1. There has been no end to the writing of books about the Pilgrims and the early years of Plymouth Colony. Several of the most significant recent entries include Nick Bunker, Making Haste from Babylon: The Mayflower Pilgrims and Their World (New York: Knopf, 2010); Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, Strangers and Pilgrims, Travellers and Sojourners: Leiden and the Foundations of Plymouth Plantation (Plymouth, Mass.: General Society of Mayflower Descendants, 2009); Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (New York: Penguin, 2006). The two most recent accounts of the colony’s history as a whole are George D. Langdon Jr., Pilgrim Colony: A History of New Plymouth, 1620–1691 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966); Eugene Aubrey Stratton, Plymouth Colony: Its History and People, 1620–1691 (Salt Lake City: Ancestry, 1986). Other valuable studies include John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970); Darren B. Rutman, Husbandmen of Plymouth: Farms and Villages in the Old Colony, 1620–1692 (Boston: Beacon, 1967).
2. OPP, 1:xvii.
3. Miller, The New England Mind: The Seventeenth Century (New York: Macmillan, 1939); Miller, Orthodoxy in Massachusetts, 1630–1650 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1933); Bozeman, To Live Ancient Lives: The Primitivist Dimension in Puritanism (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 115; Morison, By Land and by Sea: Essays and Addresses by Samuel Eliot Morison (New York: Knopf, 1953), 234. This scholarly neglect is not universal. In recent years, several historians have integrated Plymouth Colony into larger narratives of the early English settlement of New England. See, for example, Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015); Michael P. Winship, Godly Republicanism: Puritans, Pilgrims, and a City on a Hill (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012); David D. Hall, A Reforming People: Puritanism and the Transformation of Public Life in New England (New York: Knopf, 2011).
4. See Charles E. Hambrick-Stowe, The Practice of Piety: Puritan Devotional Disciplines in Seventeenth-Century New England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), esp. chapter 3.
5. Walsham, Charitable Hatred: Tolerance and Intolerance in England, 1500–1700 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), 3.
6. Hall, A Reforming People; Winship, Godly Republicanism.
1. Elizabeth French, “Genealogical Research in England,” NEHGR 68 (Apr. 1914): 182. Cushman was baptized on 9 Feb. 1577/78. On Cushman’s Canterbury years, I have relied on Robert C. Cushman and Michael R. Paulick, “Robert Cushman, Mayflower Pilgrim in Canterbury, 1596–1607,” Mayflower Quarterly 79 (Sept. 2013): 226–35; Paulick, “Pilgrim Robert Cushman’s Book, The Cry of a Stone,” MD 60 (Spring 2011): 31–35.
2. R[obert] Campbell, The London Tradesman … (London: T. Gardner, 1747), 271. On the grocer trade in early modern England, see Jon Stobart, Sugar and Spice: Grocers and Groceries in Provincial England, 1650–1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), chapter 1; J. Aubrey Rees, The Grocery Trade: Its History and Romance, vol. 1 (London: Duckworth, 1910), esp. chapters 10–17. On the 1603 plague in Canterbury, see Charles Creighton, A History of Epidemics in Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1891), 498.
3. [Wiburn], A Checke or reproofe of M. Howlets untimely shreeching (London: Thomas Dawson, 1581), 15v. On the term puritan, see Patrick Collinson, “A Comment: Concerning the Name Puritan,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 31 (Oct. 1980): 483–88.
4. John Bruce, ed., The Diary of John Manningham … 1602–1603 (Westminster, U.K.: J. B. Nichols and Sons, 1868), 156. See Peter Lake with Michael Questier, The Antichrist’s Lewd Hat: Protestants, Papists and Players in Post-Reformation England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), chapters 13 and 14.
5. Luther, The Freedom of a Christian, in Harold J. Grimm, ed., Career of the Reformer: I, vol. 31 of Luther’s Works, ed. Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut T. Lehman (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1957), 344, 356. Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Ford Lewis Battles, ed. John T. McNeill (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), book 3, 19, 1, 1:833.
6. Luther, Freedom of a Christian, 344; Ozment, “Martin Luther on Religious Liberty,” in Noel B. Reynolds and W. Cole Durham Jr., eds., Religious Liberty in Western Thought (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1996), 77. See the discussion in Benjamin J. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 22–24.
7. The most helpful introductions to late sixteenth-century English separatism remain Stephen Brachlow, The Communion of Saints: Radical Puritan and Separatist Ecclesiology (London: Oxford University Press, 1988); B. R. White, The English Separatist Tradition: From the Marian Martyrs to the Pilgrim Fathers (London: Oxford University Press, 1971).
8. Browne, Reformation without Tarying for Anie [1582], in Albert Peel and Leland H. Carlson, eds., The Writings of Robert Harrison and Robert Browne (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1953), 164. On the “Bury Stirs,” see John Craig, Reformation, Politics and Polemics: The Growth of Protestantism in East Anglian Market Towns, 1500–1610 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001), chapter 4.
9. [Barrow and Greenwood], A True Description [1589], in CPC, 33–40. See Brachlow, Communion of Saints, esp. chapters 1 and 3.
10. Barrow, A Brief Discoverie of the False Church [1590], in Leland H. Carlson, ed., The Writings of Henry Barrow, 1587–1590 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1962), 347 (“neglected”), 511 (“full power”). See Francis Bremer, Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 51–52; Michael P. Winship, Godly Republicanism: Puritans, Pilgrims, and a City on a Hill (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 51–60.
11. T. E. Hartley, ed., Proceedings in the Parliaments of Elizabeth I (London: Leicester University Press, 1995), 3:162–68.
12. William Barlow, The Summe and Substance of the Conference … (London: V.S. for Mathew Law, 1605), 36 (“no bishop”), 83 (“harry”); James to Lord Henry Howard, undated letter, ca. 17 Jan. 1604/05, in G.P.V. Akrigg, ed., Letters of King James VI & I (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 221. See Alan Cromartie, “King James and the Hampton Court Conference,” in Ralph Houlbrooke, ed., James VI and I: Ideas, Authority, and Government (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006), 61–80.
13. “Apology and Satisfaction,” in J. P. Kenyon, ed., The Stuart Constitution, 1603–1688: Documents and Commentary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 32. See Patrick Collinson, Richard Bancroft and Elizabethan Anti-Puritanism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), chapter 11; Stuart Barton Babbage, Puritanism and Richard Bancroft (London: SPCK, 1962), esp. chapters 3–7.
14. Letter from Richard Bancroft et al., 18 Nov. 1603, in minutes of the Canterbury diocesan Court of High Commission, DCb/PRC/44/3, p. 7, CCA. Since I examined them, some of the materials cited in this chapter have moved from the Canterbury Cathedral Archives to the Kent History and Library Centre in Maidstone.
15. Minutes of the Canterbury diocesan Court of High Commission, Nov.–Dec. 1603, pp. 125–33, CCA, published in Michael R. Paulick and Simon Neal, “Canterbury Cathedral Archives: Robert Cushman’s Libels of 1603,” MD 60 (Spring 2011): 36–49.
16. Archdeacon’s Court Comperta et Detecta, 1603–1607, cases of Thomas Hunt and Robert Cushman, DCb-J/X/.4.4b, ff. 30–31, CCA. See French, “Genealogical Research in England,” 183.
17. Precedent Book, DCb-J/Z/3.26, ff. 37v–38v, CCA. I am grateful to Michael R. Paulick for sharing a transcript of these pages.
18. Thirty-Nine Articles (1671), in G. R. Evans and J. Robert Wright, eds., The Anglican Tradition: A Handbook of Sources (London: SPCK, 1991), 160.
19. David R. Como, Blown by the Spirit: Puritanism and the Emergence of an Antinomian Underground in Pre-Civil-War England (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004), chapter 6, esp. 200–211. Gore is an early example of those whom Como categorizes as “imputative” antinomians.
20. Deposition Registers, 1606–1609, DCb-PRC/39/30, ff. 166r–173v, CCA. I am grateful to Michael R. Paulick for sharing a transcript of these pages.
21. “in the most contemptuous manner” in Precedent Book, DCb-J/Z/3.26, f. 38r.
22. Robert Coachman [Cushman], The Cry of a Stone … (London: R. Oulton and G. Dexter, 1642), 36; Wilson, A Dialogue About Justification by Faith … (London: William Hall, 1610), preface (“wantonnesse”) and 99–100.
23. Cushman, The Cry of a Stone, 17.
24. Michael R. Paulick, “The 1609–1610 Excommunications of Mayflower Pilgrims Mrs. Chilton and Moses Fletcher,” NEHGR 153 (Oct. 1999): 407–12.
25. Henry Barrow, A Brief Discoverie of the False Church [1590], in Leland H. Carlson, ed., The Writings of Henry Barrow, 1587–1590 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1962), 458–60. See David Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death: Ritual, Religion, and the Life-Cycle in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) 403–9.
26. Paulick, “The 1609–1610 Excommunications.”
27. On the Helwys family, see Bunker, chapter 8; Walter H. Burgess, John Smith the Se-Baptist, Thomas Helwys, and the First Baptist Church in England (London: James Clarke, 1911), chapter 7.
28. Complaint of Robert Beresford, 20 Nov. 1593, C3/232/3, NAK; complaint of Robert Beresford, C2/Eliz/B16/48, NAK. I am grateful to Sue Allan for providing me with a transcription of these documents.
29. Anne Greene, libel against Thomas Elwayes [Helwys], undated, ca. 1591–99, LB 245/2/23, RAN. I am grateful to Sue Allan for providing me with a transcription of this document. On the will, see Walter H. Burgess, “The Helwys Family, with Pedigree,” Transactions of the Baptist Historical Society 3 (1912–13): 18–30.
30. Presentment, 8 May 1596, PB 292/5/53, RAN.
31. W. P. W. Phillimore and George Fellows, eds., Nottinghamshire Parish Registers (London: Phillimore, 1904), 6:94; Cressy, Birth, Marriage, and Death, 298–305. The poem was inscribed in the parish register of Everton, forty miles to the north of Bilborough.
32. Presentment, 20 Apr. 1598, PB 292/6/12, RAN; presentment, 9 Feb. 1613, PB 295/3/69, RAN.
33. On Brewster’s family and childhood, see Sue Allan, William Brewster: The Making of a Pilgrim (Burgess Hill, U.K.: Domtom, 2016).
34. Simon Adams, “William Davison,” DNB.
35. Presentment, 27 Apr. 1598, PB 292/7/46, RAN. See discussion in Ronald A. Marchant, The Puritans and the Church Courts in the Diocese of York, 1560–1642 (London: Longmans, 1960), 141–42.
36. See Jason K. Lee, The Theology of John Smyth: Puritan, Separatist, Baptist, Mennonite (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 2003), chapter 2; Stephen Wright, “John Smyth,” DNB; Burgess, John Smith the Se-Baptist, chapters 2 and 3.
37. Presentment, 26 July 1603, PB 294/1/119, RAN; Smith [Smyth], “To the Christian Reader,” in A Paterne of True Prayer … (London: Felix Kyngston, 1605). See White, English Separatist Tradition, 119–20.
38. On Robinson, see Timothy George, John Robinson and the English Separatist Tradition (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1982); Walter H. Burgess, The Pastor of the Pilgrims: A Biography of John Robinson (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920). As demonstrated by Matthew Reynolds, many historians have misidentified Robinson as the “Dr. Robinson” of Cambridge’s Emmanuel College who in 1603 preached a fiery sermon at St. Andrew’s Church in Norwich. The John Robinson of Sturton, Scrooby, and Leiden was of Corpus Christi College and was not “Dr.” See Reynolds, Godly Reformers and Their Opponents in Early Modern England: Religion in Norwich, c. 1560–1643 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2005), 97–99.
39. Marchant, Puritans and the Church Courts, 152.
40. Marchant, Puritans and the Church Courts, 299, 296. On Bernard, see Amy Gant Tan, “Richard Bernard and His Publics: A Puritan Minister as Author” (Ph.D. diss., Vanderbilt University, 2015), esp. chapters 1 and 2.
41. On Robinson’s possible participation, see George, John Robinson, 82–83.
42. Robinson, A Justification of Separation from the Church of England … ([Amsterdam: G. Thorp], 1610), 94. Robinson’s tract was a sharp critique of Bernard.
43. “nine months” in Smyth, Paralleles, Censures, Observations … ([Middelburg: R. Schilders], 1609), 128–29; illness in Bernard, Christian Advertisements and Counsels of Peace … (London: Felix Kyngston, 1608), 37; with Helwys in Smyth, Propositions and Conclusions (n.p., ca. 1613), C2r.
44. OPP, 1:20–22.
45. Smyth, Paralleles, 5.
46. Diary of Tobie Matthew, 10 Sept. 1607, transcript by Thomas Wilson, York Minster Library, accessed on microfilm; OPP, 1:25.
47. Bradford’s two accounts of this episode are in OPP, 1:30–31 (“courteously”) and 2:347; presentment for an illicit conventicle, undated, Spalding Sewers/460/1/15, Lincolnshire Archives, Lincoln, U.K. I am grateful to Sue Allan for providing a transcript of this document. See Bunker, 187.
48. OPP, 1:24–25. See Marchant, Puritans and the Church Courts, chapter 8.
49. Barrow, Brief Discoverie, 668. See Roland G. Usher, The Rise and Fall of the High Commission (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1913); Winship, Godly Republicanism, 31.
50. High Commission Act Book, quoted in Henry Martyn Dexter and Morton Dexter, The England and Holland of the Pilgrims (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1905), 392–93.
51. Marchant, Puritans and the Church Courts, 162–63; presentment of 11 Apr. 1608, PB 294/2/100, RAN.
52. OPP, 1:24.
53. Robinson, Of Religious Communion Private, & Publique ([Amsterdam], ca. 1614), 41. The most detailed account of the separatists’ flight is in Bunker, chapter 9. The most extensive source is OPP, 1:31–34.
54. Testimonies of Edward Armfield (Helwys’s servant), Henry Spencer (the ship’s captain), and Robert Barnby (a crewmember) are in SP 14/32/46 and 47, 13 May 1608, accessed via SPO; “sacremente” is in OPP, 1:33.
55. See the analysis in Douglas Anderson, William Bradford’s Books: Of Plimmoth Plantation and the Printed Word (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 26–28.
56. Abstract of the Registers of the Privy Council, 1550–1610, Add. Ms. 11402, f. 147r, BL. See Bunker, 197. I am grateful to Sue Allan for sharing a transcription of this document.
1. See Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), chapters 7–17.
2. Christine Kooi, Liberty and Religion: Church and State in Leiden’s Reformation, 1572–1620 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 6–9.
3. Benjamin J. Kaplan, Calvinists and Libertines: Confession and Community in Utrecht, 1578–1620 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), esp. chapter 2; Kooi, Liberty and Religion, 10–12.
4. See Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, “Dutch Contributions to Religious Toleration,” Church History 79 (Sept. 2010): 585–613; Evan Haefeli, New Netherland and the Dutch Origins of American Religious Liberty (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), esp. chapters 1–3; Benjamin J. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 172–83.
5. Howell, Epistolae Ho-Elianae: Familiar Letters Domestic and Forren … (London: Humphrey Moseley, 1645), 14 (C2v). In the 1640s, Howell edited or simply invented these letters for publication, but his descriptions reflect his travels to Amsterdam and Leiden in the late 1610s.
6. Smyth, The Differences of the Churches of the separation … (n.p., 1608), 3 (“at liberty”), 6 (“merely” and “shut”). See also Helwys letter of 26 Sept. 1608, EED, 2:167–68. On relations among Smyth, Helwys, Robinson, and the Ancient Church, see Stephen Wright, The Early English Baptists, 1603–1649 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2006), 22–32.
7. PChR, 136. See Christopher Marsh, Music and Society in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), chapter 8.
8. Ainsworth, Counterpoyson … (n.p., 1608), 177; Smyth, Paralleles, Censures, Observations … ([Middelburg: R. Schilders], 1609), 54–55.
9. See Keith L. Sprunger, Dutch Puritanism: A History of English and Scottish Churches of the Netherlands in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Leiden: Brill, 1982), 76–90; Wright, Early English Baptists, 33–44.
10. Helwys, A Short Declaration of the mistery of iniquity (n.p., 1612), 57 (“consciences”), 69 (“betwixt”); The Kinges Maiesties Speach To the Lords and Commons … (London: Robert Barker, [c. 1610]), A4v. The copy of Helwys’s Declaration with his inscription is at the Bodleian Library.
11. Christopher Lawne et al., The Prophane Schism of the Brownists … (n.p., 1612), 15–16. See Scott Culpepper, Francis Johnson and the English Separatist Influence: The Bishop of Brownism’s Life, Writings, and Controversies (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 2011), chapters 3 and 4.
12. D. Plooij and J. Rendel Harris, eds. and trans., Leyden Documents Relating to the Pilgrim Fathers (Leiden: Brill, 1920), I–II; OPP, 1:39.
13. See Bangs, S&P, chapter 3; population statistics from Kooi, Liberty and Religion, 22.
14. Bangs, S&P, chapter 11.
15. Plooij and Harris, Leyden Documents, LXX. See Magnalia, book 2, 4.
16. Bangs, S&P, 318–22; Plooij and Harris, Leyden Documents, XXX.
17. Bangs, S&P, 261–71.
18. Robinson, The Peoples Plea for the Exercise of Prophesie (n.p., 1618), A3r. See Francis J. Bremer, Lay Empowerment and the Development of Puritanism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 59–62; Timothy George, John Robinson and the English Separatist Tradition (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1982), 148–50.
19. Ames-Robinson correspondence in Lawne, Prophane Schisme, 47–54.
20. Cushman letter, undated, ca. 1620, in OPP, 1:114.
21. Robinson, A Just and Necessarie Apologie … (n.p., 1625), 62 (“will he, nill he”), 16 (“common In”), 39 (“debarred”), 38 (“after a sort”). Robinson originally published this book in Latin in 1619.
22. Robinson, A Justification of Separation from the Church of England (n.p., 1610), 212 (“heavenly”) and 122 (“heaven”); Winslow, Hypocrisie Unmasked … (London: Richard Cotes, 1646), 88.
23. OPP, 1:53.
24. Winslow, Hypocrisie, 89. See Bangs, S&P, 572.
25. Cushman letter of 8 May 1619, in OPP, 1:87.
26. On the religious and political developments within the Dutch Republic between 1609 and 1619, I am relying on Israel, The Dutch Republic, 393–94 and chapters 18–20; Maarten Prak, The Dutch Republic in the Seventeenth Century: The Golden Age, trans. Diane Webb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), chapter 1; Bangs, S&P, chapters 12–13.
27. The fullest study of Arminius’s life and thought remains Carl Bangs, Arminius: A Study in the Dutch Reformation (Nashville: Abingdon, 1971). On the theological debate over predestination in the Dutch Republic, see also Jan Rohls, “Calvinism, Arminianism and Socinianism in the Netherlands until the Synod of Dort,” in Martin Mulsow and Rohls, eds., Socinianism and Arminianism: Antitrinitarians, Calvinists and Cultural Exchange in Seventeenth Century Europe (Leiden: Brill, 2005), chapter 1.
28. Eric Platt, Britain and the Bestandstwisten: The Causes, Course and Consequences of British Involvement in the Dutch Religious and Political Disputes of the Early Seventeenth Century (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2015).
29. OPP, 1:49–50; Bangs, S&P, 501–4. See Rendel Harris and Stephen K. Jones, The Pilgrim Press: A Bibliographical and Historical Memorial of the Books Printed at Leyden by the Pilgrim Fathers, ed. Ronald Breugelmans (Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1987), 74–75.
30. Kooi, Liberty and Religion, chapter 5.
31. On the attack against Chilton, see S&P, 278–79, 552. I am grateful to Michael R. Paulick for sharing a translation of James Chilton’s deposition.
32. OPP, 1:60.
33. Theodore Rabb, Jacobean Gentleman: Sir Edwin Sandys, 1561–1629 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 16, chapters 12–13.
34. George Bancroft, ed., “Articles from the Church of Leyden,” Collections of the New-York Historical Society, 2nd ser., 3 (1857): 301–2.
35. OPP, 1:78–83. See Michael P. Winship, Godly Republicanism: Puritans, Pilgrims, and a City on a Hill (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 113–15.
36. Winslow, Hypocrisie, 90; “not molest” in OPP, 1:68.
37. Paget, An Arrow against the Separation of the Brownists … (Amsterdam: George Veseler, 1618, 7; Foxe, The First Volume of the Ecclesiasticall history contayning the Actes and Monumentes … (London: John Daye, 1570), 837. On what Edward Arber christened the “Pilgrim Press,” I am relying on Bangs, S&P, 542–45, 555–68; Keith L. Sprunger, Trumpets from the Tower: English Puritan Printing in the Netherlands, 1600–1640 (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 133–44; Harris and Jones, The Pilgrim Press. See also Douglas Anderson, William Bradford’s Books: Of Plimmoth Plantation and the Printed Word (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 5.
38. Carleton to Naunton, 18 Sept. 1619, in Letters from and to Sir Dudley Carleton, Knt. during His Embassy in Holland (London: n.p., 1757), 390.
39. E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1856), 1:22–24.
40. Bunker, 249–59.
41. OPP, 1:121; Winslow, Hypocrisie, 91.
42. Winslow, Hypocrisie, 97–98. See George, John Robinson, 150.
43. OPP, 1:124.
1. “fitter” in Cushman letter of ca. mid-June 1620, OPP, 1:111–14; Robinson to Carver, 14 June 1620 (possibly misdated), OPP, 1:106–9.
2. “unfit” in Robinson to Carver, 14 June 1620; Fuller et al. to Carver and Cushman, 10 June 1620, OPP, 1:109–11.
3. Cushman letter of ca. mid-June 1620. Presumably the letter came into Bradford’s possession after Carver’s death.
4. Cushman to Carver, 10 June 1620, OPP, 1:118–19.
5. OPP, 1:127.
6. Cushman to Edward Southworth, 17 Aug. 1620, OPP, 1:141–46.
7. See Nathaniel Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (New York: Penguin, 2006), 28.
8. OPP, 1:139–40.
9. OPP, 2:351.
10. See George Willison, Saints and Strangers (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1945), 130–33.
11. Robinson to Bradford, 19 Dec. 1623, OPP, 1:368; Simmons, 313; Bangs, PCPL, 214. See Bangs, S&P, chapter 6, esp. 177–88.
12. Strachey’s report is in Samuel Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes (London: William Stansby, 1625), 4:1735 (“hell of darkness”) and 4:1744 (“moan”). See Hobson Woodward, A Brave Vessel: The True Tale of the Castaways Who Rescued Jamestown and Inspired Shakespeare’s The Tempest (New York: Viking, 2009), esp. chapters 3–9.
13. On Hopkins, see Caleb H. Johnson, Here Shall I Die Ashore, Stephen Hopkins: Bermuda Castaway, Jamestown Survivor, and Mayflower Pilgrim (Xlibris, 2007).
14. Stratton, 179.
15. David Lindsay, Mayflower Bastard: A Stranger among the Pilgrims (New York: Thomas Dunne, 2002), chapters 1–2 (“brood” on 15); Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and Her Passengers (Xlibris, 2006), 191 (“blots and blemishes”).
16. James Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson (London: Henry Baldwin, 1791), 1:189.
17. Donald R. Dickson, John Donne’s Poetry (New York: Norton, 2007), 50.
18. OPP, 1:150. Contrary to the speculation of some historians, the “great screw” was not part of a printing press. See Bangs, S&P, 607–9.
19. OPP, 1:149.
20. OPP, 1:151.
21. See Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), esp. chapters 1 and 2.
22. OPP, 1:155–58. See the analysis in Ursula Brumm, “Did the Pilgrims Fall upon Their Knees When They Arrived in the New World?” Early American Literature 12 (Spring 1977): 25–35.
23. “some of the strangers” and “liberty” in OPP, 1:189; “faction” in MR, 2.
24. “association” and “agreement” in MR, 3; “combination” in OPP, 1:189. An early reference to a “compact” appears in Alden Bradford, “A Topographical Description of Duxborough in the County of Plymouth,” CMHS, 1st ser., 2 (1793): 6.
25. The earliest text of the compact is in MR, 3. The earliest list of the men who signed the compact is in NEM, 15–16.
26. See Bangs, S&P, 620.
27. The Bermuda articles are in Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes, 4:1795–96.
28. Susan Myra Kingsbury, ed., The Records of the Virginia Company of London (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1906), 303. See Bangs, S&P, 623–25.
29. Mark L. Sargent, “The Conservative Covenant: The Rise of the Mayflower Compact in American Myth,” New England Quarterly 61 (June 1988): 233–51.
30. Willison, Saints and Strangers, 144.
31. Philbrick, Mayflower, 40. See the discussion in Steven K. Green, Inventing a Christian America: The Myth of the Religious Founding (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 74–77.
32. Bradford and Isaac Allerton to James Sherley, 8 Sept. 1623, in R. G. Marsden, ed., “A Letter of William Bradford and Isaac Allerton, 1623,” American Historical Review 8 (Jan. 1903): 299.
33. MR, 3.
34. Smith, De Republica Anglorum … (London: Henry Midleton, 1583), 10–12. See John Donoghue, Fire under the Ashes: An Atlantic History of the English Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), chapter 1.
35. OPP, 1:192.
1. On the peoples and cultures of southern New England, see Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015); Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
2. On developments in North American agriculture during the Medieval Warm Period, see Daniel K. Richter, Before the Revolution: America’s Ancient Pasts (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2011), chapter 1.
3. Account by Gabriel Archer in David B. Quinn and Alison M. Quinn, eds., The English New England Voyages, 1602–1608 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1983), 118.
4. James Rosier, A True Relation [1605], in Quinn and Quinn, The English New England Voyages, 283–84. See Alden T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), chapter 4.
5. Gorges, A Briefe Narration [1658], in James Phinney Baxter, Sir Ferdinando Gorges and His Province of Maine … (Boston: Prince Society, 1890), 2:8. On Gorges, see Richard Arthur Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort: A Life of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Captain of Plymouth Fort, Governor of New England, and Lord of the Province of Maine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1953); Charles E. Clark, “Sir Ferdinando Gorges,” DNB.
6. Gorges, Briefe Narration, 2:20–21. On Epenow, see Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, 65–67; David J. Silverman, Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 1–5. The reliability of Gorges’s Briefe Narration may be questioned by the fact that Gorges or his grandson confused the circumstances of Epenow’s abduction with the 1614 actions of Thomas Hunt. Ferdinando Gorges wrote a much sparser account of Epenow in a 1622 report. Nevertheless, Indian captives were frequently exhibited in London, so there is no reason to doubt this aspect of Epenow’s experience.
7. Gorges, Briefe Narration, 2:24–25.
8. Smith, A Description of New England [1616], in WJS, 1:330, 329.
9. Gorges, A Briefe Relation of the Discovery and Plantation of New England [1622], in Baxter, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, 1:210. On Squanto, see Neal Salisbury, “Squanto: Last of the Patuxets,” in David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash, eds., Struggle and Survival in Colonial America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 228–46.
10. Smith, Description of New England, 1:352–53; Gorges, Briefe Relation, 1:209–10.
11. Dermer to Samuel Purchas, 27 Dec. 1619, in Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes (London: William Stansby, 1625), 4:1778–79. On leptospirosis, see John S. Marr and John T. Cathey, “New Hypothesis for Cause of Epidemic among Native Americans, New England, 1616–1619,” Emerging Infectious Diseases 16 (Feb. 2010): 281–86. On the connection between epidemics and declines in indigenous population, see Alfred W. Crosby, “Virgin Soil Epidemics as a Factor in the Aboriginal Depopulation in America,” WMQ 33 (Apr. 1976): 289–99.
12. Gorges, Briefe Narration, 2:29; Dermer letter of 30 June 1620, in OPP, 1:206–10. Neal Salisbury asserts that the Pokanokets took Squanto prisoner after Epenow’s assault on Dermer’s party. See Salisbury, “Squanto,” 237. Other than an uncertain reference in Thomas Morton’s New English Canaan, however, there is a lack of evidence on this point. See NEC, 103–5. Because Bradford included Dermer’s last letter in his history, Salisbury claims that the Pilgrims took a copy of it with them on the Mayflower and used it to select “the depopulated site of Squanto’s Patuxet.” Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 109. However, the Pilgrims’ several descriptions of their initial explorations betray no knowledge of Dermer’s experiences. Bradford probably obtained a copy of the letter after the Pilgrims’ first year in New England.
13. The quotations in this and the following paragraphs are from an account published in 1622. Although the work is called Mourt’s Relation for a foreword penned by a “G. Mourt” (believed to be George Morton), most historians suggest that William Bradford and Edward Winslow wrote the bulk of its contents. See MR, C2r–21.
14. See Christopher Heaney, “A Peru of Their Own: English Grave-Opening and Indian Sovereignty in Early America,” WMQ 73 (Oct. 2016): 609–46; Erik R. Seeman, Death in the New World: Cross-Cultural Encounters, 1492–1800 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 86–87, 145–48.
15. See Charles C. Mann, 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus (New York: Random House, 2005), 40–41.
16. NEM, 21.
17. 21 Dec. according to the New Style.
18. Date of death in Thomas Prince, “New England Chronology,” in A Chronological History of New-England In the Form of Annals … (Boston: Kneeland & Green, 1736), 76; OPP, 2:404; Magnalia, book 2, 4; Jane G. Austin, “William Bradford’s Love Life,” Harper’s New Monthly, June 1869, 135–40. For instance, Samuel Eliot Morison speculated that Dorothy Bradford “took her own life,” having “grown faint and sick when [she] first beheld that wild-looking northern land, so different from the green and cultivated England they had left.” Nathaniel Philbrick similarly argues that “just because Austin misrepresented the facts does not eliminate the possibility that Dorothy Bradford killed herself.” It is a possibility entirely undocumented in the historical record, however, and the idea that a woman would lose courage when faced with either a forbidding wilderness or persistent heartache fits rather well with nineteenth- and twentieth-century American notions about female emotional instability. Morison, ed., Of Plymouth Plantation (New York: Knopf, 1952), xxiv; Philbrick, Mayflower: A Story of Courage, Community, and War (New York: Penguin, 2006), 76–77, 379–80. See the discussion in Stratton, 324–26; George Bowman, “Governor William Bradford’s First Wife Dorothy (May) Bradford Did Not Commit Suicide,” MD 29 (July 1931): 97–102. I am grateful to Donna Curtin for her suggestions on this subject.
19. Deaths and births in Prince, “New England Chronology,” 76.
20. OPP, 1:193–94. See Sam White, A Cold Welcome: The Little Ice Age and Europe’s Encounter with North America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2017), 193.
21. OPP, 1:196, 194.
22. OPP, 1:197–98; M. Pierce Rucker, “Giles Heale, the Mayflower Surgeon,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 20 (July 1946): 216–31.
23. Prince, “New England Chronology,” 96–103; Bradford to Thomas Weston, Nov. 1621, in OPP, 1:238. Prince’s source for this information is what he identifies as William Bradford’s “Register,” which is not extant.
24. See Kathleen Donegan, Seasons of Misery: Catastrophe and Colonial Settlement in Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), esp. chapters 2 and 3.
25. OPP, 2:352.
26. Mark Nicholls, ed., “George Percy’s ‘Trewe Relacyon’: A Primary Source for the Jamestown Settlement,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 113 (2005): 249–51.
27. Pratt, “Declaration of the Affairs of the English People that first inhabited New England,” CMHS, 4th ser., 4 (1858): 478. See the reflections in John McWilliams, New England’s Crises and Cultural Memory: Literature, Politics, History, Religion, 1620–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), chapter 1.
28. MR, 32.
29. MR, 33.
30. MR, 37; Emmanuel Altham to Edward Altham, Sept. 1623, in Sydney V. James Jr., ed., Three Visitors to Early Plymouth … (Plymouth, Mass.: Plimoth Plantation, 1963), 30. When the English used the term “naked” or even “stark naked,” they meant very little clothing, in the latter case perhaps only a fringe about the waist. See Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Indians and English: Facing off in Early America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2000), chapter 2.
31. MR, 37; OPP, 1:201–2. In his history, composed about a quarter-century later, Bradford recorded that the Indians promised “that when their men came to them, they should leave their bows and arrows behind them.” Unlike the account in Mourt’s Relation, Bradford omitted the Pilgrims’ corresponding obligation to do the same. See the analysis in Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), 18–19; Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 114–16.
32. Simon Neal and Caleb H. Johnson, “The Brewster Book: A Pilgrim Letter Written in December 1621,” MD 60 (Autumn 2011): 117–21. Johnson suggests Edward Winslow as the letter’s author.
33. OPP, 1:220 (“skulls and bones”); MR, 46.
34. MR, 40, 45. See the analysis in Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King, 19–20.
35. MR, 49–52.
36. MR, 61; OPP, 1:230.
37. See Charles E. Hambrick-Stowe, The Practice of Piety: Puritan Devotional Disciplines in Seventeenth-Century New England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 100–103.
38. “goodness” in MR, 61; “diplomatic event” in Lipman, Saltwater Frontier, 101. The adjective “secular” appears in both Philbrick, Mayflower, 117; and James Deetz and Patricia Scott Deetz, The Times of Their Lives: Life, Love, and Death in Plymouth Colony (New York: Anchor, 2001), 9.
39. James W. Baker, Thanksgiving: The Biography of an American Holiday (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 2009); Anne Blue Wills, “Pilgrims and Progress: How Magazines Made Thanksgiving,” Church History 72 (Mar. 2003): 138–58.
40. MR, 61.
1. OPP, 1:231–32.
2. Weston to John Carver, 6 July 1621, OPP, 1:233–35; estimate of a thousand skins a year from Caleb H. Johnson et al., “The Brewster Book Returns,” MD 60 (Spring 2011): 24.
3. Weston to John Carver, 6 July 1621.
4. OPP, 1:238 (“recompense”), 236 (“speedy”).
5. “tied boughs” in MR, 59; “there seated” in OPP, 1:229; “jump” in GN, 114.
6. Rathband, A Briefe Narration of Some Church Courses Held in Opinion and Practise in the Churches lately erected in New England (London: G.M. for Edward Brewster, 1644), 46.
7. Cushman, A Sermon Preached at Plimmoth in New-England … (London: J.D. for John Bellamie, 1622). See David A. Lupher, Greeks, Romans, and Pilgrims: Classical Receptions in Early New England (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 294; David S. Lovejoy, “Plain Englishmen at Plymouth,” NEQ 63 (June 1990): 232–48.
8. Michael McGiffert, “Religion and Profit Do Jump Together: The First American Pilgrim,” Reflections 87 (Summer–Fall 1992): 17; “lights, livers” in “The complainte of certaine Adventurers and Inhabitants of the Plantation in Newe England,” CO 1/5, n. 112, f. 249, NAK.
9. See the discussion in Bangs, S&P, 300–301, 647.
10. OPP, 1:244–46.
11. The episode is discussed in GN, 59–60 (“no small terror”); OPP, 1:240–41. See Jeffrey Glover, Paper Sovereigns: Anglo-Native Treaties and the Law of Nations, 1604–1664 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), chapter 3. See also Kelly Wisecup’s analysis in GN, 39, n. 114.
12. MR, L2v.
13. The following paragraphs rely on the accounts by Bradford, OPP, 1:252–84; and Winslow, GN, 61–66. Quotations are from these sources unless otherwise indicated.
14. Phinehas Pratt, “A Declaration of the Affairs of the English People that First Inhabited New England” [1662], CMHS, 4th ser., 4 (1858): 482. Both Bradford and Winslow assert that Wessagusset leaders executed one thief. OPP, 1:291; GN, 91. Thomas Morton alleges that they planned to sacrifice an “old and impotent” but innocent man in place of the thief, who was young and vigorous. After becoming worried that the stratagem would enrage the Indians, they hanged the thief. NEC, 110.
15. Winslow narrates the visits to Massasoit and Corbitant in GN, 79–87, the source of the below quotations unless otherwise noted.
16. GN, 105. On powahs, see Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 200–208; Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Swindler Sachem: The American Indian Who Sold His Birthright, Dropped out of Harvard, and Conned the King of England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 21–22.
17. See Martha L. Finch, Dissenting Bodies: Corporealities in Early New England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 38–46.
18. Winslow’s discussion of these beliefs and practices is in GN, 102–6. See the analysis in Neal Salisbury, Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 135–38.
19. GN, 90.
20. GN, 77.
21. “turned savage” in GN, 91; “kill all” in Pratt, “Declaration,” 483.
22. GN, 93.
23. In Pratt’s narrative, it is Pecksuot who makes very similar remarks. It is possible Winslow’s Good News influenced Pratt’s later reconstruction of events. See Pratt, “Declaration,” 481.
24. GN, 94; Hubbard, A General History of New England [ca. 1682] (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1848), 111.
25. GN, 95–96.
26. Bradford and Isaac Allerton to James Sherley, 8 Sept. 1623, in R. G. Marsden, ed., “A Letter of William Bradford and Isaac Allerton, 1623,” American Historical Review 8 (Jan. 1903): 299. See Erik R. Seeman, Death in the New World: Cross-Cultural Encounters, 1492–1800 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010), 75–77; Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015), 137–38.
27. GN, 116.
28. GN, 72.
29. Robinson to Bradford, 19 Dec. 1623, OPP, 1:367–69.
30. NEC, 111–12; “stink” in GN, 57. See Karen Ordahl Kupperman, “Thomas Morton, Historian,” NEQ 50 (Dec. 1977): 660–64. On the grave-desecration allegation, see NEC, 106; Seeman, Death in the New World, 151–53.
31. Francis Jennings, The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest (New York: Norton, 1976), 187. George Willison’s 1945 critique of the Wessagusset operation set the tone for subsequent criticism. See Willison, Saints and Strangers, Being the Lives of the Pilgrim Fathers and Their Families … (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1945), chapter 15. See also Salisbury, Manitou and Providence, 125–40.
32. GN, 102.
33. OPP, 1:301–2.
34. Cushman, A Sermon, 17 (emphasis in original); OPP, 1:303. See the analysis in Lupher, Greeks, Romans, and Pilgrims, 284–316; Bangs, S&P, 653–55.
35. OPP, 1:325; GN, 101.
36. Emmanuel Altham to Edward Altham, Sept. 1623, in Sydney V. James Jr., ed., Three Visitors to Early Plymouth (Plymouth, Mass.: Plimoth Plantation, 1963), 24.
37. OPP, 1:325–26.
1. Robinson, A Justification of Separation from the Church of England (Amsterdam: n.p., 1610), 344–45.
2. Hilton letter, ca. Dec. 1621, in WJS, 1:430–31. On Hilton, see GMB, 2:951–57.
3. Bunker, 292–93, 317.
4. This and the next several paragraphs rely on Richard Arthur Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort: A Life of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Captain of Plymouth Fort, Governor of New England, and Lord of the Province of Maine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1953), chapters 10 and 11; Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934), vol. 1, chapter 16; Charles Francis Adams, Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1896), vol. 1, chapters 8 and 9.
5. Charles Deane, ed., “Records of the Council for New England,” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society (1867): 964.
6. OPP, 1:338.
7. OPP, 1:362–67.
8. Robinson, Of Religious Communion Private and Publique (Amsterdam, 1614), 60 (emphasis in original).
9. Barrow, A Brief Discoverie of the False Church [1590], in Leland H. Carlson, ed., The Writings of Henry Barrow, 1587–1590 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1962), 451.
10. Robinson, A Justification, 92. See E. Brooks Holifield, The Covenant Sealed: The Development of Puritan Sacramental Theology in Old and New England, 1570–1720 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1974), 61–73.
11. Robinson to Brewster, 20 Dec. 1623, OPP, 1:369–72.
12. OPP, 1:357–58. In my discussion of the conflict between the Pilgrims and John Lyford, I am relying on the analysis in Michael P. Winship, Godly Republicanism: Puritans, Pilgrims, and a City on a Hill (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 122–31. Winship and Nick Bunker correctly revise earlier portraits of John Lyford as an “Anglican” or conformist.
13. Bunker, 343–49.
14. Quotations in this and the following paragraphs are from OPP, 1:380–414; NEC, 118–19.
15. On Peirce, see David A. Lupher, Greeks, Romans, and Pilgrims: Classical Receptions in Early New England (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 187–94.
16. “Episcopal calling” in OPP, 1:395. See William Hubbard, A General History of New England [ca. 1682] (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1848), 93–94.
17. OPP, 1:384–85; NEC, 119.
18. See Charles Edward Banks, “Bradford’s Portrayal of a Religious Rival,” PMHS 62 (Oct. 1928–June 1929): 51–52.
19. OPP, 1:415–17.
20. NEC, 119. Morton’s allusion is to Exodus 12:5.
21. Hubbard, A General History of New England, 93–94.
22. OPP, 1:418.
23. Sherley et al. to Bradford et al., 18 Dec. 1624, in BLB, 4.
24. OPP, 1:436.
25. Town of Plymouth “Black Book,” 1/46, Plymouth and West Devon Record Office, Plymouth, U.K.; OPP, 1:443. Leiden statistics from Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1995), 625.
26. Sherley to Bradford, 18 Dec. 1624.
1. Hawthorne, Twice-Told Tales (Boston: American Stationers, 1837), 77–94; Williams, In the American Grain (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1925), 75. On the many ways Americans have remembered Thomas Morton, see John McWilliams, New England’s Crises and Cultural Memory: Literature, Politics, History, Religion, 1620–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), chapter 2.
2. NEC, 142. The most comprehensive examinations of Thomas Morton and New English Canaan are Jack Dempsey, New English Canaan … (Stoneham, Mass.: Jack Dempsey, 1999); Donald F. Connors, Thomas Morton (New York: Twayne, 1969); Minor Wallace Major, “Thomas Morton and His New English Canaan” (Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado, 1957). For a shorter biography and interpretation, see Charlotte Carrington, “Thomas Morton,” in Jeffrey A. Fortin and Mark Meuwese, eds., Atlantic Biographies: Individuals and Peoples in the Atlantic World (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 32–68.
3. Jonson’s quote is from a dedication to Every Man Out of His Humour. Clifford’s Inn was an Inn of Chancery, located near the Inner Temple and the Inns of Court. See Wilfrid R. Prest, The Rise of the Barristers: A Social History of the English Bar, 1590–1640 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1986), 107–15.
4. Philip J. Finkelpearl, John Marston of the Middle Temple: An Elizabethan Dramatist in His Social Setting (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969), chapters 1–6, quote on 80.
5. The court records have been transcribed and published in Charles Edward Banks, “Thomas Morton of Merry Mount,” PMHS, 3rd ser., 58 (Oct. 1924—June 1925): 147–93.
6. Russell M. Lawson, The Sea Mark: Captain John Smith’s Voyage to New England (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England), 152–54.
7. H. Hobart Holly, “Wollaston of Mount Wollaston,” American Neptune 37 (Jan. 1977): 5–25.
8. OPP, 2:47–48.
9. On the name Ma-re Mount, see David A. Lupher, Greeks, Romans, and Pilgrims: Classical Receptions in Early New England (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 104–5; John P. McWilliams Jr., “Fictions of Merry Mount,” American Quarterly 29 (Spring 1977): 6–7; Adams Jr., ed., The New English Canaan of Thomas Morton (Boston: Prince Society, 1883), 14–15, n. 4.
10. Donne, “A Sermon Preached to the Honorable Company of the Virginian Plantation,” in Logan Pearsall Smith, ed., Donne’s Sermons (Oxford: Clarendon, 1919), 52. See John Donoghue, Fire under the Ashes: An Atlantic History of the English Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 21–24.
11. “scum” in OPP, 2:54; “inveigled” in BLB, 41.
12. Bunker, 363.
13. Value based on seven hundred pounds of fur at eight shillings a pound. On the development of the beaver trade in the early seventeenth century, see Eric Jay Dolin, Fur, Fortune, and Empire: The Epic History of the Fur Trade in America (New York: Norton, 2010), chapters 1–4.
14. See Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and Her Passengers (Xlibris, 2006), 59–70.
15. Ruth A. McIntyre, Debts Hopeful and Desperate: Financing the Plymouth Colony (Plymouth, Mass.: Plimoth Plantation, 1963), 32, 47–48; Langdon, chapter 3.
16. NEC, 41. See Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 97–98; Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1650–1775 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2009), 104–5; Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015), 105–12.
17. De Rasière to the Amsterdam Chamber of the West India Company, 23 Sept. 1626, in A.J.F. van Laer, trans. and ed., Documents Relating to New Netherland, 1624–1626 (San Marino, Calif.: Henry E. Huntington Library, 1924), 224.
18. De Rasière to Samuel Blommaert, ca. 1628, in Sydney V. James Jr., ed., Three Visitors to Early Plymouth (Plymouth, Mass.: Plimoth Plantation, 1963), 76–77; H. R. McIlwaine, Journals of the House of Burgesses of Virginia, 1619–1658/59 (Richmond, Va.: n.p., 1915), 14.
19. OPP, 2:44; board members of the West Indian Company to the States-General, 16 Nov. 1627, in E. B. O’Callaghan, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New-York … (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1856), 1:38.
20. NEC, 60.
21. NEC, 60 (“masterpiece” and “rich”), 10 (“virgin” and “industry”).
22. NEC, 15 (“sweep away”); 24 (more fit”), 57 (“more happy”), 17 (“two sorts”).
23. NEC, 132–35.
24. NEC, 133.
25. NEC, 136–37; Edith Murphy, “‘A Rich Widow, Now to Be Tane Up or Laid Downe’: Solving the Riddle of Thomas Morton’s ‘Rise Oedipeus,’” WMQ 53 (Oct. 1996): 755–68.
26. NEC, 134; OPP, 2:48; Magnalia, book 3, 75.
27. Phinehas Pratt, “Declaration of the Affairs of the English People that First Inhabited New England” [1662], CMHS, 4th ser., 4 (1858): 478.
28. BLB, 15 June 1627 and 9 June 1628, 35–36, 41–44. See Daniel Walden, “‘The Very Hydra of the Time’: Morton’s New English Canaan and Atlantic Trade,” Early American Literature 48 (2013): 315–36.
29. NEC, 138. See David J. Silverman, Thundersticks: Firearms and the Violent Transformation of Native America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2016), chapter 1 and 92–101.
30. NEC, 137 (“prosperity” and “good way”), 149 (“gleaned”).
31. OPP, 2:56–57.
32. NEC, 138–45.
33. OPP, 2:50.
34. The text of the Bradford patent is in Ebenezer Hazard, Historical Collections; Consisting of State Papers … (Philadelphia: T. Dobson, 1792), 1:298–304.
35. OPP, 2:58–60.
36. OPP, 2:74; NEC, 162.
37. John Noble, ed., Records of the Court of Assistants of the Colony of the Massachusetts Bay, 1630–1692 (Boston: County of Suffolk, 1904): 2:4; Morton, 21 June 1636 petition to Court of Requests, published in PMHS, 3rd ser., 59 (Oct. 1925—June 1926): 95.
38. Aug. 1630, WP, 2:267; 21 Nov. 1627 notebook entry, WP, 2:44; OPP, 2:76. See also Thomas Wiggin to John Coke, 19 Nov. 1632, CMHS, 3rd ser., 8 (1843): 323.
39. Maverick to the Earl of Clarendon, undated, ca. 1662, in Clarendon MS 74, f. 248, Bodleian Library, Oxford. The letter is published in Collections of the New-York Historical Society for the Year 1869 (New York: Printed for the Society, 1870), 40. Maverick was an opponent of Massachusetts’s puritan magistrates and encouraged the Restoration government to take steps to check the colony’s alleged cruelty and disloyalty.
40. Zuckerman, “Pilgrims in the Wilderness: Community, Modernity, and the Maypole at Merry Mount,” NEQ 50 (June 1977): 255–77 (quote on 275).
1. David Cressy, Charles I and the People of England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); chapter 3.
2. Hooker, The Danger of Desertion: or a Far[e]well Sermon of Mr. Thomas Hooker (London: G.M., 1641), 15.
3. Cotton to Thomas Hooker, 3 Dec. 1634, in Thomas Hutchinson, ed., A Collection of Original Papers Relative to the History of the Colony of Massachusets-Bay (Boston: Thomas and John Fleet, 1769), 57.
4. See Francis J. Bremer, First Founders: American Puritans and Puritanism in an Atlantic World (Durham, N.H.: University of New Hampshire Press, 2012), chapter 2.
5. OPP, 2:89. See Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and Her Passengers (Xlibris, 2006), 146–51.
6. Bangs, PCPL 25; NEC, 153 (“quacksalver”), 161 (“Doctor Noddy”), 152 (“called a wife”). On Fuller’s practice of medicine, see Norman Gevitz, “Samuel Fuller of Plymouth Plantation: A ‘Skillful Physician’ or ‘Quacksalver’?” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 47 (Jan. 1992): 29–48.
7. Bangs, PCPL, 24–30. See the discussion in Michael P. Winship, Godly Republicanism: Puritans, Pilgrims, and a City on a Hill (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2012), 141–42.
8. Endecott to Bradford, 11 May 1629, OPP, 2:90–92.
9. CPC, 116.
10. Letter of Charles Gott to Bradford, 30 July 1629, in BLB, 47–48; “right hand” in NEM, 75; Fuller to Bradford, 28 June 1630, in BLB, 57.
11. NEM, 76–77.
12. NEM, 77; Archaeologia Americana: Transactions and Collections of the American Antiquarian Society 3 (1857): 52–54 (“rash innovations” on 54), 76.
13. Cotton to Skelton, 2 Oct. 1630, in David D. Hall, “John Cotton’s Letter to Samuel Skelton,” WMQ 22 (July 1965): 478–85. See the analysis in Slayden Yarbrough, “The Influence of Plymouth Colony Separatism on Salem: An Interpretation of John Cotton’s Letter of 1630 to Samuel Skelton,” Church History 51 (Sept. 1982): 290–303.
14. Cotton to Skelton, 2 Oct. 1630, 481. On Jacob, see Stephen Wright, “Henry Jacob,” DNB; Scott Culpepper, Francis Johnson and the English Separatist Influence (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 2011), 153–68.
15. See the analysis in Winship, Godly Republicanism, 153–54.
16. Miller, Orthodoxy in Massachusetts, 1630–1650 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1933), xiii. For a more recent version of Miller’s argument, see Stephen Foster, The Long Argument: English Puritanism and the Shaping of New England Culture, 1570–1700 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 153–54.
17. The argument here relies on Winship, Godly Republicanism, chapter 6; Yarbrough, “The Influence of Plymouth Colony on Salem.”
18. PChR, 116.
19. OPP, 2:117.
1. PChR, 64.
2. OPP, 2:58.
3. New England Company to Endecott, 17 Apr. 1629, in RGCMB, 1:390.
4. Biographies of Roger Williams include Edwin S. Gaustad, Liberty of Conscience: Roger Williams in America (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1991); John M. Barry, Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul: Church, State, and the Birth of Liberty (New York: Viking, 2012); and the editorial notes in Glenn W. LaFantasie’s edition of Williams’s correspondence (CRW).
5. Williams, The Bloody Tenent Yet More Bloody … (London: Giles Calvert, 1652), 12.
6. “still my soul” in Williams to Barrington, ca. Apr. 1629, CRW, 1:2; “in the heavens” in Williams to Barrington, 2 May 1629, CRW, 1:4.
7. Magnalia, book 7, 7.
8. Williams to Cotton Jr., 25 Mar. 1671, CRW, 2:630; JJW, 12 Apr. 1631, 50.
9. Williams to Cotton Jr., 25 Mar. 1671, 2:630; OPP, 2:161–62.
10. JJW, Oct. 1632, 82.
11. Magnalia, book 2, 13–14.
12. “further” in Williams to Winthrop, undated [ca. late 1632], CRW, 1:9; “yet communicating” in Williams to John Cotton Jr., 25 Mar. 1671.
13. Cotton, A Reply to Mr. Williams, in The Bloudy Tenent … (London: Matthew Symmons, 1647), 4; NEM, 78.
14. OPP, 2:162; Winthrop to John Endecott, 3 Jan. 1633/34, WP, 3:146–49.
15. Winthrop to Endecott, 3 Jan. 1633/34.
16. Winthrop to Endecott, 3 Jan. 1633/34.
17. JJW 30 Apr. 1635, 144.
18. JJW, Aug. 1635 and 1 Nov. 1635, 153, 158 (“pollution”).
19. JJW, Jan. 1635/36, 163–64. For Winthrop as Williams’s benefactor, see Williams to John Mason and Thomas Prence, 22 June 1670, CRW, 2:610.
20. “loth to displease” and “gold” in Williams to Mason and Prence, 22 June 1670, 2:610–11.
21. Barry, Roger Williams, 224–26. See also Timothy L. Hall, Separating Church and State: Roger Williams and Religious Liberty (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998), chapter 3.
22. Williams, The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution … (London: n.p., 1644), 195 (“soul liberty”), 232 (“owne soules”), 94 (“rape”).
23. Williams to Mason and Prence, 22 June 1670, 2:617.
24. JJW, Dec. 1638, 276.
1. Population figure in Stratton, 50. The most complete discussion of New Plymouth’s expansion beyond its initial settlement is found in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 1–225.
2. PCR, 28 Oct. 1633, 1:17; “good farms” in OPP, 2:152–53.
3. OPP, 2:106.
4. OPP, 2:132, 130. See Ruth A. McIntyre, Debts Hopeful and Desperate: Financing the Plymouth Colony (Plymouth, Mass.: Plimoth Plantation, 1963), part 2.
5. OPP, 2:126, 134; Winslow to Winthrop, 1 July 1637, WP, 3:437.
6. Bradford misplaces this episode in his narrative as occurring in 1631. See OPP, 2:134–35. Winthrop’s journal dates it to June 1632. See JJW, 14 June 1632, 70.
7. JJW, 12 July 1633, 92. See OPP, 2:166–67.
8. See the account in Alfred A. Cave, The Pequot War (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 77–87.
9. JJW, Oct. 1633, 99; OPP, 2:172–73.
10. OPP, 2:194.
11. OPP, 2:171. On the difficulties Plymouth faced in defending its Kennebec trade, see Roger Bradley, “Empty Promises: Plymouth Colony’s Kennebec Fur Monopoly,” Mayflower Journal 1 (Spring 2016): 51–72.
12. OPP, 2:176; deposition, 1634, in Simmons, PCR, 1:25–26. Although the latter document does not identify the deponent, it was most likely Howland.
13. Winthrop to Nathaniel Rich, 22 May 1634, WP, 3:166–68. See also OPP, 2:176–83; RGCMB, 14 May 1634, 1:119.
14. JJW, 15 May 1634, 115; Winthrop to Rich, 22 May 1634.
15. JJW, 9 July 1634, 122.
16. Winthrop to Rich, 22 May 1634; JJW, Aug. 1634, 125.
17. “Act for the Resignation of the Great Charter of New England,” 25 Apr. 1635, in PAAS (1867): 124–25. The discussion here and in the following paragraphs relies on Charles M. Andrews, The Colonial Period of American History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1934), 1:400–423; Richard Arthur Preston, Gorges of Plymouth Fort: A Life of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, Captain of Plymouth Fort, Governor of New England, and Lord of the Province of Maine (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1953), chapters 13 and 14.
18. “comely young woman” and “note book” in OPP, 2:136–40. See also Thomas Dudley to Countess of Lincoln, 12–28 Mar. 1630/31, in Collections of the New-Hampshire Historical Society 4 (1834): 244–46; RGCMB, 1 Mar. 1630/1631, 1:83; JJW, 25 June 1631, 53. On Gardiner, see Charles Francis Adams, Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1892), 1:251–63; Philip Ranlet, “Sir Christopher Gardiner,” ANB.
19. OPP, 2:183–86.
20. OPP, 2:198.
21. Gorges, “Considerations necessarie to be resolved uppon in settling the Governor for New England,” 3 Nov. 1634, CO 1/8, n. 34, ff. 95–96, NAK, transcript in Bangs, Winslow, 147–48.
22. Winslow, undated petition, CO 1/6, n. 69, f. 185, NAK, transcript in Bangs, Winslow, 149–52.
23. OPP, 2:209.
24. JJW, Sept. 1633, 97.
25. OPP, 2: 217 (“daily”), 221 (“Lord’s waste”), 233 (“controversy”), 167 (“thrust out”).
26. On the developments that led to the Pequot War, see Cave, Pequot War, chapter 3; Katherine A. Grandjean, “New World Tempests: Environment, Scarcity, and the Coming of the Pequot War,” WMQ 68 (Jan. 2011): 75–100.
27. OPP, 1:413.
28. OPP, 2:244–46. See Cave, Pequot War, 137–38.
29. Mason, A Brief History of the Pequot War [ca. 1670], in Charles Orr, ed., History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent and Gardener (Cleveland: Helman-Taylor, 1897), 28, 30; Magnalia, book 7, chapter 6, 43.
30. OPP, 2:250–51. See Susan Juster, Sacred Violence in Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), chapter 1.
31. PCR, 7 June 1637, 1:60; OPP, 2:247–48.
32. On the enslavement and export of Pequots, see Michael L. Fickes, “‘They Could Not Endure That Yoke’: The Captivity of Pequot Women and Children After the War of 1637,” NEQ 73 (Mar. 2000): 58–81; Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2015), chapters 1–3.
33. Stoughton to Winthrop, ca. 28 June 1637, WP, 3:435–36; branded in JJW, 6 July 1637, 225; Karen Ordahl Kupperman, Providence Island, 1630–1641: The Other Puritan Colony (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 178.
34. Michael Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), chapters 1 and 2 (“too pure,” 45).
35. See Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen, 180–87, 284–85, n. 101; Rebecca Anne Goetz, The Baptism of Early Virginia: How Christianity Created Race (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2012), 57–59.
36. The Book of the General Lawwes and Libertyes concerning the Inhabitants of the Massachusetts (Cambridge: s.n., 1648), 4. See Newell, Brethren by Nature, 53.
37. Williams to Winthrop, 21 June 1637, CRW, 1:86–87 (“be not enslaved”); Williams to Winthrop, 31 July 1637, CRW, 1:109 (“perpetual”).
38. Williams to Winthrop, 30 June 1637, CRW, 1:88; Williams to Winthrop, ca. 1 Aug. 1638, CRW, 1:173.
39. Williams to Winthrop, 10 Nov. 1637, CRW, 1:132. See Newell, Brethren by Nature, 82.
40. PCR, 1 Dec. 1640, 2:4. See Newell, Brethren by Nature, 83.
41. “Bill of Sale,” 12 Jan. 1647/48, WP, 5:196–97. On the trade of goods and slaves between New England and the Caribbean, see Newell, Brethren by Nature, chapter 2.
1. Joseph Meadows Cowper, ed., The Roll of the Freemen of the City of Canterbury … (Canterbury: Cross and Jackman, 1903), viii–ix. See Michael Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), chapter 1.
2. See Rachel Foxley, The Levellers: Radical Political Thought in the English Revolution (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2013).
3. David D. Hall, A Reforming People: Puritanism and the Transformation of Public Life in New England (New York: Knopf, 2011), chapter 1.
4. PCR, 15 Nov. 1636, 11:6.
5. Winthrop, “General Observations for the Plantation of New England [1629], WP, 2:114; Winthrop’s defense of the negative vote [1643], WP, 4:382. See the discussion in Hall, A Reforming People, chapter 1.
6. PCR, 15 Nov. 1636 and 5 Mar. 1638/39, 11:7 (“double voice”) and 35 (“residue”). See Hall, Reforming People, 43.
7. PCR, 15 Nov. 1636, 11:11. See the discussions in Stratton, 143–49; Langdon, chapter 7; Langdon, “The Franchise and Political Democracy in Plymouth Colony,” WMQ 20 (Oct. 1963): 513–26.
8. PTR, 18 Feb. 1649/50, 29–30. See Hall, Reforming People, chapter 2 (esp. 56, 95).
9. On servants in Plymouth Colony, see John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), chapter 7.
10. Thomas Prince, “New England Chronology,” in A Chronological History of New-England In the Form of Annals (Boston: Kneeland & Green, 1736), 105. On Doty, see Caleb H. Johnson, The Mayflower and Her Passengers (Xlibris, 2006), 132–37; GMB, 1:573–77.
11. PCR, 1 Feb. 1642, 2:33 (cattle); 24 Mar. 1633/34, 1:26 (blood); 2 Jan. 1637/38, 7:6 (assault on Clarke).
12. PCR, 2 Jan. 1633/34, 1:23.
13. PCR, 5 June 1678, 5:262. The case of John Sassamon is the most famous instance, but see also Magnalia, book 6, 34. On the practice, see David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 176.
14. PCR, 6 Feb. and 6 Mar. 1654/55, 3:71–73. See James Deetz and Patricia Scott Deetz, The Times of Their Lives: Life, Love, and Death in Plymouth Colony (New York: Anchor, 2000), 119–21.
15. PCR, 8:178. On benefit of clergy in colonial America, see Edgar J. McManus, Law and Liberty in Early New England: Criminal Justice and Due Process, 1620–1692 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), 112–14; Jeffrey K. Sawyer, “‘Benefit of Clergy’ in Maryland and Virginia,” American Journal of Legal History 34 (Jan. 1990): 49–68.
16. PCR, 4 Dec. 1638, 11:29.
17. I have relied on the careful reconstructions of this case in Glenn W. LaFantasie, “Murder of an Indian, 1638,” Rhode Island History 38 (Aug. 1979): 67–77; Katherine Grandjean, American Passage: The Communications Frontier in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015), 1–14.
18. Wood, New England’s Prospect [1634], ed. Alden T. Vaughan (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1977), 90.
19. OPP, 2:264.
20. See Williams to Winthrop, ca. 1 Aug. 1638, CRW, 1:171–73.
21. JJW, Aug. 1638, 260; OPP, 2:267–68.
22. PCR, 5 June 1638, 1:87; PCR, 7 Oct. 1639, 1:135. See Mark Valeri, Heavenly Merchandize: How Religion Shaped Commerce in Puritan America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), chapters 1 and 2. On Hopkins during these years, see Caleb H. Johnson, Here Shall I Die Ashore: Stephen Hopkins; Bermuda Castaway, Jamestown Survivor, and Mayflower Pilgrim (Xlibris, 2007), chapter 18.
23. PCR, Feb. 1638/39, 1:111–13.
24. PCR, 4 June 1639, 1:127.
25. For a brief sketch, see GMB, 1:12–14. He sometimes appears as Addy Webb in colonial records.
26. PCR, 25 Mar. 1633, 1:11; PCR, 7 Nov. 1636, 1:46.
27. PCR, 2 Oct. 1637, 1:68; PCR, 5 June 1638, 1:86–87.
28. PCR, 6 Aug. 1637, 1:64. See Robert F. Oaks, “‘Things Fearful to Name’: Sodomy and Buggery in Seventeenth-Century New England,” Journal of Social History 12 (Winter 1978): 272; Deetz and Deetz, The Times of Their Lives, 139–40.
29. Bradford et al. to John Winthrop and council, 6 Feb. 1631/32, WP, 3:64–65; PCR, 1 Jan. 1633/34, 1:21.
30. On the significance of an ordered and godly body in Plymouth, see Martha L. Finch, Dissenting Bodies: Corporealities in Early New England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), esp. 77–80. On witchcraft in Plymouth Colony, see Deetz and Deetz, The Times of Their Lives, 92–97.
31. PCR, 2 July 1638, 1:91; PCR, 29 Aug. 1638, 12:35.
32. PCR, 24 Sept. 1645, 12:113–14; Adey [Audey] will of 4 Mar. 1651/52, in Simmons, 215–16.
1. On Vassall, see John C. Appleby, “John Vassall” and “Samuel Vassall,” DNB; GMB, 3:1871–1875.
2. Walley, Balm in Gilead to Heal Sions Wounds … (Cambridge, Mass.: S.G. and M.J., 1669), 14.
3. In the next several paragraphs, I rely most heavily on Michael P. Winship, Making Heretics: Militant Protestantism and Free Grace in Massachusetts, 1636–1641 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002).
4. Cotton, The Way of Congregational Churches Cleared [1648], in David D. Hall, The Antinomian Controversy, 1636–1638: A Documentary History (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1968), 411.
5. Winthrop, A Short Story of the Rise, reign, and ruine of the Antinomians, Familists & Libertines [1644], in Hall, The Antinomian Controversy, 310 (“Jezebel”), 272 (“Antichrists”).
6. Plymouth representatives at synod in Charles Chauncy (1705–87), Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Religion in New-England (Boston: Rogers and Fowle, 1743), vii; SBCR, 24; Bradford to Winthrop, 11 Apr. 1638, WP, 4:23–24. In 1769, Stiles transcribed the Scituate and Barnstable records from a manuscript in the handwriting of John Lothrop. See a transcription in NEHGR 9 (1855): 279–87; NEHGR 10 (1856): 37–43, 345–51.
7. On Gorton, see Philip F. Gura, A Glimpse of Sion’s Glory: Puritan Radicalism in New England, 1620–1660 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1984), chapter 10; John Donoghue, Fire under the Ashes: An Atlantic History of the English Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013), chapter 12; Michelle Burnham, “Samuel Gorton’s Leveller Aesthetics and the Economics of Colonial Dissent,” WMQ 67 (July 2010): 433–58.
8. Gorton, Simplicities Defence against Seven-Headed Policy … (London: John Macock, 1646), 2. John Cotton alleged that Gorton left Boston to avoid paying a debt to a minister back in England who had advanced him £100. See Cotton, A Reply to Mr. Williams, in The Bloudy Tenent … (London: Matthew Symmons, 1647), 5.
9. Winslow, Hypocrisie Unmasked … (London: Richard Cotes, 1646), 67; Gorton to Nathaniel Morton, 30 June 1669, in Peter Force, ed., Tracts and Other Papers, Relating Principally to the Origin, Settlement, and Progress of the Colonies in North America … (Washington, D.C.: Wm. Q. Force, 1846), vol. 4., tract 7, p. 6; PCR, 5 Nov. 1638, 1:100.
10. Gorton to Morton, 30 June 1669, 7 (“refreshed”), 12 (“apostatized”).
11. Winslow, Hypocrisie, 67–68; PCR, 4 Dec. 1638, 1:105.
12. Winslow, Hypocrisie, 52–55.
13. Letter of Samuel Clerke, 12 June 1637, SP 16/361/67 (accessed via SPO).
14. JJW, Mar. 1640, 322.
15. “dipped” in JJW, Mar. 1640, 322; Rogers, A Treatise of the Two Sacraments of the Gospell … (London: Thomas Cotes, 1633), B3v, 77–78; Chauncy to John Davenport, 1640, month obscured, Thomas Prince manuscripts, MS Am. 1506, pt. 2, no. 20, Boston Public Library.
16. Robert Keayne, notebook of sermons preached by John Cotton, 21 June 1640, MS N-1517, MHS. I am grateful to Merja Kytö for providing me with a copy of her transcript of these notes.
17. Chauncy to John Davenport, 1640. On the Congregational practice of consensus, see James F. Cooper Jr., Tenacious of Their Liberties: The Congregationalists in Colonial Massachusetts (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), esp. 42–43.
18. Winslow to Winthrop, 10 Oct. 1640, WP, 4:292.
19. SBCR, 31.
20. Vassall [to John Wilson], June 1643, FPCN, transcription in Bangs, Scituate, 3:354.
21. JJW, 7 July 1642, 398–99; Richard D. Pierce, ed., Records of the First Church in Boston, 1630–1868 (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1961), 1:289–90. See Alison Games, Migration and the Origins of the English Atlantic World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), 150–51; Joseph B. Felt, The Ecclesiastical History of New England … (Boston: Congregational Library Association, 1855), 1:497.
22. Chauncy letter of 22 Feb. 1642/43, FPCN, in Bangs, Scituate, 3:357.
23. Vassall [to Ralph Partridge], n.d. [in response to a letter of 9 Apr. 1645], FPCN, in Bangs, Scituate, 3:374–75. See Peter Clark, English Provincial Society from the Reformation to the Revolution: Religion, Politics and Society in Kent, 1500–1640 (Rutherford, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1977), 199, 372; Samuel G. Drake, Result of Some Researches among the British Archives for Information Relative to the Founders of New England … (Boston: New England Historical and Genealogical Register, 1860), 83.
24. Winslow to Winthrop, 7 Jan. 1643/44, WP, 4:428; JJW, Sept. 1644, 535–39. See Charlotte Carrington, “Thomas Morton,” in Jeffrey A. Fortin and Mark Meuwese, eds., Atlantic Biographies: Individuals and Peoples in the Atlantic World (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 64–66.
25. See William Cronon, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang, 1983), esp. chapter 7.
26. Miantonomi as reported by Lion Gardener, CMHS, 3rd ser., 3 (1833): 154. See the discussion in Andrew Lipman, The Saltwater Frontier: Indians and the Contest for the American Coast (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2015), 153–56.
27. See Michael Leroy Oberg, Uncas: First of the Mohegans (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2003), chapter 4.
28. OPP, 1:14–16.
29. The next several paragraphs rely on Francis J. Bremer, John Winthrop: America’s Forgotten Founding Father (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 360–65; Robert Emmet Wall Jr., Massachusetts Bay: The Crucial Decade, 1640–1650 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), chapter 3.
30. Petition in John Child [William Vassall], New-Englands Jonas Cast up at London … (London: T.R. and E.M., 1647), 3–4. Although published under John Child’s name, most historians attribute this tract to Vassall.
31. JJW, June 1645, 579–91.
32. Winslow, New-Englands Salamander, Discovered … (London: Richard Cotes, 1647), 4–6; Winslow to Winthrop, 24 Nov. 1645, WP, 5:55–56.
33. Winslow to Winthrop, 24 Nov. 1645.
34. For this and subsequent discussion of the remonstrance, see the discussion in Wall, Massachusetts Bay, chapter 5.
35. Child, New-Englands Jonas, 8–13.
36. JJW, Nov. 1646, 656.
37. See Wall, Massachusetts Bay, chapter 4.
38. Gorton, Simplicities Defence, 2; Child, New-Englands Jonas, 13.
39. Winslow, Hypocrisie, A2v.
40. Winslow, New-Englands Salamander, 22; JJW, July 1647, 703.
41. See Bangs, Winslow, chapters 8–11; Rebecca Fraser, The Mayflower: The Families, the Voyage, and the Founding of America (New York: St. Martin’s, 2017), chapters 14–15. On the reverse migration of New England puritans to England in the 1640s, see Susan Hardman Moore, Pilgrims: New World Settlers & the Call of Home (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), chapters 4 and 5.
42. See the interpretation of the paintings in Martha L. Finch, Dissenting Bodies: Corporealities in Early New England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 107–16.
43. Bangs, Winslow, 393–94.
44. PCR, 18 Sept. 1646, 9:81–82.
45. SBCR, 37–38.
46. RGCMB, 18 Oct. 1649, 3:173–74; PCR, 10 June 1650, 11:57. See William G. McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630–1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 1:19–21, 128–29, n. 2.
47. See Jonathan den Hartog, “‘National and Provinciall Churches Are Nullityes’: Henry Dunster’s Puritan Argument against the Puritan Established Church,” Journal of Church and State 56 (Autumn 2014): 691–710.
1. 7 Feb. 1648/49, Journal of the House of Commons, vol. 6, 1648–1651 (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1803), 133. The Commons passed the act the next month.
2. Winship, Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 1; PCR, 6 June 1649, 2:139; oath in PCR, 11:8. I see no evidence to support Carla Gardina Pestana’s claim for “the closet monarchical tendencies of the separatist Plymouth Plantation.” See Pestana, The English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution, 1640–1661 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), 84.
3. PCR, 11:8.
4. John Morrill, “The Church in England, 1642–9,” in Morrill, ed., Reactions to the English Civil War, 1642–1649 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1983), 90.
5. On Cromwell, liberty of conscience, and toleration, see Blair Worden, “Toleration and the Cromwellian Protectorate,” in W. J. Sheils, ed., Persecution and Toleration … (Oxford: Ecclesiastical Historical Society, 1984), 199–233; cf. J. C. Davis, “Cromwell’s Religion,” in John Morrill, ed., Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution (London: Longman, 1990), chapter 7.
6. PCR, 10 June 1650 and 6 June 1651, 11:57–58.
7. PCR, 7 Oct. 1651, 2:172–73; PCR, 2 Mar. 1651/52, 3:4; Leverich to John Wilson, 22 Sept. 1651, in Strength out of Weakness. Or a Glorious Manifestation Of the further Progresse of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New-England … (London: M. Simmons, 1652), 21.
8. PCR, 7 Oct. 1651, 2:172–74; 2 Mar. 1651/52, 3:4–5. A decade later, the court cited Elizabeth Eddy (then spelled Eedey) for traveling from Plymouth to Boston on Sunday. She explained that Martha Saffin had asked her to visit her in her illness. PCR, 1 May 1660, 3:186.
9. PCR, 6 Mar. 1654/55, 3:74; PCR, 5 Mar. 1655/56, 3:96. On Seekers, see Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: Radical Ideas during the English Revolution (London: Temple Smith, 1972), chapter 9.
10. PCR, Sept. 1656, 10:156; PCR, 3 June 1657, 11:67; Bangs, Sandwich, 17 July 1657, 279–80.
11. Norman Penney, ed., The Journal of George Fox (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911), 1:33–34.
12. On Fox, see H. Larry Ingle, First among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), quote on 49.
13. On early Quaker spirituality and worship practices, see Rosemary Moore, The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain, 1646–1666 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000), chapters 6 and 9–11. On the growth of the movement, see Barry Reay, The Quakers and the English Revolution (New York: St. Martin’s, 1985), 8–11.
14. Moore, The Light in Their Consciences, 90, 152–53.
15. See John Miller, “‘A Suffering People’: English Quakers and Their Neighbours, c. 1650–c. 1700,” Past & Present 188 (Aug. 2005): 71–103.
16. Leo Damrosch, The Sorrows of the Quaker Jesus: James Nayler and the Puritan Crackdown on the Free Spirit (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996).
17. On the significance of suffering for Quakers, see Adrian Chastain Weimer, Martyrs’ Mirror: Persecution and Holiness in Early New England (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), chapter 5.
18. [Humphrey Norton and John Rous], New-England’s Ensigne … (London: T.L., 1659), 6–7. See Arthur J. Worrall, Quakers in the Colonial Northeast (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1980); Carla Gardina Pestana, Quakers and Baptists in Colonial Massachusetts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); Jonathan M. Chu, Neighbors, Friends, or Madmen: The Puritan Adjustment to Quakerism in Seventeenth-Century Massachusetts Bay (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1985). The classic account by Rufus M. Jones also remains valuable. See Jones, The Quakers in the American Colonies (London: Macmillan, 1911), chapters 3–6.
19. Richard D. Pierce, ed., The Records of the First Church in Boston, 1630–1868 (Boston: Colonial Society, 1961), 54.
20. Henry Fell to Margaret Fell, 19 Feb. 1656/57, Swarthmore Manuscripts, vol. 1, 68, Friends House Library, London; [George Fox and John Rous], The Secret Workes of a Cruel People Made manifest … (London: 1659), 2.
21. PCR, 3 Feb. and 5 Mar. 1656/57, 3:111–12.
22. PCR, 5 Mar. 1656/57, 3:113; Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 14; “Errors” in Henry Fell to Margaret Fell, 19 Feb. 1656/57.
23. PCR, 6 June 1654, 3:52. Account of the Christian Experiences and Living Testimonies of that faithful Servant of Christ Edward Perry (n.p., 1726), 4 (“not redeemed”), 7 (“Christ Jesus the Light”), 11 (“set my Soul”), 25 (“unprofitable”).
24. NEM, 144.
25. Inventory of Bradford estate, 22 May 1657, in Simmons, 332–37.
26. Bradford, “A Descriptive and Historical Account of New England in verse, ca. 1650,” MHS; cf. Michael G. Runyan, ed., William Bradford: The Collected Verse (St. Paul, Minn.: John Colet, 1974), 218, 224. See the discussion in David D. Hall, Ways of Writing: The Practice and Politics of Text-Making in Seventeenth-Century New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008), 74.
27. JJW, May 1646, 626; OPP, 2:367–69, 1:76.
28. Bradford, Manuscript 198 (including “Of plimoth plantation”), State Library of Massachusetts, Boston, viewed as .pdf. See the commentary in David A. Lupher, Greeks, Romans, and Pilgrims: Classical Receptions in Early New England (Leiden: Brill, 2017), 317–59.
29. See Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, “Re-bunking the Pilgrims,” Historically Speaking 6 (Sept./Oct. 2004): 2–5.
30. Cotton, The Bloudy Tenent, Washed, And made white in the bloud of the Lambe … (London: Matthew Symmons, 1647), 10. The inventory lists around forty volumes, which Jeremy Bangs has painstakingly identified. It also references “three and fifty small books” and “divers other Dutch books.” See Bangs, PCPL, 216–31.
31. Bradford will of 9 May 1657, Simmons, 331; NEM, 144–45.
32. “Terror” in Morton, New-England’s Memorial …, rev. ed. (Boston: Nicholas Boone, 1721), 244. On Prence, see GMB, 3:1518–24.
33. Elizur Yale Smith, “Captain Thomas Willett: First Mayor of New York,” New York History 21 (Oct. 1940): 404–17.
34. PCR, 1657, 11:100–101. See also PCR, 3 June 1657, 11:68.
35. Johannes Megapolensis and Samuel Drisius to the classis of Amsterdam, 14 Aug. 1657, in Jaap Jacobs, New Netherland: A Dutch Colony in Seventeenth-Century America (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 306.
36. Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 16–18. See Evan Haefeli, New Netherland and the Dutch Origins of American Religious Liberty (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 161–67. A year’s salary for a skilled worker in New Amsterdam was around two hundred guilders. See Jacobs, New Netherland, 328–47.
37. Fox and Rous, Secret Workes, 11–12.
38. Remonstrance of 27 Dec. 1657, in Charles T. Gehring and Janny Venema, Council Minutes, 1656–1658 (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2018), 330–33. See the analysis in Haefeli, New Netherland, 167–85; Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, “Dutch Contributions to Religious Toleration,” 79 (Sept. 2010): 585–613.
39. Norton to Fox, 4 Apr. 1656, in Journal of George Fox, 1:245–46; “run out” in Journal of George Fox, 2:314. See also Fell to Norton, ca. Apr. 1656, Spence MS, vol. 3, n. 41, Friends House, London, printed in Elsa F. Glines, ed., Undaunted Zeal: The Letters of Margaret Fell (Richmond, Ind.: Friends United Press), 186–88. On Norton, see Steven C. Harper and I. Gadd, “Humphrey Norton,” DNB.
40. Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 25; PCR, 6 Oct. 1657, 3:123. On Friends’ use of these legal arguments against their New England persecutors, see Nan Goodman, Banished: Common Law and the Rhetoric of Social Exclusion in Early New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), chapter 3.
41. Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 50–51, 105; Franklin Bowditch Dexter, ed., New Haven Town Records, 1649–1662 (New Haven: New Haven Colony Historical Society, 1917), 339–43.
42. PCR, 2 Mar. 1657/58, 3:130 (Cudworth); Rous et al. New-England, A Degenerate Plant (London: n.p., 1659), 14; PCR, 1 June 1658, 3:134 (Hatherly). See Robert Charles Anderson, Puritan Pedigrees: The Deep Roots of the Great Migration of New England (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2018), chapter 8.
43. PCR, 1658, 11:120 (workhouse), 101 (Quakers and freeman status); PCR, 1 June 1658, 3:138 (Richard Kerby, oath of fidelity).
44. PCR, 1 June 1658, 3:139; Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 25.
45. SBCR, 34; PCR, 2 Mar. 1668/69, 5:13–14; Winter deposition and Norton response in Simmons, 548–50. On the case of alleged incest, see James Deetz and Patricia Scott Deetz, The Times of Their Lives: Life, Love, and Death in Plymouth Colony (New York: Anchor, 2000), 146–47.
46. PCR, 1658, 11:95 (adultery); PCR, 1 June 1655, 11:64 (“rule of life”). On capital crimes in the New England colonies, see Edgar J. McManus, Law and Liberty in Early New England: Criminal Justice and Due Process, 1620–1692 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993), chapter 2.
47. PCR, 1 June 1658, 3:140.
48. Simmons, 545–47.
49. Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 79–81.
50. RGCMB, 14 Oct. 1657, 4:308–9; Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 82–93.
51. Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 4; Rous, Degenerate Plant, 14–20.
52. PCR, Sept. 1658, 10:212.
53. PCR, 6 Dec. 1659, 3:178.
54. PCR, 6 Oct. and 6 Dec. 1659, 7 Mar. 1659/60, 3:176, 178, 184.
55. PCR, 11:124; PCR, 6 June 1660, 3:189; undated entry, Barnstable, Mass. West Parish Church records, 1639–1853, RG5285, p. 20, Congregational Library & Archives, Boston, Mass. (accessed via http://congregationallibrary.org/nehh/main).
56. “sitting still” in Norton and Rous, Ensigne, 47; “dogs” in George Bishop, New England Judged … (London: Robert Wilson, 1661), 143; PCR, 10 June 1660, 11:125–26. On Barlow, see Ellen F. O’Flaherty, “George Barlow, the Marshal of Sandwich, Massachusetts, and His Descendants for Three Generations,” NEHGR 171 (Fall 2017), 307–14.
57. PCR, 5 Mar. 1661, 3:206.
58. See Adrian Chastain Weimer, “Elizabeth Hooton and the Lived Politics of Toleration in Massachusetts Bay,” WMQ 74 (Jan. 2017): 43–76. On toleration and persecution during the Restoration, see John Coffey, Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689 (Harlow, U.K.: Longman, 2000), chapter 7.
59. Miller, “‘A Suffering People,’” 78.
60. See Carla Gardina Pestana, “The Quaker Executions as Myth and History,” Journal of American History 80 (Sept. 1993): 441–69.
61. Williams, George Fox Digg’d Out of his Burrowes (Boston: John Foster, 1676), 86, 250.
1. On the visit of the royal commissioners, see Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), chapter 2.
2. See Robert C. Ritchie, The Duke’s Province: A Study of New York Politics and Society, 1664–1691 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), chapters 1–3.
3. See Henry Bennett to Nicolls, 23 Apr. 1664, in John R. Brodhead, ed., Documents Relative to the Colonial History of New-York (Albany: Weed, Parsons, 1853), 3:58.
4. “The propositions made by his Ma[jes]ties Commissioners” and “The Courts Answer,” 4 May 1665, Winslow Papers, MHS. They are printed in PCR, 4:85–87. I am grateful to Adrian Weimer for alerting me to the distinction between the oath of allegiance and Plymouth’s own oath of fidelity.
5. PCR, 7 June 1655, 4:92; Cartwright to Prence, 8 July 1665, Winslow Papers, MHS.
6. [Myles], An Antidote Against The Infection of the Times (London: T. Brewster, 1656), 16. On Myles, see Philip Jenkins, “Infidels, Demons, Witches, and Quakers: The Affair of Colonel Bowen,” Fides et Historia 49 (Summer/Fall 2017): 1–15; Glanmôr Williams, “John Miles, Ilston, and the Baptist Denomination in Wales,” Minerva 7 (1999): 11–18; William G. McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630–1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 1:128–35.
7. Richard LeBaron Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in This Plymouth Colony Township (Rehoboth, Mass.: n.p., 1945), 1:32–33.
8. Prence to Nicolls, 4 July 1666, CO 1/20, n. 110, NAK, accessed via CSP. There is a transcript of this letter in the Frederick Lewis Gay transcripts, Plymouth Papers, vol. 1, ff. 24–27, Ms. N-2012, MHS.
9. “not sworn” in PCR, 7 June 1665, 4:90; PCR, 2 July 1667, 4:162; Swansea church meeting of 9 Mar. 1667/68, in Robert Charles Anderson, “Swansea, Massachusetts, Baptist Church Records,” NEHGR 139 (Jan. 1985): 29.
10. Anderson, “Swansea, Massachusetts, Baptist Church Records,” 27–29.
11. Massasoit Ousamequin’s death is documented in PCR, 13 June 1660, 3:192.
12. Original deed of 20 Jan. 1661/62, Boston Athanaeum; copy (with some alterations) and attestation of Richard Bulgar and Thomas Durfee, 10 Aug. 1679, MSAC, 30:102 and 102a. See the discussion in Lisa Brooks, Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 45–50.
13. PCR, 1 Dec. 1640, 2:4–5; PCR, 4 June 1661, 3:216.
14. PCR, 4 Mar. 1661/62 and 3 June 1662, 4:8, 16–18.
15. Hubbard, A Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians … (Boston: John Foster, 1677), 9–10; Mather, A Relation of the Troubles which have hapned in New-England … (Boston: John Foster, 1677), 71; John Cotton Jr. to Increase Mather, 19 and 20 Mar. 1676/77, in CJCJ, 187–89; “poisoned” in John Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” [1675], in Charles H. Lincoln, ed., Narratives of the Indian Wars, 1675–1699 (New York: Scribner, 1913), 10–11.
16. PCR, 4 Mar. 1661/62, 4:8. See the analysis in Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 50–53.
17. PCR, 6 Aug. 1662, 4:25–26; Roger Williams to a Special Court of Commissioners, 18 Aug. [Oct.] 1677, CRW, 2:741. See Pulsipher, Subjects, 57.
18. See David J. Silverman, Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha’s Vineyard, 1600–1871 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 38–48.
19. Eliot to Richard Baxter, 7 Oct. 1657, in F. J. Powicke, “Some Unpublished Correspondence of the Rev. Richard Baxter and the Rev. John Eliot, ‘The Apostle to the American Indians,’ 1656–1682,” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 15 (Jan. 1931): 158; Massasoit in Henry Whitfield, The Light appearing more and more towards the perfect Day … (London: T.R. and E.M., 1651), 12.
20. “English man” in Mayhew Jr. letter of 7 Sept. 1650, in Whitfield, Light appearing, 4.
21. 1651 visit to Massachusetts in letter of John Wilson, 27 Oct. 1651, in Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in New England, Strength out of Weaknesse … (London: M. Simmons, 1652), 16. On Hiacoomes and the establishment of Wampanoag Christianity on Martha’s Vineyard, see Silverman, Faith and Boundaries, chapter 1; Edward E. Andrews, Native Apostles: Black and Indian Missionaries in the British Atlantic World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013), 29–34, 43–44. On the growth of Wampanoag Christianity on Martha’s Vineyard by the 1670s, see Silverman, “The Church in New England Indian Community Life: A View from the Islands and Cape Cod,” in Colin G. Calloway and Neal Salisbury, ed., Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2003), 267.
22. [Increase Mather], A Brief Relation of the State of New England … (London: Richard Baldwine, 1689), 16. On the “Indian Bible,” see Kristina Bross, Dry Bones and Indian Sermons: Praying Indians in Colonial America (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2004), chapter 3.
23. See Richard W. Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission to the Indians Before King Philip’s War (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999), chapter 3; Jean M. O’Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650–1790 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), esp. 42–51.
24. On the growth of Wampanoag Christianity at Mashpee, see J. Patrick Cesarini, “John Eliot’s ‘A Brief History of the Mashepog Indians,’ 1666,” WMQ 65 (Jan. 2008): 101–34 (Wuttinnaumatuk quoted on 128); Silverman, “The Church in New England Indian Community Life.”
25. Richard Bourne to the Commissioners of the New England Company, 6 Sept. 1666, Records of the New England Company, no. 7957, p. 1, Guildhall Library, London (consulted on microfilm copy); Cesarini, “‘Brief History,’” 126–34; Eliot, The Indian Grammar Begun … (Cambridge, Mass.: Marmaduke Johnson, 1666), 9. See Silverman, “The Church in New England Indian Community Life,” 267.
26. Samuel Willis et al., report of 20 Mar. 1661/62, in Andrews-Eliot Correspondence, Ms. N-1774, box 1, MHS, printed in CJCJ, 44–45; John Davenport to John Cotton, 23 Mar. 1662/63, in CJCJ, 47. On Cotton, see the introduction to CJCJ.
27. Richard D. Pierce, ed., The Records of the First Church in Boston, 1630–1686, Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 1961), 60–61; Mather Diary, 11 June 1664, typescript by Michael G. Hall in Mather Papers, American Antiquarian Society, Worcester, Mass.
28. PCR, Sept. 1667, 10:329.
29. PChR, 145.
30. For Cotton’s support of the practice, see Cotton to Increase Mather, 26 Aug. 1678, CJCJ, 239. See Michael P. Winship, Hot Protestants: A History of Puritanism in England and America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 236–40. On developments within Plymouth Colony, see J. M. Bumsted, “A Well-Bounded Toleration: Church and State in the Plymouth Colony,” Journal of Church and State 10 (Spring 1968): 267.
31. PChR, 144–45.
32. John Cotton Jr., Journal, 15 Nov. 1670 and 29 Mar. 1671, in Len Travers, ed., “The Missionary Journal of John Cotton, Jr., 1666–1678,” PMHS, 3rd ser., 109 (1997): 89–90; Cotton to Commissioners of the United Colonies, 7 Sept. 1671, CJCJ, 85.
33. On the creation of distinctively Wampanoag forms of Christianity, see David J. Silverman, “Indians, Missionaries, and Religious Translation: Creating Wampanoag Christianity in Seventeenth-Century Martha’s Vineyard,” WMQ 62 (Apr. 2005): 141–74.
34. Eliot to the commissioners of the United Colonies, 25 Aug. 1664, in PCR, 10:383–86. On Sassamon, see Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), chapter 1.
35. PCR, 2 July 1667, 4:164–66. See Julie A. Fisher and David J. Silverman, Ninigret, Sachem of the Niantics and Narragansetts: Diplomacy, War, and the Balance of Power in Seventeenth-Century New England and Indian Country (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2014), 100–103; James D. Drake, King Philip’s War: Civil War in New England, 1675–1676 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 65.
36. Cole deposition of 8 Mar. 1670/71, CMHS, 1st ser., 6 (1800): 211.
37. Winslow to Prence, included in Richard Bellingham to Prence, 24 Mar. 1670/71, Winslow Papers, MHS; Hinckley and Nathaniel Bacon to Prence, 6 Apr. 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS.
38. Record of 10 Apr. 1671 with Philip’s mark, in Increase Mather, A Brief History of the Warr with the Indians in New-England (Boston: John Foster, 1676), postscript, 7. See Pulsipher, Subjects, chapter 3.
39. Prence to Bellingham, 5 May 1671, Miscellaneous Bound, MHS.
40. PCR, 7 June 1671, 5:66–67.
41. PCR, 5–7 July 1671, 5:70–72.
42. See Samuel G. Drake, The Book of the Indians of North America (Boston: Antiquarian Bookstore, 1833), 62–64. The fullest treatment of Awashonks (or Awashunkes) is Ann Marie Plane, “Putting a Face on Colonization: Factionalism and Gender Politics in the Life History of Awashunkes, the ‘Squaw Sachem’ of Saconet,” in Robert S. Grumet, ed., Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 140–65.
43. On the rise of horseback travel, mail, and commerce, see Katherine Grandjean, American Passage: The Communications Frontier in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015), 123–37.
44. Prence to Rhode Island, 28 May 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS. In his letter, Prence refers to “a letter from seoconet sachim.” Because Plymouth officials regarded Awashonks as the most influential sachem at Sakonnet in 1671, the reference is most likely to her. It is possible, however, that Prence referred to another Sakonnet sachem.
45. John Cranston et al. to Thomas Prence, 26 Oct. 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS.
46. PCR, 8 July 1671, 5:73–75.
47. PCR, 24 July 1671, 5:75. On the practice in New Plymouth of attaching mortgages to debts in the 1660s and 1670s, see Bangs, Indian Deeds, 140–54, 188–90, 223–24.
48. “enemies” in Thomas Prence to Rhode Island, 23 Aug. 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS. See also Nathaniel Morton to John Cotton and Thomas Cushman, ca. Aug. 1671, CJCJ 81–82; Prence to Awashonks, 20 Oct. 1671, in CMHS, 1st ser., 5 (1799): 197.
49. Prence to Rhode Island, 23 Aug. 1671; James Walker to Prence, 1 Sept. 1671, in CMHS, 1st ser., 6 (1800): 197–98. See the analysis in Pulsipher, Subjects, 95–96.
50. Eliot to Prence, 16 June 1671, John Davis Papers, MHS; “Instructions,” 1 Aug. 1671, in CMHS, 1st ser., 6 (1800): 201–3.
51. Rawson to Prence, 8 and 9 Sept. 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS.
52. “sensible” and “blown over” in Prence to John Winthrop Jr. and Samuel Willis, 7 Sept. 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS; “the inconvenience” and “but one” in Leverett to Prence, 6 Sept. 1671, Winslow Papers, MHS. See also Edward Rawson to John Winthrop Jr., 6 June 1671, Colonial Boundaries, n. 2, Connecticut State Archives, Hartford. On the United Colonies, see Harry M. Ward, The United Colonies of New England: 1643–90 (New York: Vantage, 1961), chapter 12.
53. PCR, 24 Sept. 1671, 5:78–79.
54. PCR, 29 Sept. 1671, 5:79. See the analysis in Pulsipher, Subjects, 99–100.
55. Rebecca Fraser, The Mayflower: The Families, the Voyage, and the Founding of America (New York: St. Martin’s, 2017), chapter 15; John Frederick Martin, Profits in the Wilderness: Entrepreneurship and the Founding of New England Towns in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 62–78.
56. Cudworth to Josiah Winslow, 16 Jan. 1673/74, Winslow Papers, MHS.
57. PCR, 5 Mar. 1671/72, 5:89.
58. Record of 11 Feb. 1672/73, in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 452; Cotton Journal of 5 June 1673, in Travers, “The Missionary Journal,” 94.
59. Deed of 31 July 1673, in Philip B. Simonds, ed., Purchase of the Lands in Little Compton 1672/1673 from the Saconet Indians (Providence: for the Winter Court, 1977); deed of 1 Nov. 1673, in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 465–67; deed of 29 May 1674, in Benjamin Franklin Wilbour, Notes on Little Compton (Little Compton: Little Compton Historical Society, 1970), 7; PCR, 7 July 1674, 7:191. See Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 119–20. See also the discussion by Brooks at https://ourbelovedkin.com/awikhigan/awash onks (accessed 27 Aug. 2018).
60. Deed of 9 Apr. 1675, in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 477–79; PCR, Mar. 1674/75, 5:162.
61. Church, EP, A2.
62. Nineteenth-century copy of ca. 1681 map of Sakonnet, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, Rhode Island; Meeting of 21 May 1675, Proprietors’ Records, vol. 1, p. 5, Town Offices, Little Compton, Rhode Island. I am grateful to Marjory O’Toole for helping me make sense of the Sakonnet deeds.
63. Josiah Winslow to Increase Mather, 1 May 1676, in Mather, A Brief History of the Warr, postscript, 2–3; Easton, “Relacion,” 11. See Jenny Hale Pulsipher, “Defending and Defrauding the Indians: John Wompas, Legal Hybridity, and the Sale of Indian Land,” in Brian P. Owensby and Richard J. Ross, eds., Justice in a New World: Negotiating Legal Intelligibility in British, Iberian, and Indigenous America (New York: New York University Press, 2018), chapter 3.
1. This chapter and the next rely on Douglas Leach’s chronology and narrative history of King Philip’s War. See Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Macmillan, 1958). Although I place less weight on “cultural anxieties” and more on the encroachment of English settlements, my thinking about the war has also been shaped by Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998). Lisa Brooks’s reconstruction of the experiences of individuals such as Weetamoo and James Printer provides an invaluable perspective on how different peoples made choices and interpreted the events around them during the war. See Brooks, Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018).
2. Church, EP, 2–3.
3. Lepore, “Plymouth Rocked,” New Yorker, 24 Apr. 2006, 164–70.
4. Williams, Key into the Language of America … (London: Gregory Dexter, 1643), 119. See Heather Miyano Kopelson, Faithful Bodies: Performing Religion and Race in the Puritan Atlantic (New York: New York University Press, 2014), 51–63; Kathleen J. Bragdon, Native People of Southern New England, 1500–1650 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 226–28.
5. Proclamation of 22 June 1675, CJCJ, 108.
6. Newman to John Cotton, 19 Apr. 1676, CJCJ, 150.
7. On Sassamon’s death and the resulting trial and executions, see Yasuhide Kawashima, Igniting King Philip’s War: The John Sassamon Murder Trial (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2001); Jill Lepore, “Dead Men Tell No Tales: John Sassamon and the Fatal Consequences of Literacy,” American Quarterly 46 (Dec. 1994): 479–512; James P. Ronda and Jeanne Ronda, “The Death of John Sassamon: An Exploration in Writing New England Indian History,” American Indian Quarterly 1 (Summer 1974): 91–102.
8. Tuspaquin deed of ca. Mar. 1673/74, in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 469–70; Len Travers, ed., “The Missionary Journal of John Cotton, Jr., 1666–1678,” PMHS, 3rd ser., 109 (1997): 94. See the analysis in Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 121–24.
9. Josiah Winslow and Thomas Hinckley, “A Breiff Narrative of the beginning and progresse of the present trouble between us and the Indians,” ca. fall 1675, in PCR, 10:362–64.
10. Winslow and Hinckley, “A Breiff Narrative.”
11. Mather, A Relation of the Troubles which have hapned in New-England … (Boston: John Foster, 1677), 75; PCR, 1 Mar. 1674/75, 5:159; deed of 14 May 1675, in Bangs, Indian Deeds, 482–84. See Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 123–24.
12. PCR, 1 Mar. 1669, 5:31; PCR, 1 June 1675, 5:167–68.
13. Williams to John Winthrop Jr., 27 June 1675, in CRW, 2:698–701; The Generall Laws and Liberties of New-Plimouth Colony (n.p., 1672), 1–3.
14. James Walker to Thomas Prence, 1 Sept. 1671, CMHS, 1st ser., 6 (1799): 198.
15. Easton, “A Relacion of the Indyan Warre” [1675], in Charles H. Lincoln, ed., Narratives of the Indian Wars, 1675–1699 (New York: Scribner, 1913), 7–8.
16. PCR, 1 June 1675, 5:167; Roger Williams to John Winthrop Jr., 25 June 1675, CRW, 2:693–97; Increase Mather, A Brief History of the Warr With the Indians in New-England … (Boston: John Foster, 1676), 2. On the ritual of executions, see David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 168, 179–84.
17. Williams to Winthrop Jr., 13 June 1675, CRW, 2:690–93.
18. John Brown to Josiah Winslow, 11 June 1675, Winslow Papers, MHS.
19. Samuel Gorton Jr. to Winslow, undated [June 1675], Miscellaneous Bound Manuscripts, MHS.
20. Winslow to Lord Henry Coventry, 1 May 1680, CO 1/44, n. 55, f. 395r, NAK, accessed via CSP.
21. Winslow to Leverett, 6 July 1675, Davis Papers, MHS.
22. Easton, “Relacion,” 12.
23. Death of father and son in Easton, “Relacion,” 12; Cudworth to Winslow, 27 June 1675, Boston Athanaeum. I am grateful to Thomas Kidd and Jenny Pulsipher for their help in the transcription of Cudworth’s letter. On the death of Myles’s slave, see also William Hubbard, A Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in New-England … (Boston: John Foster, 1677), first page of “The Table.”
24. Cudworth to Winslow, 27 June 1675.
25. Hubbard, Narrative, 17–18.
26. Bible in Hubbard, Narrative, 19; poles and body parts in Massachusetts Council to John Pynchon, 10 July 1675, box 20, Winthrop Papers, MHS.
27. Heads to Narragansetts in Williams to Winthrop Jr., 27 June 1675; spy in Benjamin Batten to Thomas Allin, ca. July 1675, in Douglas E. Leach, “Benjamin Batten and the London Gazette Report on King Philip’s War,” NEQ 36 (Dec. 1963): 512. On the similar functions of mutilation and body parts during an earlier war, see Andrew Lipman, “‘A meanes to knitt them togeather’: The Exchange of Body Parts in the Pequot War,” WMQ 65 (Jan. 2008): 3–28.
28. Cudworth to Winslow, 27 June 1675; Winslow to Leverett, 28 June 1675, Davis Papers, MHS.
29. Bradford to John Cotton, 21 July 1675, CJCJ, 109; Cudworth to Winslow, 20 July 1675, Winslow Papers, MHS.
30. Deposition of Dorothy Hayard [Hayward], 25 June 1677, Davis Papers, MHS; Hubbard, Narrative, first page of “The Table.”
31. See the letters of John Freeman to Winslow, 3 and 18 July 1675, Winslow Papers, MHS.
32. Church, EP, 20; Thomas Stanton and Thomas Minor to John Winthrop Jr. and Council of Connecticut, 30 June 1675, box 20, Winthrop Papers, MHS. See Katherine Grandjean, American Passage: The Communications Frontier in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015), 160.
33. Bradford to Cotton, 21 July 1675; PCR, 28 June 1676, 5:201–3.
34. Rowlandson, The Soveraignty and Goodness of God …, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Samuel Green, 1682), 5 (“chopped”), 73 (“good for me”). The latter phrase is from Psalm 119:71.
35. “sound and well” in M. Halsey Thomas, ed., The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 1674–1729 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973), 1:18.
36. Newman to John Cotton, 3 Aug. 1676, CJCJ, 166.
37. “remain” and “set at liberty” in PCR, 1 Nov. 1676, 5:216; house in Boston in Michael G. Hall, The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather, 1639–1723 (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1988), 129. See also William Bradford to John Cotton, 18 July 1676, CJCJ, 159. On Saffin, see Albert J. Von Frank, “John Saffin: Slavery and Racism in Colonial Massachusetts,” Early American Literature 29 (Jan. 1994): 254–72.
38. On the enslavement and export of Natives during and after King Philip’s War, see Lepore, The Name of War, chapter 6; Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2015), chapters 6 and 7.
39. Statute of 5 June 1676, in William Waller Hening, ed., The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection of all the Laws of Virginia (Richmond: Samuel Pleasants Jr., 1810), 2:346. See Michael Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), chapter 3.
40. Winslow to John Leverett, 28 July 1675, MSAC, 67:229. The figure of 160 comes from Church, EP, 13. See the analysis in Linford D. Fisher, “‘Why shall wee have peace to bee made slaves’: Indian Surrenderers during and after King Philip’s War,” Ethnohistory 64 (Jan. 2017): 91–114.
41. PCR, 4 Aug. and 2 Sept. 1675, 5:173–74.
42. [Saltonstall], The Present State of New-England with Respect to the Indian War (London: Dorman Newman, 1676), 6, 9.
43. Hakluyt [1584] in Charles Deane, ed., Discourse Concerning Western Planting (Cambridge, Mass.: John Wilson, 1877), 159. See Guasco, Slaves and Englishmen, 12–14.
44. Thomas Hamilton to “the Right and Principall Officers and Commissioners of His Majesty’s Navy,” 15 Dec. 1675, ADM 106/311, National Archives, Kew; memo of 29 Apr. 1676 at http://images.library.yale.edu:8080/neips/data/html/1676.04.29.00/1676.04.29.00.html (accessed 11 Sept. 2018). See the discussion in Newell, Brethren by Nature, 174–79.
45. Eliot to Massachusetts Bay governor and council, 13 Aug. 1675, PCR 10:451–53.
46. Walley to John Cotton, 18 Nov. 1675 and 17 Apr. 1676, CJCJ, 119 (“rash”), 144 (“squaws”); Church, EP, 13; PCR, 1 Oct. 1675, 5:175.
47. On the exile to Deer Island, see Christine M. DeLucia’s Memory Lands: King Philip’s War and the Place of Violence in the Northeast (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), chapter 1; Lepore, The Name of War, 136–41.
48. See Jenny Hale Pulsipher, “Massacre at Hurtleberry Hill: Christian Indians and English Authority in Metacom’s War,” WMQ 53 (July 1996): 461–62.
49. PCR, 6 Dec. 1675 and 29 Feb. 1675/76, 5:183, 187.
50. Record of 22 Feb. 1675/76 town meeting, in Bangs, Sandwich, 24, 278.
1. Williams to John Winthrop Jr., 27 June 1675, CRW, 2:698.
2. PCR, 18 Oct. and 2 Nov. 1675, 10:360–61, 357. See Jenny Hale Pulsipher, Subjects unto the Same King: Indians, English, and the Contest for Authority in Colonial New England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005), chapter 5.
3. Oliver to John Cotton, transcription by John Cotton, 14 Jan. 1675/76, CJCJ, 132; “piles of meat” in Joseph Dudley, letter of 21 Dec. 1675, in George M. Bodge, “Soldiers in King Philip’s War,” NEHGR 40 (Jan. 1886): 89–90.
4. Church, EP, 16–17; Hubbard, A Narrative of the Troubles with the Indians in New-England … (Boston: John Foster, 1677), 53; Tompson, New Englands Crisis … (Boston: John Foster, 1676), 19. In his “nomenclature,” William Wood translated mitchin as “meat.” Wood, New Englands Prospect … (London: Thomas Cotes, 1634), aftertext, p. 2. See Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), chapter 3; Susan Juster, Sacred Violence in Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016), 62–66.
5. Oliver to Cotton, 14 Jan. 1675/76. On the battle and its aftermath, see Douglas Leach, Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War (New York: Macmillan, 1958), chapter 7.
6. Newman to Cotton, 27 Mar. and 19 Apr. 1676, CJCJ, 141, 150.
7. PCR, 7 and 21 July 1676, 5:204–6; Mather Diary, 12 Mar. 1675/76, in Samuel A. Green, ed., Diary by Increase Mather … (Cambridge, Mass.: John Wilson and Son, 1900), 45; James Thacher, History of the Town of Plymouth …, 2nd ed. (Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1835), 387. See also Nathaniel Saltonstall, A New and Further Narrative of the State of New-England … (London: F.B., 1676), 5.
8. Nathaniel Morton to Massachusetts Bay council, 21 Apr. 1676, MSAC, 68:234. See also Scituate petition of 16 Feb. 1676/77, Davis Papers, MHS.
9. Plymouth’s refusal in Thomas Savage to John Leverett and council, 16 Mar. 1675/76, MSAC, 241:279; request for assistance in Hinckley to John Leverett, ca. 1 Apr. 1676, Davis Papers, MHS; Morton to Massachusetts council, 26 Apr. 1676. I am grateful to Jeremy Bangs for his help in transcribing the last letter. See Leach, Flintlock, 161–62.
10. James D. Drake, King Philip’s War: Civil War in New England, 1675–1676 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999).
11. PCR, 7 June 1676, 5:197. See discussion of the peace initiatives in Lisa Brooks, Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip’s War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), chapter 8.
12. Church, EP, 21–27.
13. PCR, 28 June 1676, 5:201–3.
14. Church, EP, 28–30.
15. Bradford to Cotton, 24 July 1676, CJCJ, 164.
16. Walley to Cotton, 18 July 1676, CJCJ, 158.
17. Church, EP, 34. On Weetamoo’s death, see Brooks, Our Beloved Kin, 323–26. Wootonekanuske identified in Samuel G. Drake, The Book of the Indians of North America … (Boston: Josiah Drake, 1833), book 3, 13.
18. On Alderman and Philip’s death, see Church, EP, 11, 44; Increase Mather, A Brief History of the Warr With the Indians in New-England … (Boston: John Foster, 1676), 46–47.
19. Church, EP, 45.
20. Rawson to Josiah Winslow, 20 Aug. 1676, Winslow Papers, MHS.
21. Morton to John Leverett, 8 June 1677, Davis Papers, MHS.
22. Scituate petition of 26 Jan. 1676/77.
23. See Drake, King Philip’s War, 168–69.
24. PChR, 148. See Stephen Foster, The Long Argument: English Puritanism and the Shaping of New England Culture, 1570–1700 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), 223–27.
25. PChR, 148–52.
26. Church, EP, 45; Magnalia, book 3, 199.
27. PChR, 153; Mather, A Brief History, 47; Magnalia, book 7, 54. See John McWilliams, New England’s Crises and Cultural Memory: Literature, Politics, History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 120.
1. Richard Archer, “New England Mosaic: A Demographic Analysis for the Seventeenth Century,” WMQ 47 (Oct. 1990): 477–502; David E. Stannard, The Puritan Way of Death: A Study in Religion, Culture, and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 54–56. John Demos suggested a much lower rate of child mortality in his study of the town of Plymouth. See Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 66, 192.
2. Jeannine Hensley, ed., The Works of Anne Bradstreet (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), 236.
3. See Judith S. Graham, Puritan Family Life: The Diary of Samuel Sewall (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2000), 6–7 and chapter 5; Stannard, Puritan Way of Death, 57.
4. Bryan Rosseter to John and Joanna Cotton, 24 Sept. 1669, in Josiah Cotton memoir, 18–22, Ms. SBd-47, MHS.
5. See entries in Samuel A. Green, ed., Diary by Increase Mather … (Cambridge, Mass.: John Wilson and Son, 1900), 15–19.
6. “malignant fever” in Green, Diary by Increase Mather, 22. See David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), 231–33.
7. Steven C. Bullock and Sheila McIntyre, “The Handsome Tokens of a Funeral: Glove-Giving and the Large Funeral in Eighteenth-Century New England,” WMQ 69 (Apr. 2012): 305–46.
8. Walley to Cotton, 16 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ, 181–83; Cotton to Mather, 19 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ, 183–84.
9. Mather, Right Thoughts in Sad Hours … (London: James Astwood, 1689), 49 (“surprising”), 18 (“rebellious”), 23–24 (“blasted”), 43 (“’Twas that sin”).
10. Walley to Cotton, 16 and 28 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ; Mather to Joanna Cotton, 22 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ, 185–86.
11. Wigglesworth, The Day of Doom … (Cambridge, Mass.: Samuel Green, 1666), 15. See Peter J. Thuesen, Predestination: The American Career of a Contentious Doctrine (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), chapter 2, esp. 63–64; Baird Tipson, Hartford Puritanism: Thomas Hooker, Samuel Stone, and Their Terrifying God (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), chapter 6.
12. Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, trans. Ford Lewis Battles, ed. John T. McNeill (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), 1:251 (book 2, chapter 1, section 8).
13. Tipson, Hartford Puritanism, 365; Cotton sermon of 24 Nov. 1687, in John Templestone Sermon Notebook, MS. SBd-227, MHS.
14. Baird Tipson, ed., “Stone, Samuel. Whole Body of Divinity,” 248, http://www.congregationallibrary.org/sites/all/files/Stone_Samuel_Whole_Body_of_Divinity.pdf (accessed 26 Sept. 2018); Wigglesworth, Day of Doom, 8.
15. Walley to Cotton, 16 and 28 Jan. 1676/77; Keith to Cotton, 29 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ, 186–87; Mather to Cotton, 22 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ.
16. Magnalia, book 6, 85.
17. Green, Diary by Increase Mather, 14.
18. Cotton to Mather, 24 Nov. 1676, CJCJ, 176–77.
19. Cotton to Mather, 19 Jan. 1676/77, CJCJ, 183–84; Cotton to Mather, 19 and 20 Mar. 1676/77, CJCJ, 187–89.
20. Cotton to Mather, 19 and 20 Mar. 1676/77.
21. Mather to Cotton, 23 July 1677, CJCJ, 210.
22. On the captives in Providence, see Margaret Ellen Newell, Brethren by Nature: New England Indians, Colonists, and the Origins of American Slavery (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2015), 170–71.
23. Entries of 24 Aug. and 23 Sept. 1676, John Hull Account Books, 2:390, 446, New England Historical and Genealogical Society Library, Boston. See the discussion of these sales in Newell, Brethren by Nature, 168–70.
24. “An Answer to the Several heads of Inquiry,” Winslow to Lord Coventry, 1 May 1680, CO 1/44, n. 55, f. 395v, NAK, accessed via CSP.
25. Linford Fisher, “‘Dangerous Designes’: The 1676 Barbados Act to Prohibit New England Indian Slave Importation,” WMQ 71 (Jan. 2014): 99–124.
26. Winslow certificate of 9 Aug. 1676, box 2, folder 50, Stewart Mitchell Collection, MHS; John Leverett certificate, 12 Sept. 1676, Miscellaneous Bound, MHS. See Jill Lepore, The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity (New York: Knopf, 1998), chapter 6.
27. Church, EP, 38.
28. Arnold and Cotton, 7 Sept. 1676, CJCJ, 173.
29. Mather to Cotton, 20 Oct. 1676, printed in CMHS, 4th ser., 8 (1868): 689–90.
30. Keith to Cotton, 30 Oct. 1676, CJCJ, 175.
31. Cotton to Mather, 19 and 20 Mar. 1676/77.
32. PCR, 22 July 1676, 5:207–10.
33. PCR, 22 Sept. 1676, 5:207; PCR, 6 Mar. 1676/77, 5:223; PCR, 5 Mar. 1677/78, 5:352.
34. Peter Thacher Diary, 24 Sept. 1679, Ms. N-1649, MHS. See Edward Pierce Hamilton, “The Diary of a Colonial Clergyman: Peter Thacher of Milton,” PMHS, 3rd ser., 71 (Oct. 1953–May 1957): 50–63.
35. Thacher Diary, 23 June 1679, 1 Feb. 1679/80 (“ready”), and 27 Feb. 1679/80.
36. Thacher Diary, 14 May and 18 Aug. 1679.
37. RGCMB, 24 May 1677, 5:136. See the discussion in Heather Miyano Kopelson, Faithful Bodies: Performing Religion and Race in the Puritan Atlantic (New York: New York University Press, 2014), 196–200.
38. Bill of sale, 9 Jan. 1677/78, in Clarence S. Brigham, ed., The Early Records of the Town of Portsmouth (Providence, R.I.: E.L. Freeman and Sons, 1901), 433–34.
39. Bills of sale, 27 Apr. 1677, in The Early Records of the Town of Portsmouth, 430–33. See Newell, Brethren by Nature, 172–73.
40. Job Almy inventories of 29 Feb. 1683/84 and 25 Apr. 1685, Portsmouth, Rhode Island, Town Clerk’s Office. It is possible that the two Job Almy inventories are for two separate individuals. However, I have not been able to identify a second Job Almy deceased at this time. See Newell, Brethren by Nature, 173.
41. The list appears in a volume now bound as “Indian Deeds, Accounts, Freemen,” Plymouth County Registry of Deeds, f. 29 in part 3 of that volume. The document is transcribed in PCR, 8:187, but the transcription misleadingly appends “the blackamore” to the name that appears above it, that of Abraham Pearse. See Stratton, 187.
42. PCR, 3 May 1653, 3:27; MD 33 (Jan. 1935): 37; inventory of 18 May 1683, Plymouth Colony Probate Records, vol. 4, part 2, p. 24, Plymouth County Probate Office, accessed via familysearch.org; “An Answer to the Several heads of Inquiry,” f. 395v. On the growth of slavery in New England in the late seventeenth century, see Wendy Warren, New England Bound: Slavery and Colonization in Early America (New York: Liveright, 2017), 112–13 and epilogue.
43. Saffin et al. to William Welstead, 12 June 1681, Jeffries Family Papers, MHS. See Warren, New England Bound, 44–45.
44. Collamore inventory of 15 Jan. 1693/94, in Bangs, Scituate, 3:483; Williams inventory of 14 Nov. 1694, in Bangs, Scituate, 3:473.
45. Winslow to Charles II, 26 June 1677, CO 1/40, n. 116, f. 269r, NAK, accessed via CSP.
46. Magnalia, book 6, 56; John Cotton Jr., Journal, 22–23 July 1678, in Len Travers, ed., “The Missionary Journal of John Cotton, Jr., 1666–1678,” PMHS, 3rd ser., 109 (1997): 101; PCR, 1 June 1680 and 7 July 1681, 6:40, 65.
47. PCR, July 1683, 6:113; Walter Clark to Edmund Andros, 2 Mar. 1687/88, MSAC, 128:71. See Ann Marie Plane, “Putting a Face on Colonization: Factionalism and Gender Politics in the Life History of Awashunkes, the ‘Squaw Sachem’ of Saconet,” in Robert S. Grumet, ed., Northeastern Indian Lives, 1632–1816 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996), 149–56.
48. Marjory Gomez O’Toole, If Jane Should Want to Be Sold: Stories of Enslavement, Indenture and Freedom in Little Compton, Rhode Island (Little Compton: Little Compton Historical Society, 2016), 38–39.
49. PCR, Mar. 1684/85, 6:159–60; Silverman, “The Church in New England Indian Community Life: A View from the Islands and Cape Cod,” in Colin G. Calloway and Neal Salisbury, ed., Reinterpreting New England Indians and the Colonial Experience (Boston: Colonial Society of Massachusetts, 2003), 264–98; Rowland Cotton to Increase Mather, 27 June 1693, Magnalia, book 6, 61.
50. “A Conference with an Indian of New England,” 1708, New England Company Manuscripts, #7957, n. 3, Guildhall Library, London (consulted on microfilm copy). On Joseph Bourne, see Daniel R. Mandell, Behind the Frontier: Indians in Eighteenth-Century Eastern Massachusetts (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 108.
51. Simon Popmonit and Joseph Peter to Governor and Council, 31 May 1710, MSAC, 31:68. On the consolidation of Wampanoag communities and the disappearance of many enclaves, see Mandell, Behind the Frontier, 52–54.
52. On the role of Cape and island Wampanoags in the whaling industry, see Mark A. Nicholas, “Mashpee Wampanoags of Cape Cod, the Whalefishery, and Seafaring’s Impact on Community Development,” American Indian Quarterly 26 (Spring 2002): 165–97.
53. Petition of Simon Popmonit et al., 24 May 1700, MSAC, 30:456. See Newell, Brethren by Nature, 223–29; Douglas L. Winiarski, “A Question of Plain Dealing: Josiah Cotton, Native Christians, and the Quest for Security in Eighteenth-Century Plymouth County,” NEQ 77 (Sept. 2004): 370–72, 390–93; David J. Silverman, “The Impact of Indentured Servitude on the Society and Culture of Southern New England Indians, 1680–1810,” WMQ 74 (Dec. 2001): 622–66.
1. Walsham, Charitable Hatred: Tolerance and Intolerance in England, 1500–1700 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006), 4.
2. Magnalia, book 3, 219; Deane, Scituate, 181–83; Baker, Thomas Clap, and John Daman to the elders “of the Church of Christ in Scittuat at the North river,” 1 Apr. 1675, in FPCN, transcription in Bangs, Scituate, 3:382–84. On the difference in ordination practices between the two colonies, see J. M. Bumsted, “A Well-Bounded Toleration: Church and State in the Plymouth Colony,” Journal of Church and State 10 (Spring 1968): 268.
3. Caleb Hopkins Snow, A History of Boston … (Boston: Abel Bowen, 1825), 198; Deane, Scituate, 54–55, 371–73.
4. Truth Exalted in the Writings of That Eminent and Faithful Servant of Christ, John Burnyeat (London: Thomas Northcott, 1691), 48–49.
5. A Memorable Account of the Christian Experiences and Living Testimonies Of that faithful Servant of Christ, Edward Perry (1726), 63–78 (quotes on 63 and 67). There is a manuscript copy of Perry’s warning in MSAC, 241:284–87.
6. Declaration printed in Meredith Baldwin Weddle, Walking in the Way of Peace: Quaker Pacifism in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 234–37. For context, see her chapters 2 and 3.
7. PCR, 11 Apr. 1676, 5:193; Petition of 4 June 1678, in Sandwich Monthly Meeting (Men’s), Minutes, 14, NEYM.
8. Deane, Scituate, 33; “The Sufferings of Edward Wanton,” Pembroke Monthly Meeting (Men’s), Minutes, 1741–1801, f. 3, NEYM.
9. William Coddington, A Demonstration of True Love … (London: s.n., 1674), 14; PCR, 10 Mar. 1675/76, 5:190. Most sources refer to John “Rance,” though he signed his surname “Raunce” in his will.
10. “The Sufferings of John Rance,” Pembroke Monthly Meeting (Men’s), Minutes, 1741–1801, f. 16. See Jeremiah 23; Ezekiel 34.
11. “The Sufferings of John Rance.”
12. Baker to John Cotton, ca. 9 July 1677, CJCJ, 203–4; “The Sufferings of John Rance”; PCR, 10 July 1677, 5:240.
13. PCR, 7 June 1677, 5:233; Cotton et al. to the General Court, 12 July 1677, CJCJ, 205–9. See Bumsted, “A Well-Bounded Toleration.”
14. PCR, 13 July 1677, 5:241–42; Shove to Thomas Hinckley, n.d., ca. 1677, HP, 23–25.
15. Remonstrance of Quakers, June 1678, HP, 18–20.
16. PCR, 5 June 1678, 263. The copy of “The Sufferings of Edward Wanton” at the Newport Historical Society (FIC.2013.39) details the property seized to satisfy his fine for the unauthorized marriage.
17. PCR, 5 Mar. 1666/67, 4:140; PCR, 2 July 1667, 4:158–59; MD, 3:203–16.
18. “The Sufferings of Arthur Howland,” Pembroke Monthly Meeting (Men’s), 1741–1801, f. 20, NEYM.
19. 11 Sept. 1682 town meeting in Marshfield, in Jeremy Dupertuis Bangs, The Town Records of Marshfield during the Time of Plymouth Colony (Leiden: Leiden American Pilgrim Museum, 2015), 393.
20. “The Sufferings of Arthur Howland.”
21. Arnold, Cotton, and Wiswall to “Elders of the Church of Christ in Scittuat at the North river,” Sept. 1679, in FPCN, f. 21v, in Bangs, Scituate, 3:381–82; record of Scituate town meeting of 24 Oct. 1679, in Bangs, Scituate, 3:186.
22. PCR, 1 Nov. 1679, 6:27; petition of John Bayley et al., June 1680, in HP, 38–40.
23. Town meetings of 20 June and 11 July 1676, in Bangs, Sandwich, 321–22.
24. Petition of 4 June 1678, 11–12.
25. Petition of William Newland, Ralph Allen, William Allen, and Edward Perry, 7 June 1681, Davis Papers, MHS.
26. See Owen Stanwood, The Empire Reformed: English America in the Age of the Glorious Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), introduction and chapter 1.
27. Michael Garibaldi Hall, Edward Randolph and the American Colonies, 1676–1703 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960), chapter 2.
28. Randolph to Lords of Trade and Plantations, 12 Oct. 1676, ER, 2:258 (“no slaves” and “beloved”); Randolph to Lord Coventry, 17 June 1676, ER, 2:207 (“stout commander”); Randolph to Charles II, 20 Sept. 1676, ER, 2:222–23 (“encroaching” and “reduced”).
29. See “An Answer to the Several heads of Inquiry,” Winslow to Lord Coventry, 1 May 1680, 1 May 1680, CO 1/44, n. 55, ff. 394v, 395v, NAK, accessed via CSP. Richard LeBaron Bowen estimates New Plymouth’s population at five thousand in 1675 and ten thousand in 1690. Bowen, Early Rehoboth: Documented Historical Studies of Families and Events in This Plymouth Colony Township (Rehoboth, Mass.: n.p., 1945), 1:1–24.
30. Randolph to Winslow, 24 Feb. 1679/80, Winslow Papers, MHS; Winslow to William Blathwayt, 2 July 1680, Blathwayt Papers, vol. 6, folder 6, John D. Rockefeller Library, Williamsburg, Va.; PCR, 7 July 1680, 6:46.
31. Winslow to Blathwayt, 15 Sept. 1680, vol. 6, folder 6, Blathwayt Papers; Stephen Saunders Webb, “William Blathwayt, Imperial Fixer: From Popish Plot to Glorious Revolution,” WMQ, 25 (Jan. 1968): 3–21.
32. M. Halsey Thomas, ed., The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 1674–1729 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973), 18 Dec. 1680, 1:47; Hinckley to Blathwayt, 24 Dec. 1680, vol. 6, folder 6, Blathwayt Papers.
33. Morton to Penelope Winslow, 28 Dec. 1680, Winslow Papers, MHS; Robinson, Observations Divine and Morall … (Amsterdam: n.p., 1625), 324.
34. Randolph to Archbishop of Canterbury William Sancroft, 27 Oct. 1686, ER, 4:131; Cranfield to Lords of Trade, 27 Mar. 1683, CO 1/51, n. 79, f. 222, NAK, accessed via CSP; Magnalia, book 2, 7 (emphasis in original). On Cranfield’s tumultuous governorship, see Stanwood, Empire Reformed, 32–40. On the Hinckley family, see Robert Charles Anderson, The Great Migration: Immigrants to New England, 1634–1635 (Boston: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 2003), 3:331–35.
35. Plymouth Colony Probate Records, vol. 4, part 2, p. 10, Plymouth County Registry of Deeds (accessed via familysearch.org); General Court to the church in Duxbury, 8 Feb. 1682/83, HP, 84–85; report of Samuel Arnold and Ephraim Morton, ca. 15 Feb. 1682/83, HP, 85–87; 50 guineas in Hinckley to Blathwayt, 18 Mar. 1682/83, vol. 6, folder 6, Blathwayt Papers.
36. Blathwayt to Hinckley, 27 Sept. 1683, HP, 91–92; “An Answer to the Several heads of Inquiry,” f. 396v; Hinckley to Blathwayt, 22 Nov. 1683, HP, 94–96. See John Miller, “‘A Suffering People’: English Quakers and Their Neighbours, c. 1650–c. 1700,” Past & Present 188 (Aug. 2005): 85–100; John Coffey, Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689 (Harlow, U.K.: Longman, 2000), 169–78.
37. Randolph to Hinckley, 24 Nov. 1683, HP, 96–97. See Wilfred H. Munro, The History of Bristol, R.I. … (Providence, R.I.: J. A. & R. A. Reid, 1880), 125–28.
38. Randolph to Hinckley, 24 Nov. 1683; Blathwayt to Hinckley, 27 Sept. 1683.
39. See Hall, Edward Randolph, chapter 4.
40. Randolph to Hinckley, 24 Nov. 1683, 97; Moodey to Hinckley, 12 Feb. 1683/84, HP, 116–21. Hinckley ignored Moodey’s request to burn his letter.
1. The Book of the General Laws of the Inhabitants of the Jurisdiction of New-Plimouth … (Boston: Samuel Green, 1685), 1–3 (“general fundamentals”), 19–21 (creation of counties); Scituate town meeting of 13 May 1686, Bangs, Scituate, 3:209–10.
2. Michael Garibaldi Hall, Edward Randolph and the American Colonies, 1676–1703 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960), 94–97 and chapter 5; Randolph to Archbishop of Canterbury, ca. 7 July 1686, in ER, 4:89.
3. Randolph to Hinckley, 22 June 1686, ER, 4:87.
4. M. Halsey Thomas, ed., The Diary of Samuel Sewall, 1674–1729 (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973), 19–20 Dec. 1686, 1:127–28; Peter Thacher Journal, 20 Dec. 1686, MHS.
5. On Andros, see Mary Lou Lustig, The Imperial Executive in America: Sir Edmund Andros, 1637–1714 (Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2002); Stephen Saunders Webb, 1676: The End of American Independence (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1984), 303–404.
6. Commission of 3 June 1686, in CMHS, 3rd ser., 7 (1838): 139–49.
7. J[ohn] C[otton], Upon the Death of that Aged, Pious, Sincere-hearted Christian, John Alden … (Boston: n.p., ca. 1687). The only known copy of this broadside is in the collections of the Boston Athenaeum.
8. Robert N. Toppan, “Andros Records,” PAAS, n.s., 13 (1901): 240, 242.
9. See John Miller, Popery and Politics in England, 1660–1688 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1973); John Coffey, Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689 (Harlow, U.K.: Longman, 2000), chapter 7; Scott Sowerby, Making Toleration: The Repealers and the Glorious Revolution (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2013), esp. chapter 1.
10. Thomas, Diary of Samuel Sewall, 23–29 Mar. 1686/87, 1:135.
11. See Viola Florence Barnes, The Dominion of New England: A Study in British Colonial Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1923), chapters 4 and 8; John Frederick Martin, Profits in the Wilderness: Entrepreneurship and the Founding of New England Towns in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), chapter 9.
12. Hinckley to Andros, 28 Feb. 1686/87, HP, 149–10; Toppan, “Andros Records,” 259; Hinckley to Blathwayt, 28 June 1687, HP, 160–61.
13. Council order of 1 June 1687, MSAC, 11:40; town meeting of 21 May 1688, Bangs, Scituate, 3:216; “the suffering of Edward Wanton and Joseph Coleman,” Pembroke Monthly Meeting (Men’s), Minutes, 1741–1801, f. 24, NEYM.
14. Town meeting of 24 Aug. 1687, PTR, 190–91.
15. John Cotton to Rowland Cotton, 2 Sept. 1687, CJCJ, 348–50; PChR, 251, 253–54.
16. John Cotton to Rowland Cotton, 2 Sept. 1687; John Cotton to Mather, 10 and 21 Sept. 1688, CJCJ, 370–71.
17. Cotton to Mather, 10 and 21 Sept. 1688; Freeman to Hinckley, 20 Mar. 1684/85, HP, 132; increase noted in CJCJ, 399, n. 3.
18. Hinckley to Blathwayt, 28 June 1687, 154–55; Hinckley to James II, Oct. 1687, HP, 184. I am grateful to Jeremy Bangs for alerting me to the biblical allusion.
19. Affidavit of John Wise et al., 20 Dec. 1689, in The Revolution in New-England Justified (Boston: Joseph Brunning, 1691), 10. See Craig Yirush, Settlers, Liberty, and Empire: The Roots of Early American Political Theory, 1675–1775 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), chapter 1.
20. Revolution in New-England Justified, 8; order of 30 Aug. 1687, MSAC, 127:59 (printed in CMHS, 4th ser, 7 [1838]: 190); Wilbore petition, 14 Nov. 1687, MSAC, 127:236.
21. John Insley Coddington, “The Widow Mary Ring, of Plymouth, Mass., and Her Children,” American Genealogist 42 (Oct. 1966): 201–2.
22. PCR, 4 June and 6 July 1686, 6:190–92; Hinckley to Clarke, 5 June 1686, Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, Mass. See Martha L. Finch, Dissenting Bodies: Corporealities in Early New England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2010), 197–98; Thomas A. Foster, “Deficient Husbands: Manhood, Sexual Incapacity, and Male Marital Sexuality in Seventeenth-Century New England,” WMQ 56 (Oct. 1999): 723–44; John Demos, A Little Commonwealth: Family Life in Plymouth Colony (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 92–97; Edmund S. Morgan, The Puritan Family: Religion and Domestic Relations in Seventeenth-Century New England (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1966), 34–36.
23. PCR, 6 July and Oct. 1686, 6:190–92, 203.
24. PChR, 25 July 1686, 258–59.
25. Andros to Samuel Spragge [Sprague], 21 Dec. 1687, MSAC, 127:298; PTR, 23 Jan. 1687/88, 192–93.
26. Act of 17 Mar. 1687/88, in J. Hammond Trumbull, ed., Public Records of the Colony of Connecticut (Hartford, Conn.: Case, Lockwood, 1859), 3:427–29; Cotton to Increase Mather, 10 and 21 Sept. 1688; PChR, 28 Oct. 1688, 263. On the Clark’s Island case, see Langdon, 219–20.
27. Deposition of Samuel Eldred, 16 Sept. 1688, MSAC, 35:129a. See Owen Stanwood, The Empire Reformed: English America in the Age of the Glorious Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 66–81.
28. On the power of antipopery and the Glorious Revolution, see Sowerby, Making Toleration.
29. Bradford to Hinckley, 20 Apr. 1689, HP, 190. See David S. Lovejoy, The Glorious Revolution in America (New York: Harper and Row, 1972), 239–45; Ian K. Steele, “Origins of Boston’s Revolutionary Declaration of 18 April 1689,” NEQ 62 (Mar. 1989): 75–81.
30. PCR, 4 June 1689, 6:208–9; Samuel Hopkins Emery, History of Taunton, Massachusetts, From Its Settlement to the Present Time (Syracuse, N.Y.: D. Mason, 1893), 566; PTR, 22 June 1689, 197.
31. Samuel Prince to Hinckley, 22 Apr. 1689, HP, 196; PCR, 7 June 1689, 6:207–8.
32. PChR, 3–7 July 1689, 265–67; Dorothy Clarke public confession in PChR, 25 May 1690, 269; Nathaniel Clarke membership and death in PChR, 206, 217.
33. William Bassitt to Hinckley, ca. 23 Sept. 1689, HP, 214–16; Steven C. Eames, “Benjamin Church,” in Alan Gallay, ed., Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763 (New York: Garland, 1996), 138.
34. John Wise narrative, 23 Dec. 1690, in PMHS, 2nd ser., 15 (1901–2): 289; anonymous narrative, 3 Jan. 1690/91, in PMHS, 2nd ser., 15 (1901–2): 315. See Richard R. Johnson, “Canada, New England Expedition Against (1690),” in Gallay, Colonial Wars, 97–99; Steven C. Eames, “John Walley,” in Gallay, Colonial Wars, 770–71.
35. “wooden sword” in Wise narrative, 295; “consciences” in John Walley narrative, 27 Dec. 1690, in Thomas Hutchinson, The History of the Colony of Massachusets-Bay … (Boston: Thomas & John Fleet, 1764), 1:566.
36. Richard LeBaron Bowen, “The 1690 Tax Revolt of Plymouth Colony Towns,” NEHGS 112 (Jan. 1958): 4–14. See also Langdon, 232–33; H. Roger King, Cape Cod and Plymouth Colony in the Seventeenth Century (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1994), 266–68.
37. Hinckley to Wiswall, 17 Oct. 1691, HP, 295–96.
38. Address to William III, draft in HP, 199–200; PCR, 4 June 1689, 6:209.
39. Mather to Hinckley, 12 Sept. 1689, HP, 211.
40. John Walley to Wiswall, n.d., ca. summer 1691, HP, 286; Wiswall to Hinckley, 6 July 1691, HP, 285; Cotton to Hinckley, 6 Feb. 1690/91, CJCJ, 404.
41. Wiswall to Hinckley, 5 Nov. 1691, HP, 299–301; Cotton Mather to Hinckley, 26 Apr. 1690, HP, 248–49.
42. “Deacon John Paine’s Journal,” MD 8 (Oct. 1906): 229. See Richard L. Bushman, King and People in Provincial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), chapter 3.
43. McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 1630–1833: The Baptists and the Separation of Church and State (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), vol. 1, part 2.
44. PTR, 3 Oct. 1692, 205; Affidavit of James Cole, 15 Sept. 1691, Pilgrim Hall; “miscarriages” in John Cotton to Rowland Cotton, 18 June 1697, CJCJ, 541; “breaches” in Thomas, Diary of Samuel Sewall, 6 Oct. 1697, 1:378. See CJCJ, 26–29, 539–40. See the analysis in Sheila McIntyre, “John Cotton Jr.: Wayward Puritan Minister?” in Ian K. Steele and Nancy L. Rhoden, eds., The Human Tradition in Colonial America (Wilmington, Del.: Scholarly Resources, 1999), esp. 131–36.
45. John Cotton to Rowland Cotton, 4 Dec. 1695, CJCJ, 498; John Cotton to Rowland Cotton, 12 June 1694, CJCJ, 441.
46. John Cotton to Rowland Cotton, 18 Feb. 1697/98, CJCJ, 548–49. This letter appears to have been written somewhat later than its given date.
47. Thomas, Diary of Samuel Sewall, 8–10 Mar. 1697/98, 1:388–89.
48. John Cotton to Joanna Cotton, 6/7 July 1698, CJCJ, 564–65.
49. John Cotton to Joanna Cotton, 8 July 1698, CJCJ, 567.
50. Rowland Cotton to John Cotton, 25 Apr. 1699, CJCJ, 584.
1. Coit to Samuel Blachley Webb, 7 Nov. 1775, in Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., Correspondence and Journals of Samuel Blachley Webb (New York: Wickersham, 1893), 116–18; Pennsylvania Journal [Philadelphia], 29 Nov. 1775; Washington to John Hancock, 4 Dec. 1775, in Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., The Writings of George Washington (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1889), 3:262.
2. Webster, A Discourse, Delivered at Plymouth, December 22, 1820 … (Boston: Wells and Lilly, 1821), 10, 92. On historical memory and the Pilgrims, see John Seelye, Memory’s Nation: The Place of Plymouth Rock (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Margaret Bendroth, The Last Puritans: Mainline Protestants and the Power of the Past (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).
3. Samuel Davis, “Notes on Plymouth,” CMHS, 2nd ser., 3 (1815): 174; James Thacher, History of the Town of Plymouth … (Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1832), 202. On the many meanings that Americans have foisted onto Plymouth Rock and the Pilgrims, see Seelye, Memory’s Nation.
4. John McPhee, “Travels of the Rock,” New Yorker, 26 Feb. 1990, 108–17.
5. William Apess, Eulogy on King Philip … (Boston: s.n., 1836), 10–11.