7: The New Children of Terror

1. Jack Kelley, “The Sickening World of Suicide Terrorists,” USA Today, June 26, 2001.

2. “National Roundup,” Miami Herald, April 23, 2003; Human Rights Watch, “U.S. Guantánamo Kids at Risk,” April 24, 2003; Bruce Auster and Kevin Whitelaw, “Terror’s Cellblock,” U.S. News & World Report, May 12, 2003; Michelle Faul, “U.S. Defends Detaining Teens,” AP, June 28, 2003. There is an unknown added number between sixteen and eighteen that the United States has held in the general adult population, contrary to both U.S. and international law on how children should be treated during detention.

3. Nancy Gibbs, “Inside ‘The Wire,’ ” Time, December 8, 2003.

4. “Palestinian Teen Stopped with Bomb Vest,” CNN.​com, March 25, 2004.

5. Gal Luft, “The Palestinian H-Bomb,” Foreign Affairs 81, no. 4 (July/August 2002): 5; CSC, 1379 Report, 2002, p. 54; Suzanne Goldenberg, “A Mission to Murder,” The Guardian, June 11, 2003; Johanna Mcgeary, “Inside Hamas,” Time, March 29, 2004.

6. Interview with U.S. security agency official, Washington, DC, December 2003.

7. “Enemy Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTP) and Recommendations,” Third Corps Support Command briefing document, LSA Anaconda, Iraq, September 2003.

8. “Teenage Boys Trained by Paramilitary Group,” Guardian Weekly (London), November 29, 2000.

9. U.S. State Department, Report on Human Rights, 1997, Colombia section. UNICEF-Colombia, Situation Report, April 22, 2003.

10. Rohan Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, July 1998.

11. “Teenage Boys Trained by Paramilitary Group.”

12. Jack Kelley, “Street Clashes Now Deliberate Warfare,” USA Today, October 23, 2000; Herb Keinon, “Israel to the UN: Keep Palestinians from Using Kids as Shields,” Jerusalem Post, November 8, 2000; D. Kuttab, “A Profile of the Stone Throwers,” Journal of Palestine Studies 17 (1988): 14–23.

13. Nasra Hassan, “An Arsenal of Believers,” The New Yorker, November 19, 2001.

14. Gehud Auda, Palestinian Suicide Bombing: Description and Evaluation, Ahram Strategic Papers, no. 114 (2002); Hassan, “Arsenal of Believers.”

15. Daniel Williams, “Bomber Unleashed Secret Rage,” Washington Post, April 14, 2002.

16. Samir Kouta, quoted in Al Alam al Yom, January 24, 1995.

17. “The Appeal of Suicide Bombers Grows,” AP, April 28, 2002.

18. Alan Krueger and Jitka Maleckova have argued the opposite in a highly cited study. Krueger and Maleckova, “Education, Poverty, Political Violence and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection?” NBER Working Paper no. w9074, July 2002, http://papers.​nber.​org/​papers/​W9074. However, many analysts believe that the study was highly limited in its purview, looking only at one case that was suboptimal in selection, and thus flawed in its methodology. Omer Taspinar, “Promoting Educational and Economic Opportunity in the Islamic World,” Brookings Monograph, 2003.

19. Jessica Stern, “Islamic Extremists: How Do They Mobilize Support?” USIP Presentation, April 17, 2002.

20. Ibid.

21. Jessica Stern, Terror in the Name of God (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), p. 51; “The Appeal of Suicide Bombers Grows,” Associated Press, April 28, 2002.

22. Stern, Terror in the Name of God, p. 219.

23. Amy Waldman, “Sri Lanka’s Young Are Forced to Fill Ranks of Endless Rebellion,” New York Times, January 6, 2003.

24. South Asia Intelligence Review, August 2, 2002.

25. Kelley, “Sickening World of Suicide Terrorists.”

26. David Pryce-Jones, “Priests of Killing,” National Review, April 22, 2002, pp. 19–20.

27. Roni Shaked, a terrorism expert and former officer in Shin Bet, quoted in Kelley, “Sickening World of Suicide Terrorists.”

28. “PA Mufti of Jerusalem and Palestine Discusses the Intifada,” Al-Ahram Al-Arabi, October 28, 2000, via MEMRI, November 8, 2000.

29. John F. Burns, “Palestinian Summer Camp Offers the Games of War,” New York Times, August 3, 2000.

30. Franz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove, 1963), p. 93.

31. Colin Nickerson, “A Boy’s Journey from Canada to Al Qaeda,” Boston Globe, March 9, 2003.

32. Quoted in “Child Soldiers Square Up to U.S. Tanks,” Daily Telegraph (London), August 23, 2004.

33. Mcgeary, “Inside Hamas.”

34. James Garabino, “A Note on Children and Youth in Dangerous Environments: The Palestinian Situation as a Case Study,” Erickson Institute, Chicago, undated.

35. Hassan, “Arsenal of Believers.”

36. For example, one in Al-Istiqlal, the Palestinian Authority’s newspaper, read: “With great pride, The Palestinian Islamic Jihad marries the member of its military wing … the martyr and hero Yasser-Adhami, to the black-eyed [virgins].” From Yotam Feldner, “ ’72 Black-eyed Virgins’: A Muslim Debate on the Rewards of Martyrs,” MEMRI paper, 2002, http://www.​memri.​org.

37. Hassan, “Arsenal of Believers.”

38. Chris Hedges, “The Glamour of Martyrdom,” New York Times, October 29, 2000; Al Hayat-Al Jadida, October 27, 2000, from Palestinian Media Watch, Jerusalem.

39. Quoted in Stern, Terror in the Name of God, p. 221.

40. David Kupelian, “Trouble in the Holy Land: Jerusalem Cleric Praises Child ‘Sacrifices,’ ” World​NetDaily.​com, November 10, 2000.

41. From the May 19, 1999; February 6, 1998; August 10, 1998; and July 2, 1998, broadcasts. Translation of Palestinian television shows, available at www.​cnsnews.​com/​specialreports/​jihadtrans​lation.​htmnl (accessed October 15, 2002). Video of “Children’s Club” clips can be downloaded at http://www.​israelnat​ionalnews.​com/​english/​radio/​ram/​eng-​video/​jihad-​80.​ram. The first to raise the issue was the 1998 film Jihad for Kids produced by the organization Peace for Generations.

42. Emily Wax, “Outrage Spreads in Arab World,” Washington Post, March 30, 2003.

43. Walter Laquer, No End to War (New York: Continuum, 2003), p. 91.

44. “Profile of a Suicide Bomber,” CNN.​com, December 15, 2001.

45. Haim Malka, “Must Innocents Die? The Islamic Debate on Suicide Attacks,” Middle East Quarterly (spring 2003).

46. David Van Biema, “Why the Bombers Keep Coming,” Time, December 17, 2001; Pryce-Jones, “Priests of Killing,” pp. 19–20; Hamza Hendawi, “Gaza’s Children Worship Martyrdom,” AP, May 14, 2002.

47. Huda Al-Husseini, an Arab journalist with the London-based daily Al-Sharq Al-Awsat, quoted in Kupelian, “Trouble in the Holy Land.”

48. Its first human bomber, Ala’a al-Kahlout, even wore shorts, a T-shirt, a cap, and dark glasses before climbing aboard a bus in 1993 and blowing it up. Hassan, “Arsenal of Believers.”

49. Auda, Palestinian Suicide Bombing; Al-Sharq Al-Awsat, August 8, 2001.

50. Martin Cohn, “The Teen Soldiers Who Refused to Die,” Toronto Star, January 18, 2002.

51. Hassan, “Arsenal of Believers.”

52. Stern, Terror in the Name of God, p. 51.

53. Laquer, No End to War, p. 83.

54. Amos Harel, “Portrait of the Terrorist as a Young Man,” Ha’aretz Daily, April 23, 2002.

55. Dewayne Wickham, “Root Out the Seeds of Terrorism in Sub-Saharan Countries,” AP, April 14, 2003.

56. Stern, Terror in the Name of God.

57. “The Appeal of Suicide Bombers Grows,” AP, April 28, 2002.

Chapter 8: Preventing Child Soldiers

1. Remarks made to UN Special Session on Children, May 8, 2002.

2. Julian Borger and Charlotte Denny, “Monterrey: U.S. Will Seek Advice on Spending Aid,” The Guardian (London), March 21, 2002; for more on this, see The Reality of Aid project located at http://www.​devinit.​org/​realityo​faid.

3. UNICEF, Children Affected by Armed Conflict: UNICEF Actions (New York, 2002), p. 3.

4. Lael Brainard, “The Administration’s Budget for Global Poverty and HIV/AIDS: How Do the Numbers Stack Up?,” Brookings Institution Analysis Paper, February 24, 2003.

5. “Great Lakes: U.S. Labor Department Lends Support to Combat Use of Child Soldiers,” International Regional Information Networks (IRIN), December 19, 2003.

6. UN Population Fund, State of the World Population, 2003, p. 51.

7. “Missing the Target on Small Arms,” Japan Policy & Politics, July 30, 2001.

8. Mei-Ling Hopgood, “Let World Bear Arms: Bush Won’t OK Measures to Ban Guns,” Atlanta Journal-Constitution, July 10, 2001.

9. William Godnick and Helena Vazquez, “Small Arms Control in Latin America,” International Alert Latin America MISAC Report, March 2003.

10. For example, Jeffrey Legro, Cooperation Under Fire: Anglo-German Restraint During World War II (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995); Richard Price, The Chemical Weapons Taboo (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Ward Thomas, The Ethics of Destruction: Norms and Force in International Relations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001); Nina Tannenwald, “The Nuclear Taboo: The United States and the Normative Basis of Nuclear Non-Use,” International Organization 53, no. 3 (summer 1999).

11. Paul Bohannan, Law and Warfare: Studies in the Anthropology of Conflict (New York: Natural History Press, 1967), p. 23.

12. Richard Price, “Reversing the Gun Sights: Transnational Civil Society Targets Land Mines,” International Organization 52, no. 3 (summer 1998): 613–44.

13. For example, in the IT world, a norm “(from norma, Latin for carpenter’s level) is a model of what should exist or be followed, or an average of what currently does exist in some context, such as an average salary among members of a large group.” See http://​www.​whatis.​techtarget.​com.

14. Price, “Reversing the Gun Sights”; Martha Finnemore, National Interests in International Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996).

15. Michael Desch, “Culture Clash: Assessing the Importance of Ideas in Security Studies,” International Security 23, no. 1 (summer 1998): 141–70.

16. Rachel Stohl, “Children in Conflict: Assessing the Optional Protocol,” Journal of Conflict, Security and Development 2, no. 2 (2002).

17. Amy Waldman, “Sri Lanka’s Young Are Forced to Fill Ranks of Endless Rebellion,” New York Times, January 6, 2003; “Amnesty Slams Sri Lanka Rebels on Child Soldiers,” Reuters, May 2, 2002; “S. Lankan Tamil Tigers Abduct More Children to Be Soldiers: Truce Monitors,” Xinhua, October 12, 2003; “Sri Lanka: Child Recruitment Continues Despite Ceasefire,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 3 (March 2002); Human Rights Watch, “Sri Lanka: Former Tamil Tiger Child Soldiers Remain at Risk” (New York, April 27, 2004); Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (CSC), Child Soldier Use 2003: A Briefing for the 4th UN Security Council Open Debate on Children and Armed Conflict, January 2004.

18. Interview with human rights expert, Washinton, DC, June 2002.

19. Rory Carroll, “Sham Demobilization Hides Rise in Congo’s Child Armies,” The Observer (London), September 9, 2003.

20. Both issued public communiqués in 2002. Human Rights Watch, “Erased in a Moment,” October 2002.

21. Watchlist on Children and Armed Conflict Newsletter, November 2001, http://www.​theirc.​org.

22. Jacky Mamou, “Soldier Boys and Girls,” Le Monde diplomatique, September 2001, http://www.​monde-​diplomatique.​fr/​2001/​09/​13​soldiers.

23. Refugees International, “Child Soldiers in the Congo,” April 4 and 30, 2001.

24. Interview with human rights expert, Washington, DC, June 10, 2003.

25. Interview with human rights expert, Washington, DC, June 17, 2002.

26. Located at http://www.​spacegroove.​com/​josep​hkony. It has a message of greeting from Kony and also a page on “why democracy will tramp under Maj. Gen. Joseph Kony’s powerfull leadership of LRA and it’s powerfull Political System [sic].”

27. Jon Lee Anderson, Guerrillas (New York: Times Books, 1992), p. 5.

28. CSC, Child Soldier Use 2003, p. 3.

29. Waldman, “Sri Lanka’s Young Are Forced to Fill Ranks of Endless Rebellion.”

30. The coalition’s annual report also makes a pointed parallel between sexual crimes that are not equivalent. It likened the FARC’s “sexual freedom” policy, which includes forcing young girl soldiers to wear interuterine devices and even killing a fifteen-year-old who got pregnant regardless, with a single incident in 1997 where a British army recruit was raped by her drunken drill instructor (who was later put in jail for the crime). While both actions are inexcusable, there is a distinct difference between the overall policy of an entire organization and the deviant behavior of an individual within an organization, who is then properly punished. CSC, Child Soldiers: An Overview (New York, 2001).

31. Vince Crawley, “17-Year-Old Soldiers Can’t Be Trigger Pullers,” Army Times, March 18, 2002.

32. This philosophy is known as the Boyd, or OODA (Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action) loop, first established by Colonel John Boyd. Grant Hammond, The Mind of War: John Boyd and American Security (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Press, 2001).

33. Andrew Phillip of Amnesty International, quoted in Carroll, “Sham Demobilization Hides Rise in Congo’s Child Armies.”

34. “War Crimes Tribunal in Sierra Leone,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 3 (March 2002).

35. “World Criminal Court Launched,” CNN.​com, March 11, 2003.

36. Jessica Reaves, “Should the Law Treat Kids and Adults Differently?,” Time, May 17, 2001.

37. Faul, “U.S. Defends Detaining Teens.”

38. Nancy Gibbs, “Inside ‘The Wire,’ ” Time, December 8, 2003.

39. Ismene Zarifis, “Sierra Leone’s Search for Justice and Accountability of Child Soldiers,” Human Rights Brief 9, no. 3 (May 2002); Christina Clark, “Juvenile Justice and Child Soldiering: Trends, Dilemmas, Challenges,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 3 (March 2003); Amnesty International, “Child Soldiers, Criminals or Victims?,” December 2000.

40. Tom Masland, “Voices of the Children: We Beat and Killed People,” Newsweek, May 13, 2002.

41. “Chaos and Cannibalism Under Congo’s Bloody Skies,” The Observer, August 17, 2003.

42. Brian Wood and Johan Peleman, The Arms Fixers, PRIO Report, March 1999; Jakkie Cilliers and Christian Dietrich, Angola’s War Economy (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2000).

43. Rachel Stohl, “The Smallest Warriors: Child Soldiers, “Center for Defense Information Report, October 1999, http://www.​cdi.​org/​atp/​Child​Soldiers/​resoures.​html.

44. Emmanuel Kwesi Aning, “Regulating the Illicit Trade in Natural Resources,” Ghanaian Chronicle, November 24, 2003; “How UN Rewarded President of Liberia,” Financial Times, July 1, 2003; William Kistner, “Timber, Taylor … Guns and Money,” Washington Post, July 23, 2003. Just as an illustration, French companies imported $13 million worth of illicit Liberian timber from Taylor in the period of January to June 2000. In turn, it is thought that 15 percent of two species of wood used in U.S. flooring products ended up in stores here.

45. Declan Walsh, “UN Cuts Details of Western Profiteers from Congo Report,” The Independent (London), October 27, 2003.

46. Nicol Innocenti, “About 800,000 Children Used as Soldiers,” Financial Times, June 13, 2001.

47. Meghan O’Sullivan, Shrewd Sanctions (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2003).

48. Interview with expert on DRC, June 2003.

49. On Unocal, see Daniel Fisher, “Kabuled Togeher,” Forbes, February 4, 2002, http://www.​forbes.​com/​global/​2002/​0204/​020.​html; Brooke Shelby Biggs, “Pipe Dreams,” Mother Jones, September–October 2001, http://www.​mother​jones.​com/​news/​feature/​2001/​10/​pipedreams.​html. On Robertson, see Colbert I. King, “Pat Robertson’s Gold,” Washington Post, September 22, 2001; Abraham M. Williams, “Pat Robertson Engages in Illegal Mining Operation in Liberia,” The Perspective, December 4, 2001. See generally Phillip van Niekerk, “The Business of War: Making a Killing,” Inter-natinal Consortium of Investigative Journalists, October 28, 2002, http://www.​publicint​egrity.​org/​bow/​report.​aspx?​aid=147.

50. Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” World Bank Policy Research Paper, no. 2355 (May 2000); William Reno, Warlord Politics and African States (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 1998).

51. Anthony Davis, “Tiger International,” Asia Week, July 28, 2000.

Chapter 9: Fighting Children

1. Aaron Zitner, “Wars Take Some Nasty Turns on City Streets,” Los Angeles Times, March 30, 2003.

2. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (CSC), The Use of Children by OSCE Member States, Human Dimension Seminar on Children and Armed Conflict, Warsaw, May 23–26, 2000, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org.

3. Major Alan Marshall, in his debriefing, quoted in Al Venter, “Sierra Leone: A Disreputable Debacle,” Soldier of Fortune, January 2001. In the end, more children died because of this decision, illustrating the dilemmas tactical commanders face.

4. Marie Colvin and James Clark, “How the Hi-Tech Army Fell Back on Law of the Jungle and Won,” Sunday Times (London), September 17, 2000, http://www.​sunday-​times.​co.​uk/​news/​pages/​sti/​2000/​09/​17/​stifgnafr​03003.​html.

5. “Operation Certain Death,” Sunday Times (London), March 7, 2004. The shifting ratio of dead to wounded in professional forces can be credited to modern body armor and improvements in medicine.

6. E-mail exchanges with U. S. Marine officer, stationed off Liberia, July 2003.

7. Nicholas Fiorenza, “Rumble in the Jungle,” Armed Forces Journal, August 2003, p. 16.

8. David Keithley and Paul Melshein, “Past as Prologue: USMC Small Wars Doctrine,” Small Wars and Insurgencies 8, no. 2 (autumn 1997): 91.

9. E-mail exchanges with U. S. Marine officer, stationed off Liberia, July 2003.

10. Zitner, “Wars Take Some Nasty Turns on City Streets.”

11. Interview with CIA expert, Washington, DC, June 5, 2001.

12. Major Alandian Sosa, Uruguayan army, quoted in Emily Wax, “Boy Soldiers Toting AK-47s Put at Front of Congo’s War,” Washington Post, June 13, 2003.

13. U.S. Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights, 2002. Child soldier sections available at http://www.​cdi.​org/​issues/​child​soldiers/​child-​soldiers-​global.​cfm.

14. F. B. Abagye, “Perspective on the Problems and Challenges of ECOWAS Regional Security Paradigm: The Role of the Military in the Protection of War-affected Children in West Africa,” paper presented at the International Conference on War-affected Children, Winnipeg, Canada, September 11, 2000.

15. Colin Nickerson, “A Boy’s Journey from Canada to Al Qaeda,” Boston Globe, March 9, 2003.

16. Interview with former U. S. Army officer, Boston, June, 2001.

17. Ibid.

18. Adnan Laeeq, “Flowers on the Frontline,” Child Soldiers Newsletter, September 2002.

19. Chris Tomlinson, “Child Soldier Tells Tales of War,” AP, May 7, 2001.

20. Human Rights Watch, “You’ll Learn Not to Cry”: Child Combatants in Colombia (New York, September 2003), p. 62.

21. Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991).

22. Martin Cohn, “The Teen Soldiers who Refused to Die,” Toronto Star, January 18, 2002.

23. Quoted in Tara McKelvey, “Where Girls Are Trained to Kill,” Marie Claire, November 2002, p. 66.

24. Christopher Hamner, “An Army of One? Combat Motivation, Unit Cohesion, and Technological Change in Infantry Combat,” John M. Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, Harvard University, presentation, October 2001.

25. For the soldiers’ reaction see Stephen Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), ch. 19.

26. Matthew Cox, “War Even Uglier When a Child Is the Enemy,” USA Today, April 8, 2003.

27. Interviews with British military officers, Washington, DC and London, 2002.

28. Interview with former U.S. military officer, Washington, DC, June 2001.

29. Human Rights Watch, The Scars of Death (New York, 2001).

30. As one military expert argues, “The use of NATO tactics as taught by the U.S. Army and Brits is totally useless. Forget NATO movement styles and action drills.” Interview with former U.S. military officer, Boston, July 2001.

31. Hamner, “An Army of One?”

32. “Effects-Based Operations,” Department of Defense briefing, March 19, 2003, http://www.​defen​selink.​mil/​news/​Mar2003/​g030318-​D-9085.​html.

33. Indeed, during the war in Sierra Leone, the town of Bumbuna was kept free by the presence of a single forward air controller who could direct air attacks on rebel forces. Eventually, they just steered clear of the town.

34. Interview with former U.S. military officer, Washington, DC, June 2001.

35. Ibid.; see also P. W. Singer, “Facing Saddam’s Child Soldiers,” Brookings Iraq Memo 8, January 2003.

36. M. Dando, ed., Non-Lethal Weapons: Technological and Operational Prospects (London: Jane’s Publishing, 2000); J. Alexander, “An Overview of the Future of Non-Lethal Weapons,” Medicine, Conflict & Survival 17, no. 3 (2001); see also the Department of Defense Joint Non-Lethal Weapons Program, http://www.​jnlwd.​usmc.​mil/​default.​asp.

37. Quoted in Mike Barber, “Non-Lethal Weapons Give Military More Options,” Seattle Post, April 8, 2002.

38. Sasha Kishinchand, “Child Soldiers: The Case for Non-Lethal Weapons,” Role of American Military Power (RAMP) paper, winter 2002.

39. Council on Foreign Relations, “Nonlethal Weapons and Capabilities,” Task Force Report, 2004, p. 13.

40. Colvin and Clark, “How the Hi-Tech Army Fell Back.”

41. In Sierra Leone, RUF fighters were unintimidated by the light armored personnel carriers (APCs) of the UN peacekeeping forces and even seized them and repainted them for their own use.

42. Somini Sengupta, “Congo War Toll Soars as U.N. Pleads for Aid,” New York Times, May 27, 2003.

43. Interview with former U.S. military officer, Washington, DC, June 2001.

44. Rohan Gunaratna, “LTTE Child Combatants,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, July 1998.

45. UNHCR, Guidelines on the Protection and Care of Refugee Children, 1994, Section 7, Article III.

46. Laeeq, “Flowers on the Frontline.”

47. Major General George Fay, Investigation of Abu Ghraib Detention Facility and 205th Military Intelligence Brigade, AR 15-6, August 2004. Josh White and Thomas Ricks, “Iraqi Teens Abused at Abu Ghraib,” Washington Post, August 24, 2004.

48. Quoted in White and Ricks, “Iraqi Teens Abused at Abu Ghraib.”

49. Disturbingly, at the time of writing, because of jurisdictional problems and a lack of political will to investigate the firms, not one of these private contractors identified by the U.S. military as committing cirmes at Abu Ghraib had been charged with a crime, let alone legally punished. For more on this aspect, see P. W. Singer, “The Contract the Military Needs to Break,” Washington Post, September 13, 2004. The quote on contractors is from Major General George Fay, Investigation of Abu Ghraib Detention Facility and 205th Military Intelligence Brigade, AR 15-6, August 2004. For more information on the role of CACI employees in the abuses at Abu Ghraib prison, see Osha Gray Davidson, “Contract to Torture,” Salon, August 9, 2004.

50. Abagye, “Perspectives on the Problems and Challenges of ECQWAS.” Similar programs were run by SFOR in Bosnia and KFOR in Kosovo, with positive results.

51. Rädda Barnen, Children of War Newsletter 1/01 (March 2001).

52. Interview with British military officers, Washington, DC and London, June 2002.

Chapter 10: Turning a Soldier Back into a Child

1. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers (Geneva, 2003).

2. Center for Defense Information (CDI), “Child Combatants: The Road to Recovery,” September 10, 1998, http://www.​cdi.​org/​atp/​child​soldiers/​weekly2.​html.

3. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (CSC), “Child Soldiers Report,” 2001, http://www.​child-​soldiers.​org/​report​2001/​countries/​liberia.​html.

4. Sarah Aird et al., “Mozambique: The Battle Continues for Former Child Soldiers,” Youth Advocate Program International Resource Paper, 2001.

5. “Angola: Former Child Soldiers Forgotten,” Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN), April 29, 2003; Human Rights Watch, Forgotten Fighters, Child Soldiers in Angola (New York, 2003).

6. “Sierra Leone: IRIN Focus on Children with an Uncertain Future,” IRIN, July 9, 2001.

7. Aird et al., “Mozambique.”

8. John McBeth, “Children of War,” Far Eastern Economic Review, May 2, 2002.

9. Ismene Zarifis, “Sierra Leone’s Search for Justice and Accountability of Child Soldiers,” Human Rights Brief 9, no. 3 (May 2002); McBeth, “Children of War.” In Sierra Leone’s second largest city, Bo, the rehabilitation period is much shorter because of the sheer number of former combatants. “The children stay here a maximum of one week,” says Alois Babab of Christian Brothers, a local group. “They receive counseling, and during that week, our social workers try to find the children’s parents. We speak with the parents and the community to see if they are willing to accept the child. If they aren’t, we try to find a foster parent until the situation has stabilised and the child can return home.”

10. U.S. House of Representatives, testimony by Anne Edgerton of Refugees International, House Committee on International Relations, May 5, 2001.

11. CDI, “Child Combatants.”

12. F. B. Abagye, “Perspective on the Problems and Challenges of ECOWAS Regional Security Paradigm: The Role of the Military in the Protection of War-affected Children in West Africa,” paper presented at the International Conference on War-affected Children, Winnipeg, Canada, September 11, 2000.

13. See “Policy Options Paper: Improving United States Support to Demobilization, Demilitarization, and Reintegration in Sub-Saharan Africa,” OSD, International Security Affairs, Office of African Affairs, May 2002.

14. UNICEF, “Lessons Learned—DRC,” 2002, http://www.​ginie.​org/​ginie-​crises-​links/​child​soldiers/​congo2.​html.

15. R. Muggah, “Globalisation and Insecurity: The Direct and Indirect Effects of Small Arms Availability,” IDS Bulletin 32, no. 2 (April 2001); Small Arms Survey 2001: Profiling the Problem (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001); R. Muggah and P. Batchelor, Development Held Hostage: Assessing the Effects of Small Arms on Human Development, UN Development Program Report, August 2001.

16. Quoted in “Liberians Riot over Weapons Cash,” BBC, December 12, 2003.

17. “Child Soldiers in the Congo, Business as Usual,” Refugees International report, April 1, 2003.

18. Ibid.

19. USAID, Guide to Program Options in Conflict-Prone Settings, Office of Transition Assistance, September 2001.

20. Victoria Graham, “Rwanda’s Former Child Soldiers Find Help,” UNICEF Feature, 1995, http://www.​unicef.​org/​features/​feat145.​htm.

21. “Men, Women, and Children Disarm in MODEL Stronghold,” IRIN, April 20, 2004.

22. J. D. Kiznie et al., “The Psychiatric Effects of Massive Trauma on Cambodian Children,” Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry 25 (1986): 370.

23. David McGuire, “Technology to the Rescue,” Washington Post, April 21, 2003; for more on Child Connect, see also http://​www.​aidworks.​com/​cconnect.​asp.

24. Jo Boyden and Sara Gibbs, Children of War: Responses to Psycho-Social Distress in Cambodia (Geneva: UNSRID, 1997).

25. Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Against All Odds: Surviving the War on Adolescents, July 2001.

26. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood: The Use of Children in Armed Conflict in Central Africa (Geneva, 2003), p. 51.

27. Dan Jacobs, “Protecting Children from the Scourge of War,” Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development, no. 10 (October 1991): 11.

28. Ilse Derluyn et al., “Post Traumatic Stress in Former Child Soldiers,” Lancet, March 13, 2004.

29. National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, created within the Department of Veterans Affairs in 1989, http://www.​ncptsd.​org.

30. Tom Masland, “Leaders Gather at the U.N. This Week to Discuss the World’s Kids, Including Child Soldiers,” Newsweek, May 6, 2002.

31. Pat Mendoza, a Global Outreach missionary who works with children in Gulu, quoted in Greg Taylor, “Innocence Stolen,” Christianity Today, July 10, 2000.

32. International Children’s Institute, Literature Review of: Psychosocial Programming for Children in Refugee Camps, January 2000, http://www.​icichildren.​org; Ivan Watson, “Sierra Leone: Redeeming Child Soldiers,” San Francisco Chronicle, July 23, 2001.

33. Stavros Stavou and Robert Stewart, “The Reintegration of Child Soldiers and Abducted Children: A Case Study of Palaro and Pabbo Gulu District,” in Act Against Child Soldiers in Africa: A Reader (South Africa: ISS, 2002).

34. Ibid.

35. S. Breznitz, The Denial of Stress (New York: International Universities Press, 1983).

36. Mike Wessells, “Child Soldiers,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 53, no. 6 (November/December 1997).

37. “Sierra Leone,” IRIN.

38. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands, January 21, 2000, http://www.​rnw.​nl/​humanrights/​html/​general.​html.

39. Jacobs, “Protecting Children from the Scourge of War,” p. 8.

40. Danna Harman, “Aid Agencies Help to Rid Child Soldiers of War’s Scars,” Christian Science Monitor, October 30, 2001. See also International Medical Corps, at http://www.​imc-​la.​com.

41. International Children’s Institute, Literature Review.

42. K. Miller et al., Playing to Grow: Creative Education Workshops for Children (Ann Arbor, MI: OCSL, 1993); International Children’s Institute, Literature Review.

43. National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. There is some controversy regarding exposing children to the events that scare them. However, the majority of studies have found that it is safe and effective to use CBT for children with PTSD.

44. Document provided to author by I., a former child soldier, June 2002.

45. CDI, “Child Combatants.”

46. UNICEF, Adult Wars, Child Soldiers, p. 65.

47. Interviews, 2001–2003; OIM Mission Colombia, “Support Program for Ex–Combatant Children,” 2003; Neil Boothby, “Working in the War Zone: A Look at Psychological Theory and Practice from the Field,” Mind and Human Interaction 2, no. 2 (1990): 33.

48. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood, p. 53.

49. Taylor, “Innocence Stolen.”

50. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood, p. 54.

51. Stavou and Stewart, “Reintegration of Child Soldiers.”

52. UNICEF, “Lessons Learned, Sierra Leone,” 2001, http://www.​ginie.​org/​ginie-​crises-links/​child​soldiers/​child-​sierra.​html.

53. Stavrou and Stewart, “Reintegration of Child Soldiers.”

54. “Child Soldiers,” Radio Netherlands.

55. Rädda Barnen, Children of War Newsletter 1/01 (March 2001).

56. For other examples see Alcinda Honwana, “Children of War: Understanding War and War Cleansing in Mozambique and Angola,” in Simon Chesterman, ed., Civilians in War (Boulder, CO: Rienner, 2001) pp. 123–42.

57. International Children’s Institute, Literature Review of Psychosocial Programming for Children in Refugee Camps (Toronto: ICI, 2001)

58. Ilene Cohen and Guy Goodwin-Gill, Child Soldiers (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1994).

59. Global Information Networks in Education, “About Ginie-Programs,” August 1999, http://www.​ginie.​org/​about/​ginie1-​report/​final-​report3.​html.

60. Global Information Networks in Education, “Educating a War-Torn Society: Peace Education,” September 2000, http://www.​ginie.​org/​ginie-​crises-​links/​pr/​somalia.​html.

61. International Labor Office, Wounded Childhood, p. 56.

62. UNICEF, Children Affected by Armed Conflict: UNICEF Actions (New York, 2002), p. 41.

63. UNICEF, “Assistance to Child Soldiers in Sierra Leone,” 2002, at http://www.​ginie.​org/​ginie-​crises-​links/​child​soldiers/​sierraleone2.​html.

64. Theresa Stichick and Claude Bruderlein, “Children Facing Insecurity: New Strategies for Survival in a Global Era,” Harvard Program in Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research Policy Paper, March 2001.

65. Tom Masland, “Voices of the Children: We Beat and Killed People,” Newsweek, May 13, 2002.

66. “Empowering Liberia’s Youth,” Salesian Bulletin, 2001, http://www.​salesians.​org.​uk/​html/​empowering_​liberia_​s_youth.​html: Catherine Langevin-Falcon, “Vocational Education Gives War-Affected Children a New Start,” UNICEF child soldier report, 2000.

67. “Child Soldiers to Swap Guns for PCs,” BBC, March 25, 2002.

68. The best example of this is the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh; for more information, please go to http://www.​grameen-​info.​org.

69. Michael Wessells and Davidson Jonha, “Creating Life Options in Sierra Leone Through Skills Training and Employment Generation,” Child Soldiers Newsletter 9 (September/October 2003).

70. Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, Against All Odds.

71. UNICEF, “Rwanda: Lessons Learned and Actions Taken Thus Far,” UNICEF document (Kigali, Rwanda, 2001).

Chapter 11: Looking Ahead

1. Tom Masland, “Voices of the Children: We Beat and Killed People,” Newsweek, May 13, 2002.