Defining Consciousness

• 22-1 What is the place of consciousness in psychology’s history?

At its beginning, psychology was “the description and explanation of states of consciousness” (Ladd, 1887). But during the first half of the twentieth century, the difficulty of scientifically studying consciousness led many psychologists — including those in the emerging school of behaviorism (Module 26) — to turn to direct observations of behavior. By the 1960s, psychology had nearly lost consciousness and was defining itself as “the science of behavior.” Consciousness was likened to a car’s speedometer: “It doesn’t make the car go, it just reflects what’s happening” (Seligman, 1991, p. 24).

“ Psychology must discard all reference to consciousness.”

Behaviorist John B. Watson (1913)

After 1960, mental concepts reemerged. Neuroscience advances linked brain activity to sleeping, dreaming, and other mental states. Researchers began studying consciousness altered by hypnosis and drugs. Psychologists of all persuasions were affirming the importance of cognition, or mental processes. Psychology was regaining consciousness.

Most psychologists define consciousness as our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment (Feinberg & Mallatt, 2016). As we saw in Module 13, our conscious awareness is one part of the dual processing of our two-track minds. Although much of our information processing is conscious, more is unconscious and automatic — outside our awareness. Module 16 highlighted our selective attention, which directs the spotlight of our awareness, allowing us to assemble information from many sources as we reflect on our past, adapt to our present, and plan for our future. We are also attentive when we learn a complex concept or behavior. When learning to ride a bike, we focus on obstacles that we have to steer around and on how to use the brakes. With practice, riding a bike becomes semi-automatic, freeing us to focus our attention elsewhere. As we do so, we experience what the early psychologist William James called a continuous “stream of consciousness,” with each moment flowing into the next. Over time, we flit between different states of consciousness, including normal waking awareness and various altered states (Figure 22.1).

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Figure 22.1 Altered states of consciousness

In addition to normal, waking awareness, consciousness comes to us in altered states, including daydreaming, sleeping, drug-induced hallucinating, and meditating. (For more on meditation, see Module 44.)

Consciousness occurs in altered states in addition to normal, waking awareness. The chart shows three. First, some states occur spontaneously: for example, daydreaming; drowsiness; and dreaming. Second, some are physiologically induced. For example, hallucinations; orgasm; and food or oxygen starvation. Third, some are psychologically induced. For example, sensory depravation; hypnosis; and meditation.

She is resting on her hand and staring into the distance. She has a vacant look on her face.

The Buddhist monks are sitting with their legs crossed and have their hands together in front of them. They are wearing orange robes.

AP^® EXAM TIP

Note that our modern-day understanding of the unconscious is very different from Sigmund Freud’s theory of the unconscious (Module 55). Freud believed the unconscious was a hiding place for our most anxiety-provoking ideas and emotions, and that uncovering those hidden thoughts could lead to healing. Now, most psychologists simply view the unconscious track as one that operates without awareness. Make sure you keep these two ideas of the unconscious straight. Both interpretations could be seen on the AP^® exam.