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CHAPTER 14
Strategies for Cultural Responsiveness

What Is It?

By 2027, it is estimated that students of color will represent 55.3% of total public school enrollment in the United States (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2019) while White teachers account for 80% of the teaching profession (National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2018). This chapter will focus on two perspectives for guiding teachers in culturally relevant pedagogy.

The first philosophy is called culturally relevant teaching (CRT), which is not a set of strategies but, instead, is more of a mindset stating that every student has the ability to learn and contribute to the learning experience of their peers. We will provide specific examples of how teachers can embrace CRT and incorporate it into their lessons and interactions with all students.

Culturally sustaining pedagogy (CSP) is the second philosophy, which was proposed by social science and educational justice researchers Django Paris and H. Samy Alim. It is defined as pedagogy that sustains “linguistic, literate, and cultural pluralism as part of schooling for positive social transformation” (Callaway, 2017, p. 1). CSP involves pedagogical strategies to respond to a classroom's diversity while simultaneously sustaining diversity as the focus for teachers as they plan their lessons and classroom procedures.

Both philosophies acknowledge that it is important to include students' cultural experiences in all aspects of the classroom, as emphasized in The Dreamkeepers (1994) by Gloria Ladson-Billings. Ladson-Billings helped pioneer culturally relevant pedagogy with her research in critical race theory. Cultural responsiveness is a pedagogy that creates a classroom where all student cultures are represented, accepted, and nurtured.

Why We Like It

Culturally responsive and sustaining teaching can create a more meaningful education for all students. It is student-centered and focuses on high achievement for all learners. Culturally responsive classrooms can increase student engagement, a student's sense of belonging, and academic achievement (Ferlazzo, 2016).

The classroom is enriched for everyone when students are looked at through the lens of assets and not deficits. For example, when students are raised in rural agricultural communities, they likely have a deep knowledge of the natural world and its many interactions (Coley, Vitkin, Seaton, & Yopchick, 2005). These students are assets in the classroom because they may provide a unique perspective that can be leveraged as they and their peers are learning about agriculture, ecology, earth science, and biology.

An additional example of student diversity enriching our classroom occurred during a lesson about invasive species (introduced species that cause harm to the environment and/or human populations). Knowing that two of our students were from Uganda, we chose to teach about the harm of the Nile perch in Lake Victoria. Prior to the lesson, we met with both students and their parents to learn why the British government decided to introduce Nile perch to the lake. The history of this case study differs greatly depending on who tells the story. The ecologists and biologists explain that it was an ineffective solution because they knew that Nile perch would overpopulate and destroy the lake's ecological balance. The government officials justify their decision by explaining that the lake had been overfished and the only way to avoid an economic depression was to populate the lake with a large, fast-reproducing fish species that would support the fishermen and their families.

Neither of the families made their living through fishing, but both had family members or friends who fished commercially. Through these discussions, we were able to document both sides of history, which were then presented to our students. After listening to the audio tapes (while also reading the manuscripts), students participated in a debate. Half of the class posed as scientists and the other half as government officials who were responsible for their country's economy. See Chapter 10: Strategies for Discussions for resources that support classroom debates.

By knowing about our students and honoring their unique experiences and cultural differences, all of our students benefit. Student uniqueness is an asset and never a deficit.

Supporting Research

Research has shown that culturally relevant teaching strategies can lead to an increase in student perceptions at school. Student surveys show higher interest in school and a greater sense of belonging when culturally relevant teaching is used in the classroom (Byrd, 2016, p. 6).

Cultural understanding and responsiveness can lead to better relationships among students and teachers and improve the quality of teaching in the classroom (Callaway, 2017, p. 19).

Skills for Intentional Scholars/NGSS Connections

In a culturally responsive and sustaining classroom, the Skills for Intentional Scholars can be practiced because all students have the opportunity to use their unique skills. Culturally responsive strategies can increase a lesson's effectiveness and support students while they achieve at higher rates. They can enable students to build their critical thinking, creative problem solving, and effective communication skills.

The authors of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) make it very clear that teachers should do everything possible to make science content accessible to all students. The NGSS Diversity and Equity Team (DET) documented seven case studies, most of which highlighted specific examples of culturally responsive teaching (NGSS, 2013a).

Four of the seven studies focused on student groups who have been traditionally underserved by the education system. For example, one of the case studies was an eighth grade life science class that consisted mostly of students from different race and ethnic backgrounds. The teacher in this class demonstrated the effectiveness of building on student backgrounds and connections through multiple modes of representations (NGSS, 2013a).

Another of the case studies involved a high school where 66% of the student population qualified for free or reduced lunch. The chemistry teacher used her students' “funds of knowledge” to teach states of matter. “Funds of knowledge” presumes that every person is capable and knowledgeable because they have gained knowledge through life experiences (González, Moll, & Amanti, 2005). The case study demonstrated that when students have the opportunity to use and share their previous knowledge, they are more likely to learn new concepts (NGSS, 2013f). See the Technology Connections section for information about accessing these case studies.

Application

Culturally responsive teaching isn't a specific set of strategies to be used within classrooms. So, then, how is it achieved? Culturally responsive teaching is a shift in mindset that motivates how we plan for every aspect of learning and overall classroom experiences. Zaretta Hammond, author of Culturally Responsive Teaching and the Brain (2015), created the Ready for Rigor Framework, which highlights four main areas for culturally responsive teaching. Those areas are Awareness, Learning Partnerships, Information Processing, and Community of Learners and Learning Environment (Hammond, 2018). Below we will discuss strategies we use within this framework for culturally responsive teaching.

AWARENESS

The area of awareness centers around educators understanding their own cultural lenses and biases they bring into the classroom. We have to actively and constantly reflect on our own biases.

Many years ago, we attended an equity class hosted by our school district. We were told to bring two things with us: scores from a recent test and an open mind. As the class began, we were instructed to analyze our students' test scores to identify patterns or surprises. Some patterns that emerged among class participants included poor performance of students with learning challenges and English language learners (ELLs).

After analyzing our test results, Tara wrote, “I'm surprised our two Asian American students only earned Cs.” We were then challenged to use our patterns and observations to identify our biases and link them to our teaching practices. During the exercise, Tara realized she had a bias that Asian American students don't require extra support and because of her bias, she didn't always monitor their learning. This mistake in judgment explained her surprise but also may have contributed to these two students earning a C when the class average was 81 percent.

The equity class was led by Dr. Adama Sallu, a diversity leader at Arizona State University. Dr. Sallu asked, “Who is biased?” We learned that everyone has biases. Research has found that in addition to having biases, most people are unaware of their own biases even though they may be able to identify them in others (Rea, 2015).

Dr. Sallu also asked us, “Where do our biases come from?” She explained that biases are developed automatically in middle childhood and can unconsciously drive behavior towards others (Chadiha, 2019).

We further learned that biases are not permanent; in fact, they are so malleable they may change without a person making an effort to do so (Dasgupta, 2013). But we chose to make an effort. We collaborated with Dr. Sallu and Dr. Daniel D. Liou, an equity and inclusivity researcher at Arizona State University, to develop the Equity Institute, which is a one-day professional development class offered to teachers.

Dr. Liou begins the class by explaining the results of his research showing specific actions teachers take when they have high (and low) expectations of students (Liou, 2011). For example, when teachers have high expectations, they tend to offer students more positive encouragement and feedback. However, when they have low expectations, students may receive more negative criticism and reviews. We then facilitate an activity where teachers reflect on Dr. Liou's research so they can identify the frequency of their actions that align with teachers who have high and low expectations for students.

Dr. Liou and Dr. Sallu then present other studies regarding how teacher expectations can affect student performance. For example, in 1965, Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson performed an experiment in elementary classrooms that concluded if teachers have high academic expectations for their students, their test scores tended to be higher than the students who had teachers with low academic expectations (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).

We then introduce the author of Rigor is NOT a Four-Letter Word, Barbara Blackburn, who defines rigor as, creating an environment in which:

  • each student is expected to learn at high levels;
  • each student is supported so he or she can learn at high levels;
  • each student demonstrates learning at high levels (Blackburn, 2008).

Then we lead the teachers through an activity that helps them to reflect on the current level of rigor in their classrooms.

The class continues in this pattern: Dr. Liou and Dr. Sallu present research and data and then we facilitate activities that help teachers identify areas of improvement in their classroom and how to make needed adjustments.

The week prior to the Equity Institute, we ask teachers to document how often they find themselves thinking things like this:

  • If only Johnny did his homework, he would perform better.
  • If only Johnny's parents made him study, he would pass tests.
  • Johnny is always late or absent so, of course, he is failing.
  • Johnny's from that part of the city.
  • Johnny has an IEP (or 504 or is an ELL). He shouldn't be in my class.

They use this data during the Equity Institute because statements such as these reveal a bias toward students based on their family structure, socioeconomic status, intellectual ability, and culture. These biases can result in teachers having lower expectations for particular students.

Another bias that occurs often in schools is racial bias. Many teachers would say they are not biased when it comes to race; however, research shows these biases do occur when it comes to both academics and behavior even without teachers being aware of them. For example, many studies have confirmed that students of color are more likely to be issued disciplinary punishments (Gregory et al., 2016).

Two studies conducted at Stanford University demonstrate how racial bias affects school discipline. The first study involved presenting teachers with discipline files for a student who had two minor infractions for classroom disturbance and defiance. However, some teachers were given files with what the authors described as “stereotypically black” names, such as Dashawn or Darnell, and others were given files with what the authors described as “stereotypically white” names, like Greg or Jake. The study found that while the teachers' opinions of the student remained the same after reading the details of the first behavioral infraction, teachers who received files labeled with “stereotypically black” names revealed more feelings of the student being a troublemaker after the second infraction. The second study was an extension of the first. The teachers were asked to predict if the student would be suspended in the future. The results revealed that the teachers predicted a higher possibility of suspension when the student was assigned a “stereotypically black” name (Okonofua & Eberhardt, 2015).

The first step in eliminating our biases is to identify them. One way is through self-reflection. When confronting our own biases, it is important to be humble, honest, and open-minded. We cannot be defensive about them, but rather understand they are a natural occurrence based on our experiences that we can correct. Studies have shown that our brains can be reprogrammed with repetition (Staats, 2015–2016).

While it is important to identify and understand our biases, we also need to confront them in the classroom. One step that is suggested by the American Federation of Teachers is taking time to process the situation before taking action. While it's not always easy because we are often dealing with a classroom full of students and time constraints, we have to take the time to consider if our biases are preventing us from acting equitably (Staats, 2015–2016). For example, before reacting to a student who is “acting out,” we should take a moment to evaluate the situation to be sure our response is appropriate and is the one that we would make for other students who are demonstrating the same behavior.

There are online resources that can help people identify their implicit biases. Implicit biases are subconscious prejudices and attitudes that affect the way people act without intention (Brownstein, 2019). See the Technology Connections section for an online test that reveals people's hidden biases.

LEARNING PARTNERSHIPS

In addition to awareness, Dr. Hammond stresses the importance of the teacher-student relationship functioning as a partnership within her framework (Hammond, 2018). In order for this to happen, teachers must take the time to get to know their students, build rapport, and provide continuous support for them to be successful.

Many researchers and practitioners suggest teachers begin building culturally responsive classrooms by getting to know their students (Kozleski, 2010; Deady, 2017). Getting to know students is multifaceted. It means learning about them as students (how they learn, what engages them, their academic strengths, and where they struggle), as individuals (their hobbies, interests, social-emotional gifts and challenges), and as members of family units and broader communities (family traditions, socio-economic challenges). By understanding our students and their backgrounds, we can create ways for them to use their assets in class.

There are three strategies we use throughout the school year to get to know our students as individuals: share time, surveys, and greeting students daily.

Share Time

One strategy that is popular in the elementary grades is called share time or rug time, which is a dedicated amount of class time for students to talk about themselves. A structured variation of share time is Show and Tell, where students bring an item from home and describe its importance to their peers.

A specific version of share time for older students is called restorative circles. This is when the class comes together to form a circle and engage in dialogue about topics, such as building relationships, resolving conflict, and making decisions (International Institute for Restorative Practices, n.d.). The teacher starts the circle with an opener, such as a poem, quote, or song, and students are encouraged to discuss their thoughts and experiences based around it. This share time allows for students to spend time getting to know each other and build upon their relationships. It also assists in increasing cultural competencies in students as they understand the perspective and backgrounds of diverse peers. To facilitate respectful discussion that gives every student the opportunity to participate and not be interrupted, some teachers use a talking stick, which can be any object, such as a ruler or rubber ball. The student who is holding the talking stick is the only person who is permitted to talk. When the student is done sharing, they pass it on to the next person in the circle.

Another version is called “All About Me!,” which highlights a different student every week. The chosen student completes a form (Figure 14.1: All About Me!) and presents it to the class. The student can present the form “as is” or transfer the information onto poster board. A variation incorporates Show and Tell so students the option of bringing meaningful items to share during their presentation.

Rebecca Hammer, a colleague of ours, teaches middle and high school. She altered share time to meet her secondary students' interests. Each of Mrs. Hammer's students make an online Kahoot! that completes the sentence stems in Figure 14.1: All About Me! Form. When students share their Kahoot! with the class, all of their peers play the Kahoot! game. The student-creator of the Kahoot! game facilitates it, expanding on their personal information as their peers ask them questions. We provide instructions and tips for making Kahoot!s in Chapter 13: Strategies for Activating Prior Knowledge.

Surveys

At the middle and high school level, we ask students to complete a survey so we can learn about them. The survey is available in Figure 14.2: First Day of School Student Survey. This survey collects basic information about students, such as their hobbies and interests, but also school-specific information; for example, we ask how they best learn. We use the survey information to connect lessons to students' interests.

On a broader level, this information influences topics we teach. For example, if students like basketball, we can incorporate basketballs into a lesson on kinetic and potential energy and have the students participate with the demonstration of dropping and bouncing basketballs along with smaller and larger sports balls.

On a much smaller scale, we use this information in writing questions for students to answer throughout the year. This strategy is very easy to do and we've found it can have a surprisingly positive effect on student engagement. For example, when we teach selective breeding, we use a dog breeding lesson that incorporates a student who owns a dog. If a student named Rosa has a dog named Rocky, we write the directions as, “Rosa decided to begin a dog breeding business. Her dog, Rocky, had specific qualities that other dog owners would be interested in having. Rosa's challenge is to determine which dog Rocky should breed with so the puppies have these desired qualities.”

To gather student information from parents, we use a welcome letter or syllabus that is sent home the first week of school. We ask parents for the usual information (their email address, phone number, and signature) and, “What information would you like us to know about your child?” When parents choose to respond to this question, we reach out to them so they know that we have read their note and appreciate the information. For example, one parent wrote, “My daughter is the sweetest child. She is quiet and shy at school but she talks endlessly at home. She loves science but struggles in math.” We called this student's mother to thank her for the note and to ask if her daughter is comfortable answering questions in class. This spurred a conversation that allowed us to learn more about the student and it began a positive relationship with her mother.

Both Figure 14.1: All About Me! Form and Figure 14.2: First Day of School Student Survey inquire about how students best learn. We are always impressed with how well they know themselves and how honest they are about their strengths and struggles. Students have answered, “I learn best when I can listen to music” and “It's hard for me to pay attention when I'm just sitting because I have a lot of energy.” Their answers help discover ways we can best provide instruction and support.

We give a second survey to high school students, which is in Figure 14.3: High School Student Survey. We find this survey especially helpful at the high school level because students may be solidifying their future plans. We want to support their post-high school plans, and one of the best ways to start is to ask them about their goals.

We use the bottom section that instructs students to rate their interest in various topics, such as math and engineering, reading and writing, and the arts and music. After collecting the surveys from all students, we first look for trends. Do the majority of our students have interests in the arts and music? If that's the case, we know our lesson plans should incorporate activities, such as sketches, cartoons, songs, and dance. See Table 14.1: Chapters for Teaching Specific Student Interests to discover the chapter that offers resources in the interests listed on the survey.

We also use the survey to identify our influence as science teachers. The top section instructs students to rank the four core content areas from most important to least important and most interesting to least interesting. Near the end of the school year, we ask students to complete this section a second time. We compare their ratings from the beginning to the end of the school year because we want to identify if students' science interests have increased, decreased, or remained the same. We use this information to assist us in lesson planning for the next school year. For example, if student interest in science decreases, then we know we need to make changes so content is more engaging and relevant. To determine what changes need to be made next, we ask students the following follow-up questions:

  1. What was something you loved about science class this year? Please explain why.
  2. What was something you would have changed about science class this year? Please explain why.
  3. How could we have made science more engaging for you? Please explain why.
  4. What was something that you learned that was relevant to you and your interests? Please explain why.
  5. What was something that you learned that you didn't find meaningful or relevant? Please explain why.

Table 14.1 Chapters for Teaching Specific Student Interests

Student interests from survey Chapter in this book
Math 11: Strategies for Teaching Math
Engineering 6: Strategies for Teaching the Engineering Process
Writing 9: Strategies for Teaching Writing and 7: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary
Reading 8: Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension and 7: Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary
The Arts/Music 12: Strategies for Incorporating the Arts and Kinesthetic Movement
Nonfiction Stories 5: Strategies for Using Project-Based Learning and 8: Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Technology and Gaming 5: Strategies for Using Project-Based Learning

The most common thing we learn from asking these five questions is that students have difficulty making real-life connections with some of our content. For example, we learned that students don't know why they must learn about mitosis and meiosis or how electricity is made. To increase the relevancy of our content, we altered our lessons so concepts are being taught with current trends, such as the possibilities of curing diseases with stem cells, which divide rapidly for long periods of time. And how electromagnetic fields can be used to transmit energy wirelessly, which has recently led to the invention of wireless cell phone chargers.

Greeting Students Daily

When we greet students as they enter the classroom, we say “hello” or “good morning” and in the elementary and middle school settings, this is usually enough to spark a conversation. However, with high school students, we've noticed they are often less responsive to this kind of greeting.

Harry and Rosemary Wong, the authors of The Classroom Management Book, share a strategy they witnessed in other schools where students enter a classroom and have the option to give their teacher a hug, handshake, or high five. (Wong, Wong, & Jondahl, 2014, pp. 53–56). We use this strategy and refer to it as the “Say Hi with an H” strategy.

Tara implements the “Say Hi with an H” strategy with her high school students after the first month of school has passed. She often notices during that first month, as she stands by the door greeting each student individually, many pass right by her, ignoring her “hello” or “how are you?,” especially if they are using earbuds. She gives students the first four weeks to warm-up to her and each other and then explains what the expectations will be going forward. Once she introduces the strategy to students, they slow down as they enter her classroom, often stop their music to return a “hello,” and give her a few moments of their time.

At first, students seem shy to participate but after a few days, they become more comfortable. Students easily determine what they want to use as their greeting because they all know their own comfort level. As she gets to know her students more, she focuses on asking specific questions about them, such as, “Did you work last night? How was your shift?” and “How's your mom doing after the surgery?” She is able to better connect with them during the 5-min passing period as she learns more about them as individuals.

But that isn't all! Many students themselves will begin greeting each other with a hug, handshake, or high five. By implementing the “Say Hi with an H” strategy, she alters the culture of their classroom. There is a connection that doesn't exist until after the “Say Hi with an H” strategy has been implemented. Tara also finds that students' on-task behavior increases, which has been identified as a positive consequence for teachers who greet their students at the door (Allday, Bush, Ticknor, & Walker, 2011).

After we greet students, they are expected to walk in and get started on the warm-up, which is displayed on the board or overhead projector. This procedure is taught in the beginning of the year when we introduce students to the classroom procedures. Once the passing period is over and the bell rings, we enter class to ensure all students are on task and beginning their work. See Chapter 15: Strategies for the Beginning and Ending of Class for more information on how to structure warm-ups.

There are a few alterations to the “Say Hi with an H” strategy. We added the option of students giving us an elbow bump, which some are more likely to choose when they are sick and we appreciate that! Another option is the verbal acknowledgment of, “Hello Mrs. Dale” or “Hello Ms. White.” We've found students who are uncomfortable with physical touch most often choose this verbal greeting.

Differentiated greetings are a specific way to be respectful of all cultures. For example, not all cultures are comfortable with hand shaking or hugging. When students are given options for how to greet their teachers, they are in control of their bodies and can interact in a comfortable fashion.

Regardless of the strategies used to get to know our students as individuals, we are always looking for opportunities to highlight their cultures and to model curiosity about them and respect for them. We might have a Muslim student in our class who is fasting for Ramadan and, after checking in with them to see if it would be okay, we invite him/her to share with the entire class about what it means and what it entails. We could do the same during the Lunar New Year. And if we have a student who we know is a cricket fan, we might ask him or her to explain the game when the Cricket World Cup is played.

We acknowledge that share time, surveys, and greeting students can seem like we are taking away from instructional time; however, it is vital that this time is invested because it can help to build rapport with students.

Positive teacher-student relationships and trusting student-student relationships are the building blocks of a culturally responsive teaching environment. We teachers have to do more to solidify those relationships than just learn about the lives and interests of our students. We need to extend the information we learn into culturally relevant learning and lessons in order to continue building a classroom of respect and acceptance. In the next two sections, we will demonstrate ways we use our student partnerships in the classroom to expand learning and growth for all students.

INFORMATION PROCESSING

The next section within Dr. Hammond's Culturally Responsive Teaching Framework is Information Processing. Information processing encompasses how students are learning within the classroom and includes providing appropriate challenge to increase growth of all students, using strategies rooted in oral traditions to assist in learning new information, and making authentic, real-world connections (Hammond, 2018).

High Expectations for All Students

While we worked with Dr. Daniel Liou in creating the Equity Institute, he shared his research on expectations in the classroom. His research connects the expectations teachers have toward their students with their overall achievement. He found that students experienced higher academic achievement when their teachers had high expectations for their learning and vice-versa (Liou, 2011).

Dr. Liou performed many hours of classroom observations in an attempt to identify concrete examples of teaching strategies that aligned with teachers who have high expectations and those who have low expectations. His results are documented in Table 14.2: Teacher Expectancy Practices.

The practice from Table 14.2 that jumped out at us was “Let students get by without challenging work.” Liou discovered that when teachers don't believe students can learn, regardless of the reason (their culture, efforts, abilities, or family support), teachers tend to lower their expectations and make classwork easier (Liou, 2011).

An example of teachers lowering their expectations might relate to students who have an identified learning challenge and are on an IEP (individualized education program). Sometimes, teachers decrease the required learning for these students. The purpose, however, of the accommodations listed in an IEP is to maintain high learning expectations and provide extra support systems so these students have the ability to learn alongside their peers. Note that the modifications on an IEP are different than the accommodations. Modifications change what a student is taught or expected to learn (The Understood Team, 2019).

Table 14.2 Teacher Expectancy Practices

Source: Reprinted with permission from Dr. Daniel Dinn-You Liou.

High expectation practices Low expectation practices
Attentive to student needs and feelings Inattentive or impatient with student needs and feelings
Effective communication style Ineffective communication style
Positive feedback on coursework More negative criticisms than feedback
Receptive to student responses to teacher questions Student response to teacher's questions is ignored
Use of ideas from student Hostility and discouragement
Offer praises and encouragement Skeptical and dismissive
Friendly and warm Pessimistic, detached or indifferent,
Trusting, optimistic, caring, demanding Lets students get by without challenging work
Comfortable in teacher-student interaction Nervousness and spends less time in teacher-student interaction

Throughout this book we've emphasized that when students are working, we walk around the room to check in with every group. We make this concerted effort because we want to support every student as they rise to our high expectations.

We've also mentioned in Chapter 10: Strategies for Discussions that when we ask students questions and they do not know the answer, we allow them to look up the answer in their notes or to ask a partner. This is another strategy for having a culturally responsive classroom as we are maintaining the high expectations that all of our students are capable of learning the material. At the beginning of the school year, we establish this norm. We explain to students that, “in the past, you may have been asked a question and not known the answer. The teacher may have then called on a second student to help you with the answer. This will not happen in our classroom. If we ask you a question and you don't know the answer, it's your opportunity to learn the information you don't know. You will receive time to find the answer because we believe in each of you and will not lower our expectations for you.” While the student is looking up the answer, the rest of the class looks up the answer in their notes as well, even if they feel they already know it.

The effectiveness of this strategy is apparent by the second month of school. During the first month, when students don't know the answer to a question, we respond with, “we'll wait for you to find the answer because you are worth our time.” Students sometimes sluggishly attempt to find their class notes or ask a partner. But after the first 4 weeks of school, students realize we do believe in each of them and they find the answer with a higher sense of urgency.

In addition to having high academic expectations, teachers should also have high and consistent behavioral expectations. In addition to teaching, Tara is an instructional coach. Mandi is an academic and behavior specialist. In these roles, we often support teachers who are struggling with effective classroom management. For example, we helped a math teacher who only addressed off-task student behavior about 12% of the time. He would redirect one group of students who were not engaged in the activity but then ignore the same off-task behavior from other groups.

During a post-observation meeting, we asked him how this inconsistency might be interpreted by the students who were redirected. He answered, “They may think I'm picking on them.” He quickly explained that this was not the message he wanted to send to those students. Then we asked him, “How might the other students, who are participating in the same off-task behavior but not being redirected, perceive your inconsistency?” After some discussion, he realized that, “Those students may think that I don't believe in them. They may think that I don't want them to succeed or that I don't believe they can succeed.”

There are many reasons we make a conscious effort to reinforce rules consistently. We, of course, want students to perceive the classroom as fair. We also want every student to know that we believe in their ability to be successful. By enforcing classroom procedures and rules equitably, we can also begin to eliminate the biases that appear in student behavioral data across the United States.

These kinds of practices do not preclude applying effective differentiation strategies—as the saying goes, treating people “fairly” does not always mean treating them “equally” (Wormeli, 2007). This is why each chapter in this book includes a section “Differentiation for Diverse Learners.”

Utilize Oral Tradition Strategies

In addition to maintaining high expectations for all students, another culturally responsive lesson strategy is to use repetition and rhythm and/or music to assist in students learning new information. Many of our students come from cultures that have strong traditions of passing on information through these methods, and using them in the classroom can assist in the learning of all students. In Chapter 12: Strategies for Incorporating the Arts and Kinesthetic Movement, we discuss ways to use songs and poetry in the classroom.

Another example of this in the classroom is the work of Dr. Christopher Emdin. Dr. Emdin uses hip hop music to teach science to students. Not only can this kind of repetition and rhythm increase learning, but hip hop makes it more engaging and culturally relevant for his students. Dr. Emdin also founded Science Genius (https://genius.com/artists/Science-genius), which encourages students to create raps that teach scientific concepts.

Make Learning Authentic Through Real-World Connections

Students learn better when they can make connections to the material. One of our responsibilities is to ensure that we teach lessons that allow our students to make cultural connections to the science content.

Incorporating Diverse Role Models

When we first came upon research suggesting that we purposefully incorporate role models of color, we immediately thought of Black History Month. We use Dr. Hammond's article entitled, “Five Things Not to Do During Black History Month” (2013) to guide our celebration of African Americans' contributions to science. Here is a summary of Dr. Hammond's five suggestions and how we incorporate them in our classrooms:

  1. Instead of the superficial practice of simply changing names or situations in an existing lesson plan, teachers should incorporate local culture in their daily instruction. Dr. Hammond suggests that teachers include local people of color who are making changes daily. To identify local people, we completed an Internet search with the words “Arizona people of color diversity” and found resources such as Local First Arizona, One Arizona, and the Arizona Memory Project. Each one of these resources included local people of color who were contributing to Arizona. An example of how we included them into a lesson plan is when our students wanted to create a public campaign making plastic bags illegal in the state. We connected with the leaders at One Arizona who guided our students through the process of contacting their legislators and proposing a bill.
  2. The focus of Black History Month should not be only on the first African American to succeed at something or popular celebrities of color. See the Technology Connections section for resources that list scientists of color who can be incorporated into multiple lessons.
  3. Dr. Hammond's third suggestion is to include people of color in stories we tell. For example, during an ecology unit when we learn about agriculture, we teach students about George Washington Carver's life. He taught local farmers how to alternate crops using peanuts and sweet potatoes so soil would be naturally replenished with nutrients. In addition to teaching students about individuals, we also incorporate stories about groups of people, such as when we teach a chemistry unit about polymers. We tell students how the Olmec, a civilization who inhabited today's Mexican Gulf lowlands, were the first to harvest the rubber tree to produce rubber balls.
  4. The purpose of Black History Month is not to “sprinkle” African American themes “atop the existing curriculum” (Hammond, 2013). Dr. Hammond offers the suggestion that teachers choose a focus and dive deeply into it. A biology example is while teaching about blood, we teach the history of blood banks, which were first established by Dr. Charles Drew. Students first study how blood was donated and stored and the limitations of doing so prior to Dr. Drew's established methods. Then they document how his methods affected the field of medicine, focusing on Worls War II soldiers who received blood transfusions from donors thousands of miles away.
  5. The last statement Dr. Hammond (2013) makes is, “Don't think you can't talk about black history because you are a white educator.” She explains that white teachers can and must teach about black history. At the same time, they must be willing to learn about the topic, including being open to exploring their own privilege, and building alliances with teachers of color.

After reading Dr. Hammond's article, we realized there was no reason to wait for February to begin using her suggestions and that we needed to be able to apply these lessons for other cultures, as well. LGBTQ Pride Month (June), Women's History Month (March), Asian Pacific American Heritage Month (May), and National Hispanic Heritage Month (mid-September to mid-October) are just some of the national celebrations of diversity. Of course, teachers should also incorporate these connections year round. These national celebrations, however, do provide opportunities and reasons to highlight the value of diversity even more. One way we incorporate these ideas is by always including people from diverse backgrounds who connect to our units of study. Table 14.3: Diverse Contributors for Each Branch of Science includes examples.

Chapter 12: Strategies for Incorporating the Arts and Kinesthetic Movement contains a table (Table 12.3: NGSS Scientists Paired with Women Scientists and Scientists of Color) that presents examples of women scientists and scientists of color whom we can incorporate throughout our curriculum, as well.

See the Technology Connections section for resources that we use to identify people from diverse backgrounds who have contributed to or are currently contributing to science.

Once we choose whom to highlight in a specific unit, we provide each student with a copy of Figure 14.4: Contributors to Science in addition to an article, video, or podcast that provides the person's biography. As students learn about the chosen contributor, they complete Figure 14.4</link>. They need to make connections with the contributor in order to complete that last box, “I have the following in common with this person…” To ensure every student will find something in common with the contributor, we use biographies that include the contributor's childhood, family structure, and hobbies. After everyone has completed Figure 14.4, we have a class discussion so students can share their connection to the contributor.

Table 14.3 Diverse Contributors for Each Branch of Science

Branch of science Contributor's name and contribution
Earth and Space Sciences Adriana Ocampo—a planetary geologist who first identified a ring of cenotes around the Chicxulub crater
Earth and Space Sciences Gladys West—developed models of the Earth that were eventually used to create the Global Positioning System (GPS)
Earth and Space Sciences Madam C.J. Walker—created a hair care product using the Earth's natural minerals
Physical Science Percy Lavon Julian—duplicated natural chemicals in the lab for mass production
Physical Science J.V. Martinez—a physicist who worked with the Atomic Energy Commission
Physical Science Leland D. Melvin—an engineer and astronaut responsible for using optical fiber sensors to measure temperature
Life Science Henrietta Lacks—her cancer cells were harvested to create an immortalized human cell line (we always discuss how racism contributed toward how she and her family were treated by the medical establishment)
Life Science Lisa Stevens “the Panda Lady”—the assistant curator for pandas and primates at the Smithsonian National Zoo
Life Science Patricia Bath—ophthalmologist who pioneered cataract surgery
Life Science Cherish Ardinger—a neuroscientist that studies addiction

Including Culture in Lessons

Many advocates of culturally responsive teaching suggest intertwining students' cultures into lessons (Lynch, 2015; Deady, 2017; Tarasawa, 2018). For example, in Chapter 11: Strategies for Teaching Math, we provide examples of how to use local authentic data when teaching students how to make, analyze, and interpret graphs.

Another example occurs during a health unit in biology. We teach about the lead contamination in Flint, Michigan, which is not simply a case study of how lead affects children but also a study of how society and science are connected. We begin by providing students with a glance at the cultural and economic makeup of Flint. Forty percent of the population is living below the poverty line and 57% of the citizens are African American (Martinez, 2016).

Then we define “environmental racism,” which is a term that was coined in the 1970s that refers to environmental injustices that harm people of color (Green Action for Health and Environmental Justice, n.d.).

To help students understand the connection between society and science and to provide an example of how “environmental racism” exists, we provide them with two articles: one written by a local Flint citizen and another written by a Flint politician.

Although the two authors tell a story about the same event, they have two very different perspectives regarding the safety of the water today. Local citizens insist their water is still not lead-free but the politicians resolve that the contamination has been corrected and the water is safe to drink.

When presenting a story to students, it's important that they don't receive the subtle message that both sides are equal (Collins, 2019). To avoid this perception of equality, we lead a class discussion about who has the power in this case study: the politicians or the citizens? Then we discuss the impacts of the pollution, asking how the citizens were affected and how the politicians were affected.

Students then debate if the citizens should trust the politicians' message that the water can be safely consumed. For ideas and tips for using debate in the classroom, see Chapter 10: Strategies for Discussions.

Women and Science

According to The Society of Women Engineers (2016), only 12% of American engineers are female, which is unexpected considering that 49% of eighth grade females report science being their favorite subject (The Society of Women Engineers, 2019).

The aim of the American Association of University Women (AAUW) is to use research and education to promote equity and education for women and girls. They have been advocating for gender equality since 1881, when they were originally founded (AAUW, n.d.). Dr. Catherine Hill, a former Vice President of Research for the AAUW, explains that females are not equally represented in STEM fields because of implicit bias (which we discussed earlier in the Application section) and stereotype threat (Hill, 2010).

Stereotype threat is when a person is at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their social group (Stroessner & Good, n.d.). The stereotype threat may be one way to explain why females are not equally represented in science fields. Girls may have self-doubt about their ability to be successful in science because of subtle cultural messages that tell them boys are scientists, not girls (Berwick, 2019). We know students harbor the stereotype that science is for males. In the 1960s and 1970s, students were asked to draw a scientist. Fewer than 1% of the 5,000 pictures depicted a female as a scientist (Terada, 2019). The experiment has been repeated over the past 50 years and the results are promising. Based on a meta-analysis of 78 experiments, students now draw female scientists 27% of the time (Miller, Nolla, Eagly, & Uttal, 2018). In addition, the meta-analysis discovered that female students are the ones increasingly drawing female scientists, not male students. In the original 1966 study, only 1.2% of the girls drew a female scientist but in a 2016 study, girls drew female scientists 58% of the time. Male students still draw male scientists 9 out of 10 times (Terada, 2019).

To continue breaking the stereotype that science is solely for males, we incorporate female role models into lesson plans, classroom decor, and reading materials. A study from 2010 demonstrated that female students who were exposed to textbooks with female scientists tended to perform better than those female students whose textbooks didn't include females (Good, Woodzicka, & Wingfield, 2010). See the Technology Connections Section for free posters that highlight female contributors in science.

Another barrier that females face in STEM fields is discrimination during the hiring process. Females are less likely to be hired and are likely to receive less pay than their male counterparts (Flaherty, 2019). For those women who work in predominantly male STEM fields, such as engineering, the proportion of them who report discrimination is 78% and 50% report harassment (Jordan, 2018).

We make sure our students are aware of these challenges, not as a form of discouragement but, instead, to help equip them with the tools they can use to effectively respond to these issues. In addition to explicitly teaching about laws regarding workplace discrimination, we support other recommendations made by advocates and researchers in the field, including joining women in science organizations and encouraging our students to seek out mentors once they enter the field (Settles, 2014; Mitchell, 2018).

Additional Strategies to Reach All Students Through Connections

In addition to strategies that specifically address student culture, CRT also includes additional student-centered strategies that increase student achievement. Brown University offers a general list (The Education Alliance, Brown University, n.d.):

  • Ensure student engagement by providing students with choices.
  • Develop a student-centered classroom by using cooperative learning strategies.
  • Involve the community.
  • Encourage students to learn by forming literature discussions where students are talking with their peers about what they are reading in class.

Throughout this book we've provided specific examples of each of these four strategies. See Table 14.4: Examples of Brown University CRT Strategies for other chapters that offer resources for accomplishing the CRT strategies listed by Brown University.

As a quick reminder to ourselves of how to ensure a culturally responsive classroom, we post near our desk a copy of Figure 14.5: 13 Culturally Responsive Teaching Ideas, created by Valentina Gonzalez (Gonzalez, 2017), a previous language arts teacher who currently works as a Professional Development Specialist, focusing on English language learners. Gonzalez's list includes 13 specific things teachers can do to ensure all students feel safe, honored, and included in any classroom.

Table 14.4 Examples of Brown University CRT Strategies

Brown university CRT strategy Resources available in this book
Ensure student engagement by providing students with choices Chapter 4: Strategies for Teaching the Inquiry Process
Chapter 5: Strategies for Using Project-Based Learning
Chapter 6: Strategies for Teaching the Engineering Process
Chapter 12: Strategies for Incorporating the Arts and Kinesthetic Movement
Chapter 17: Strategies for Assessing Student Learning
Develop a student-centered classroom by using cooperative learning strategies Every chapter in Parts I and II includes lesson plan ideas that include cooperative learning
Involve the community Chapter 5: Strategies for Using Project-Based Learning
Encourage students to learn by forming literature discussions Chapter 8: Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Chapter 9: Strategies for Teaching Writing
Chapter 10: Strategies for Discussions
Chapter 13: Strategies for Activating Prior Knowledge

COMMUNITY OF LEARNERS AND LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

The fourth area represented in Dr. Hammond's framework is focused around creating an environment where all students feel supported and safe to learn and grow. This requires allowing for student voice and having procedures in place to support continuous learning (Hammond, 2018).

Throughout the book and in the previous sections we have outlined ways to invite student voice in the classroom. Students are encouraged to participate in discourse every day in the science classroom in a variety of ways, such as discussing their personal experiences and backgrounds, planning and executing scientific experiments and outcomes, debating hot topics within a field of science, and many more. Through these activities, diverse opinions emerge, which allow for students to increase their understanding of each other and different backgrounds.

Another way to build this community of learners is through cooperative learning, which is present in many lesson ideas throughout the book. Cooperative learning lends itself to what is known as the contact hypothesis. The contact hypothesis centers around the idea that prejudices are naturally reduced when diverse groups of people are required to work together (Pious, n.d.). Thus, by creating diverse groups of students within our classroom, students are being exposed to other cultures and learning from each other. This can break down the prejudices that occur in order to solidify a classroom of respect and acceptance so that all learners feel supported and safe. Refer to Chapter 2: Strategies for Teaching Lab Procedures for further information on grouping strategies.

Another way to build a community of respect is one we referred to in Chapter 4: Strategies for Teaching the Inquiry Process. In that chapter, we discuss dissections and how in some Native American cultures they are not permitted to be present to perform a dissection. In order to create an environment that is accepting and respectful of this belief, we find a safe space for them to go and work during this time. We also invite them to teach other students about the history and basis of their traditions. We can make these kinds of modifications in advance because we make an effort to know our students and their backgrounds.

Lastly, an aspect of creating a community of learners and learning environment is using restorative practices. We talk earlier in this chapter about the role of restorative circles in encouraging this kind of culture.

DIFFERENTIATION FOR DIVERSE LEARNERS

Although this chapter's focus is differentiating for specific groups of students, there is a simple change that science teachers can make that benefits all students. One study found that if science teachers change their vernacular from “be scientists” to “do science,” students were more likely to demonstrate greater persistence in future science activities (EurekAlert!, 2019). For example, instead of saying, “Today you are going to be a scientist and perform an experiment,” we now say, “Today you will do science as you perform your experiment.”

The study also found that both male and female students and students of color reported less interest and confidence in “being a scientist” but maintained their interest and confidence when “doing science” (EurekAlert!, 2019).

Student Handouts and Examples

  • Figure 14.1: All About Me! Form (Student Handout)
  • Figure 14.2: First Day of School Student Survey (Student Handout)
  • Figure 14.3: High School Student Survey (Student Handout)
  • Figure 14.4: Contributors to Science (Student Handout)
  • Figure 14.5: 13 Culturally Responsive Teaching Ideas

What Could Go Wrong?

Sometimes, as we introduce the videos celebrating Black History Month, a student asks why we celebrate Black History Month or why we don't celebrate a White History Month. In reply to the student, we explain, it is important to recognize that not all races have been treated equitably in the United States. In addition to honoring Black History Month, we also celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month, Native American Heritage Month, and Asian Pacific Heritage Month in order to recognize races that have been marginalized throughout our history. We further explain that much of what is taught in schools, and what we see and experience every day outside of school, is, in fact, predominantly “white culture.” In other words, whites have been the dominant voice and power in our country for many years and have had a disproportionate role in shaping our society.

Technology Connections

To read Appendix D of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), “All Standards, All Students, see NGSS (2013a).

The seven case studies that were documented by the NGSS Diversity and Equity Team are available online (https://www.nextgenscience.org/appendix-d-case-studies). The Team specifically states that the case studies are not, “intended to prescribe science instruction but to illustrate an example or prototype for implementation of effective classroom strategies with diverse student groups” (NGSS, 2013a).

To identify hidden biases, complete the test offered by Harvard University's “Project Implicit” (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit).

We use the following resources to identify diverse scientists:

The Best (Free) Posters of STEM Women suggests three resources for free posters of female scientists, some of which are offered in multiple languages (https://www.edutopia.org/article/best-free-posters-stem-women).

To engage colleagues in learning more about culturally responsive literacy, check out this module produced by The National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems (NCCRESt) on culturally responsive literacy (http://www.niusileadscape.org/docs/FINAL_PRODUCTS/NCCRESt/practitioner_briefs/%95%20TEMPLATE/DRAFTS/AUTHOR%20revisions/annablis%20pracbrief%20templates/Literacy_Brief_highres.pdf). We've found this resource especially useful to initiate and guide discussions during our professional learning community (PLC) meetings. The resource includes a list of authors who write children's literature that incorporates the African American, Native American, Asian American, and Latino American cultures.

To learn more about current issues in education that relate to culturally responsive education, subscribe to Arizona State University's “Equity Matters” blog (http://www.equityallianceatasu.org/ea/equity-matters-newsletter).

Dr. Zaretta Hammond offers workshops and is a guest speaker but also has a blog that helps teachers to implement the philosophy of culturally relevant teaching (https://crtandthebrain.com/about).

Larry Ferlazzo offers a list of online resources, including podcasts, articles, interviews, and research regarding culturally responsive teaching. His blog, “The Best Resources About Culturally Responsive Teaching and Culturally Responsive Pedagogy—Please Share More!” is available at http://larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2016/06/10/the-best-resources-about-culturally-responsive-teaching-culturally-sustaining-pedagogy-please-share-more.

Attributions

Thank you to our colleague, Rebecca Hammer, for allowing us to share her strategy for getting to know secondary students using Kahoot!.

Thank you to Dr. Daniel D. Liou and Dr. Adama Sallu, for sharing their research, strategies, and passion for equity in every classroom for every student.

We appreciate the generosity of Valentina Gonzalez, who allowed us to reprint her poster with 13 culturally responsive teaching ideas.

Figures

Illustration of an All About Me! Form.

Figure 14.1 All About Me! Form (Student Handout)

Figure 14.2 First Day of School Student Survey (Student Handout)

Figure 14.3 High School Student Survey (Student Handout)

Illustration of a Contributors to Science form.

Figure 14.4 Contributors to Science (Student Handout)

Photo illustration of Culturally Responsive Teaching Ideas.

Figure 14.5 13 Culturally Responsive Teaching Ideas

Source: Used with permission from Valentina Gonzalez (https://elementaryenglishlanguagelearners.weebly.com/blog/are-you-practicing-culturally-responsive-teaching)