LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:1–6:7 Five Major Offerings. Leviticus describes five major offerings, each with its own characteristics (see chart). (Though not evident in the chart, what is done with the blood and how the remaining flesh is handled varies according to the sinner’s standing before the Lord when the offering is a sin offering.) While each offering has its own emphasis, the five offerings have common or overlapping elements, especially the use of blood and “a pleasing aroma.”
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c51
| Name | Emphasis | Focus is on the general procedure or reasons for the offerings | Focus is on the proper handling, eating, or disposal of the offerings |
|---|---|---|---|
| Burnt Offering | underscores prayers of petition or praise | ch. 1 | 6:8–13 |
| Grain Offering | pleasing aroma; often mirrors emphasis of the offering it accompanies | ch. 2 | 6:14–23 |
| Peace Offering | fellowship with the Lord by having a communion meal | ch. 3 | 7:11–36 |
| Sin Offering | atonement of a committed sin; metaphor of purification | 4:1–5:13 | 6:24–30 |
| Guilt Offering | atonement of a committed sin; metaphor of compensation for wrongdoing | 5:14–6:7 | 7:1–10 |
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:1–17 The Burnt Offering. Cf. 6:8–13. The burnt offering is the most costly offering there is, since it is completely burned up with nothing left (except for the skin, which the priest kept). The motive for offering the burnt offering is assumed, not specified, but other references to the sacrifices show that it is offered on such occasions as thanksgiving, penitence, vows, and self-dedication. Instead of focusing on the motive, this text focuses on more fundamental aspects of the sacrifices, such as the symbolism of the shedding of blood and the burning. The mention of “a pleasing aroma” (1:9, 13, 17) implies that the sacrifice results in the Lord’s favor toward the offerer. This could happen in sin contexts, such as Noah’s offering burnt offerings after the flood to appease the wrath of God that was still present after he had destroyed so many of his creatures (Gen. 8:20). This could also happen in praise or thanksgiving contexts, such as the psalmist’s presenting costly and pleasing burnt offerings as acts of praise for the Lord’s deliverance (Ps. 66:13, 15). One is also reminded by this sacrifice of Paul’s exhortation to Christians to present their bodies as sacrifices to the Lord (Rom. 12:1). In Leviticus 1, three options are provided regarding the material of the sacrifice—a bull, small livestock (such as a sheep or a goat), and a bird—but all were to be from the offerer’s own prior possession (v. 2).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:1–2 Following on the heels of Ex. 40:34–35, Lev. 1:1 relates that the Lord spoke to Moses from the tent of meeting, i.e., the tabernacle (cf. Exodus 26). This introduces the material up to Lev. 7:34, but probably beyond that as well. Verse 2 of ch. 1 mentions that domestic animals are to be offered, which relates to the cases that come next—the bull (vv. 3–9) and small cattle (vv. 10–13)—and also to the animal offered as a peace offering in ch. 3 (see 3:1).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:3–4 The bull offered by the worshiper must be without blemish, i.e., without any physical defects (22:22–24) that would lessen its value and make it an unworthy animal to present to the Lord (cf. Mal. 1:8). lay his hand. This gesture is also found in the peace offering (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13) and the sin offering (4:4, 15, 24, 29, 33). While its symbolism is debated, it probably serves to establish some sort of relationship between the offerer and animal so that the animal is accepted on his or her behalf. shall be accepted … to make atonement for him. This not only introduces 1:5 but is the purpose of the whole ritual up to v. 9. “Make atonement” (Hb. kipper) is of fundamental importance for what the ritual achieves by the shedding of blood, burning of the flesh, etc. While some take this Hebrew term as referring to expiation (the removal of sin) as opposed to propitiation (the appeasement of wrath), both realities seem to be involved. On the one hand, sin calls forth God’s wrath and results in the offerer’s needing to be ransomed (17:11) so that the Lord’s wrath is appeased (propitiation). In this way, the sacrificial animal dies instead of the offerer. On the other hand, sin is also defiling and must be removed (expiation). The offerings that “make atonement” are the burnt offering, the sin offering (4:26), and the guilt offering (5:16), but not the grain offering or the peace offering.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:5–9 After slaughtering the animal, all the ritual acts—such as throwing the blood against the sides of the altar (v. 5), flaying and cutting the animal into pieces (v. 6), preparing fire (v. 7), and burning all the pieces (vv. 8–9)—are to be performed by Aaron’s sons, who represent the Lord (being holy in their professional capacity; see ch. 8). Thus atonement is achieved through both the sacrifice and the priests who represent the Lord. This underscores that atonement is a divine activity. food offering (1:9). This is not a specific name of an offering but a more general term for what is “consumed” by the Lord in the fire. In other offerings, it is often coupled with a pleasing aroma (v. 9; Hb. reakh nikhoakh, cf. Gen. 8:21). The word “pleasing” implies the Lord’s favorable acceptance (Lev. 1:3–4) of the offerer’s sacrifice. Paul uses the Greek for this expression, rendered “fragrant offering,” as an image for both Christ’s self-sacrifice (Eph. 5:2) and the generosity of Christians (Phil. 4:18).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:10–13 When the offerer desires to offer a sheep or a goat, his animal ought to be without blemish (v. 10). The priest’s procedure is similar to offering the bull (vv. 3–9). The laying on of a hand is assumed but not mentioned. north side of the altar (v. 11). This specification applies not only to the case of the small cattle but may also indicate the place of slaughter for the bull in v. 5.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:14–17 The priest is to wring off the bird’s head (v. 15) and tear it open by its wings, but … not sever it completely (v. 17). These directions can be taken as pointing to the intention to keep the bird’s shape as intact as possible before burning it; this, at least, would make up for its smallness. Despite its smallness, the bird burnt offering achieves the same goal as a pleasing aroma to the LORD (v. 17). Again, casting it beside the altar on the east side may also apply to the cases of the herd and flock (v. 16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:1–16 The Grain Offering. Cf. 6:14–23. Grain offerings typically consisted of four elements: (1) fine flour; (2) oil; (3) frankincense; and (4) salt (see 2:11–13). They could be brought either uncooked (vv. 1–3) or cooked (vv. 4–10). The priest would not burn the entire offering but only a handful as a “memorial portion” (see note on vv. 1–3). The grain offering would ordinarily be offered with a burnt or peace offering and probably served the same purpose as the offering it accompanied, whether for petition or for praise.
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| Name of Sacrifice | Types of Animal | Hand-laying | Use of Blood | Priestly Portions | Lay Portions |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Burnt | Cattle, sheep, goats, birds | Yes | Poured on altar sides | No | No |
| Peace | Cattle, sheep, goats | Yes | Poured on altar sides | Yes | Yes |
| Sin | Cattle, sheep, goats, birds | Yes | Smeared on altars, sprinkled inside tent | Yes, usually | No |
| Guilt | Rams | Probably | Poured on altar sides | Yes | No |
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:1–3 The use of fine flour as well as the costly spice frankincense suggests that the Israelites were to present their very best to the Lord. The priest was to burn a handful of the offering as a memorial portion to the Lord (v. 2). The language of remembrance is used in the Bible to refer to the Lord’s favor (Ps. 8:3). This “memorial portion,” then, would have served as the Israelites’ way of asking the Lord to “remember” them with favor as they made their request or offered their praise.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:4–10 Three types of breads are mentioned in these verses: those baked in the oven (v. 4), those baked on a griddle (v. 5), and those cooked in a pan (v. 7). Since the grain offering was holy, the remaining part was to go to the holy priests (v. 10).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:11–13 Leaven and honey are both prohibited on the altar, though the text does not explain why. (It is assumed that leaven and honey could be presented as firstfruits [v. 12] because these were not burned on the altar [cf. Num. 18:12–13].) Various explanations for this prohibition have been put forward, e.g., that leaven represents “corruption” and is thus prohibited (cf. Matt. 16:6). Leviticus itself, however, provides no clues. By contrast, the reason for including salt, a preservative, seems clearer. It is described here as the salt of the covenant (Lev. 2:13), a phrase that is used elsewhere to refer to the permanence of a covenant relationship (Num. 18:19). It could thus serve to constantly remind Israel of the permanent nature of its covenant relationship with the Lord.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:14–16 Up to this point the chapter has described the more common types of grain offerings. It concludes by describing a very specific type, namely, a grain offering of firstfruits (v. 14; cf. Ex. 23:16, 19; 34:26). It appears that one way of offering these was to rub the ears (or “heads”) of the plant and for the resulting grain to be roasted with fire (Lev. 2:14; cf. 23:14; Josh. 5:11).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:1–17 The Peace Offering. This offering achieves and expresses peace or fellowship between an offerer and the Lord. The ritual as a whole symbolizes a communion meal that is held between the offerer, the officiating priest, and the Lord. In OT times such meals were a means of affirming a covenant relationship (Gen. 26:28–30). Generally speaking, then, this offering was a time to remember and reaffirm the covenant relationship between the Lord and Israel (cf. 1 Cor. 10:16–18; 11:23–26). As with the burnt offering, there are various specific motives for offering a peace offering, ranging from petition to praise. In this chapter, though, the entire emphasis is on the procedure for the offering, with a special focus on the burning of the fat.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:1–5 The procedure of this ritual involving a bull is the same as that of the burnt offering, up until the shedding of blood. Only the fatty parts of the animal, instead of all of it, are to be burned up. The fat in ancient Israel represented the very best part of the animal (cf. the “fat of the wheat,” Num. 18:12). The “fat” would be like filet mignon, i.e., the most succulent and savory part of the animal. To present this to the Lord was a way of acknowledging that he was the One worthy of most honor. (When Eli allows his sons, as priests, to eat the fat of the sacrifices, he is rebuked for honoring his sons above the Lord [1 Sam. 2:29].)
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:6–17 Almost the same procedure is prescribed here for the offering of a sheep or a goat.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:16–17 Since the peace offering was the one offering of which the offerer partook, it makes sense for this chapter to end by underscoring the two parts of the animal of which the offerer was never to partake, namely, the fat and the blood. The fat represented the very best part of the animal (see note on vv. 1–5). As such, it was to be given to the Lord as the One worthy of most honor (thus all fat is the LORD’s). The blood was reserved for a very special purpose: atoning for the life of the Israelites. As a result, it too must not be consumed (see notes on 17:11; 17:12).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:1–5:13 The Sin Offering. Cf. 6:24–30. In this section the focus of the sin offering (Hb. khatta’t) is on making amends for one’s broken relationship with the Lord, caused either by unintentionally violating one of the Lord’s prohibitive commandments (4:1–35) or by failing to do something that one was required to do (5:1–13). (In other places the focus will be on addressing severe cases of uncleanness; e.g., 12:6; 14:19; 15:15, 30.) The sin offering is distinguished from other offerings in that the ritual can vary according to the sinner’s position before the Lord (e.g., the type of animal required or what the priest does with the blood). In ch. 4 the ritual for the sin of the anointed priest and that of the whole congregation is basically the same, while the ritual for a leader and a common individual is the same. A core part of the ritual is the sprinkling of blood (4:6, 17). Since this is a purifying act (cf. 16:19), it implies that the holy objects are considered to be defiled by the sins of the people. Because of this—and the fact that this offering occurs to address uncleanness as well—some have preferred to call the offering a “purification offering” instead of a “sin offering.” In either case, the offering deals with the sin or impurity of the offerer, culminating in the Day of Atonement ritual in ch. 16. In this regard it foreshadows the essence of the Messiah’s atoning work on the cross.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:1–21 This section prescribes how to deal with the sins of the anointed priest and the whole congregation. Blood is sprinkled in front of the veil that separates the outer and inner parts of the tabernacle, indicating that their sins have defiled the Most Holy Place. But since this is a regular occasion, and not the Day of Atonement ritual (ch. 16), the blood cannot be brought into the Most Holy Place. The ritual here shows that the priest and congregation as a corporate entity bear heavier responsibility before the Lord than an individual leader or layperson (so that a more costly animal is required for them to make atonement).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:3 the anointed priest. Opinion is divided over whether this phrase refers to “the high priest” or to just any priest, though the former option is commonly favored.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:13 If the whole congregation … sins unintentionally. For a possible biblical example, see Josh. 9:15, where Israel makes a covenant with the Gibeonites (who deceived the Israelites by hiding relevant facts from them). realize their guilt. The Hebrew term ’asham is often translated “be guilty,” but since sinners bring their animal only after they come to know their sin, it is more likely that the word refers to sinners “realizing their guilt” or “suffering for their guilt” (and hence realizing it; see esv footnote) (cf. Lev. 4:22, 27; 5:2, 3, 4, 5).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:22–35 The priest atones for the sin of a leader or an individual by what he does with the blood at the altar of the burnt offering (v. 25) and by burning the fat on it (v. 26). The meat is not burned outside the camp, since it will be eaten by the priests (6:24–30).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 5:1–6 The common element in the following four cases is that sinners either deliberately (v. 1) or unknowingly (vv. 2–4) fail to do something that is required. They might fail to give testimony (v. 1), which could prevent justice from being carried out. They might fail to deal properly with ritual uncleanness (vv. 2–3), which could lead to the Lord’s tabernacle being defiled. Or they might fail to fulfill an oath (v. 4), which would result in the Lord’s name being profaned (see note on 19:11–12). In any of these cases, once they realized their guilt, they were to confess their sin (5:5) and bring a sin offering so that the priest could make atonement for them (v. 6).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 5:7–13 The provision of three possibilities for the sin offering, adjusted according to the sinner’s economic situation, would ensure that all Israelites have the ability to present an atoning sacrifice, no matter how poor they might be.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 5:14–6:7 The Guilt Offering. Cf. 7:1–10. The distinction between the offenses covered by the guilt offering and the offenses related to the sin offering is puzzling. In general, however, the offenses here appear to be more serious, as shown by the fact that the sacrificial animal is more costly (a male instead of a female) and that the sins are described as a “breach of faith” (5:15). The word translated “guilt offering” (Hb. ’asham) is used elsewhere with the sense of “compensation/reparation for guilt” (5:6), and the offering as a whole serves to repair the relationship between sinners and the Lord. This has led some to call this a “reparation offering.”
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:1–7 This case indicates the necessity of making reparation both to the damaged neighbor and to the Lord, and that when a person is seeking the Lord’s forgiveness, he must also correct the wrong committed against his neighbor (cf. Matt. 5:23–26).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:8–7:38 Handling of the Offerings. This section focuses on issues related to the proper handling, eating, and disposal of the various sacrifices and offerings. The sacrifices and offerings are either “holy” or “most holy” and must therefore be treated with due respect. If this was not done, the offering would not count and the offender would be punished (cf. 7:18, 20–21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:8–13 The Burnt Offering. Cf. 1:3–17. This passage concerns the continual burnt offerings that were made every morning and every evening (Ex. 29:38–42). It explains how the ashes of this offering are to be handled each morning, which requires the proper attire for the activities both inside (Lev. 6:10) and outside (v. 11) the tabernacle complex. This passage also underscores that the fire on the altar shall be kept burning (vv. 9, 12–13); this requirement would in turn serve as a special exhortation to the priests to be faithful in their duties so that the worship of the Lord could continue without interruption.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:14–23 The Grain Offering. The description in ch. 2 relates to what the worshiper does, while this section focuses on what the priests do.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:14–18 After summarizing the law of ch. 2 in 6:14–15, these verses go on to underscore that the grain offering is most holy and must therefore be eaten by holy people (the sons of Aaron) in a holy place (the court of the tent of meeting) (vv. 16–18). It is imperative that the most holy status of the offering be respected.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:19–23 These verses appear to describe a grain offering, offered by Aaron and his sons, that was to begin at the inauguration of the priesthood and then to continue as a regular grain offering (vv. 19–20; cf. Ex. 29:38–42). Since it appears that this was offered on behalf of the priests, it is not surprising that the high priest (the priest … who is anointed) would do this, since he would represent the priests as a whole. These verses also remind the priests of their continual need for the Lord’s favor.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:24–30 The Sin Offering. Cf. 4:1–5:13. Chapter 4 has already indicated that the meat of the sin offering is to be burned up when its blood has been taken into the Holy Place (4:3–21; cf. 6:30). These verses explain that the remaining meat of other sin offerings (4:22–35) is to be eaten by holy people (priests) in a holy place (6:26, 29). blood … on a garment … earthenware vessel … bronze vessel. Most interpreters believe that the blood itself was considered holy. Thus, the stipulations of vv. 27–28 are to ensure that holy blood does not leave the holy place.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:1–10 The Guilt Offering. The earlier passage (5:14–6:7) focused on when this was to be offered; this passage now focuses on how it is to be offered.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:1–7 This ritual has some elements in common with each of the other offerings, but it is not identical to any of them. As in the sin offering, the remaining flesh goes to the priest and his family.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:8–10 Having just described what portion of the guilt offering the priest receives (v. 7), these verses now proceed to discuss what portion the priest receives from the burnt offering (v. 8) and grain offering (vv. 9–10).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:11–36 The Peace Offering. The peace offering is subdivided into three types, according to their associated motivations: thanksgiving (in response to God’s favor toward the offerer; vv. 12, 13, 15), a vow (an offering in fulfillment of a vow; v. 16), and freewill (when there is no specific obligation to make an offering; v. 16). cut off from his people (vv. 20, 21, 25, 27). Some understand this to mean that the person is isolated from his relatives and family. Others, however, note that it is associated elsewhere with death (Ex. 31:14; Num. 4:18–20) and thus conclude that it refers to the premature death of the sinner. In either case, it was a severe penalty indeed. On the prohibition against eating fat and blood (Lev. 7:22–27), see note on 3:16–17. In the peace offering, the breast and right thigh (the choicest parts of an animal) go to the priests as a wave offering and a contribution. The reference to their anointing (7:35–36) anticipates ch. 8, on their ordination.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:37–38 Summary. These verses now summarize the offerings described in 6:8–7:36.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:1–10:20 The Establishment of the Priesthood. The book of Exodus ends with the construction of the tabernacle (Exodus 35–40), and Leviticus 1–7 provides a manual for sacrifice in the tabernacle. Now ch. 8 records the installation of the priesthood, and ch. 9 describes the first services in the tabernacle. Chapter 10 records an occasion when priests did not obey the words and instructions of the Lord in matters of worship.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:1–36 The Ordination of Aaron and His Sons. This chapter describes the rite of priestly ordination as a fulfillment of the commands given in Exodus 28–29. It is a highly structured narrative divided into seven parts by the phrase “as the LORD commanded” (Lev. 8:4, 9, 13, 17, 21, 29, 36). The number seven often symbolizes completion in the OT, and in this chapter the sevenfold layout signifies that, by the end, the installation of the priests is fully done.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:1–4 Aaron and his sons, along with their garments, will be consecrated by the offerings, oil, and unleavened bread. Nearly one-third of the uses of the term commanded (v. 4) in Leviticus can be found in ch. 8, pointing to the absolute command of the Lord and the complete loyalty of Moses. entrance of the tent of meeting. That is, the entrance to the screened-off courtyard.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:5–9 Moses clothes Aaron and his sons with gorgeous garments, which not only cover their nakedness (Gen. 3:7; Ex. 20:26), but also represent the Lord’s glory and beauty and the glorious task of mediating between the Lord and his people (Ex. 28:40). On Urim and Thummim, see note on Ex. 28:30.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:10–13 God had commanded Moses to anoint the tabernacle and its utensils with oil (Ex. 30:22–33), to set apart these items for holy use.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:14–17 Moses presents a sin offering on the altar for the purification of the priesthood and the altar.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:18–21 Cf. Ex. 29:15–18 and Leviticus 1. Aaron and his sons dedicate themselves by offering a ram as a burnt offering. This animal, probably costlier than a goat (cf. 4:28 with 5:15, 18; 6:6), is in keeping with the greater responsibility that they bear before the Lord (see note on 4:1–21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:22–29 Cf. Ex. 22:19ff. The ritual relating to the second ram bears the nature of the peace offering. Whereas the first ram (Lev. 8:18–21) purified the altar and the priests in general, the second ram is for the sacrifice of installation. Placing its blood on the right extremities of the priests constitutes a form of merism, where the two extremities of the body stand for the whole person. Thus, it symbolizes total dedication and purification.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:30 This is the second anointing with oil, and this time “sprinkling” of blood on Aaron and his garments is added. Since the latter rite is mostly performed on the tent and its utensils, Aaron and his sons are probably regarded as equivalent to those objects with regard to holiness and consecration.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:31–36 This is a meal of covenant ratification. The ceremony symbolizes the bond between the Lord and his priesthood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:1–24 The First Tabernacle Service. Chapter 9 prescribes and describes the first tabernacle service after the ordination of Aaron and his sons. The requirement of various offerings assumes that both the priests and the people are sinful. The Lord manifests himself by miraculously burning the animals on the altar, thus indicating that he has accepted both the priests and the people (cf. Ex. 29:43–46). This chapter functions as a sequel to the Sinai event; just as God came down to deliver his covenant to his people, so now he descends upon his altar to dwell intimately with them.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:1–4 After the seven days of the ordination service are concluded, then begins the inauguration of the daily sacrifices in the tabernacle. The first services conducted by Aaron as high priest are described in this chapter.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:5–6 The purpose of this service is for the glory of the LORD (see note on Ex. 16:7; cf. Ex. 40:34–35) to be manifested both to the people and to the priests.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:7–21 The atonement of the priests comes first (vv. 7–14), and then that of the people (vv. 15–21). As in other ceremonies, the atonement process moves from removing sinfulness (by the sin offering), to underscoring their petitions, praises, or both (by the burnt offering), and finally to communion (by the peace offering).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:22–24 Moses and Aaron together enter the tent. Moses is “passing the torch” to Aaron; the priests will now mediate between the Lord and the people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:1–20 The Nadab and Abihu Incident. The Lord’s acceptance of Aaron’s offering (ch. 9) is followed, on the same day, by an apparent rejection of it, and joy gives way to sorrow.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:1–3 Nadab and Abihu, the eldest of Aaron’s four sons, capriciously took censers of their own, put incense in them, and offered unauthorized fire (lit., strange or foreign fire; see esv footnote) to the LORD. The offense lies in their doing it their own way instead of in a way authorized by the Lord, and as a result they were instantly killed. (This probably also involved entering—or trying to enter—the Most Holy Place [cf. 16:1–2] after drinking alcohol [cf. 10:8–11].) The point of the story is that God will not allow his holiness to be violated, not even by members of the high priest’s family. And Aaron held his peace. He raised no vocal objection against God’s justice in the death of his sons; perhaps he was simply dumbfounded.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:4–7 The ordained priests, who are holy, ought not to mourn even for the death of their rebellious family members (but see note on 21:1–4).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:8–11 This is the only time in Leviticus that God speaks directly to Aaron alone. God delineates three major roles for the priesthood: (1) to distinguish between the holy and the profane, (2) to separate the clean from the unclean, and (3) to teach the people the laws of God.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:9 Wine and strong drink are forbidden while priests are “on duty,” presumably so that they can faithfully carry out their responsibilities (vv. 10–11). Laypeople as well are discouraged from drunkenness in the sanctuary (cf. 1 Sam. 1:12–16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:10–11 The priests are crucial for enabling Israel to live faithfully to the covenant. On their task to teach, cf. also Deut. 33:10; Ezra 7:10; Neh. 8:1–12; Mal. 2:6–7.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:12–15 Now that various offerings have been offered to the Lord, it is the priests’ duty and privilege to partake of them, as was previously commanded.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:16–20 The incident described here takes place on the final day of the installation of the priesthood. Moses discovers that Eleazar and Ithamar have not followed the regulations of sacrifice given by God (v. 16). It is dramatic because it follows so closely on the offense of Nadab and Abihu (vv. 1–3). Moses voices his anger; Aaron, however, intervenes on behalf of his two sons. He argues that the events of the day have been so exceptional as to show that it is too dangerous to perform the ritual. Aaron’s defense displays his fear of the holiness of God, which Moses is glad to see in his brother.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:1–15:33 The Laws on Cleanness and Uncleanness. Leviticus 10:10–11 defines the principal duties of the Israelite priesthood. One of these tasks is “to distinguish between the unclean and the clean.” Chapters 11–15 apply this principle to a variety of areas of Israelite life and culture. Chapter 11 deals with the matter of foods that are clean and may be eaten, and foods that are unclean and may not be eaten. Chapter 12 treats the issue of cleanliness and purification after childbirth. The following two chapters (chs. 13–14) provide regulations concerning cleanliness in matters of fungi, skin diseases, and infections. Chapter 15 considers human bodily discharges that may cause a person to be unclean. These five chapters constitute a codified directory for Israel, and in particular for the priests, that defines what is clean and unclean in God’s sight.
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c53
| Holy | Unclean | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Life | Death | |||
| Priests | Physically impaired priests | Clean non-priests | Unclean non-priests | Human corpses |
| Sacrificial animals | Blemished sacrificial animals | Clean animals | Unclean animals | Animal corpses |
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:1–47 Clean and Unclean Creatures. This chapter explains which creatures were considered clean and which were considered unclean. The rationale of why a creature is placed in one category vs. the other has puzzled commentators throughout the ages, and there is still no consensus of opinion. Typical explanations include a concern for hygiene; a “death” motif (i.e., unclean animals were somehow more associated with death in the Israelite mind); and polemics against Canaanite customs. More recently, it has been argued that a creature is unclean when it does not conform to established norms (e.g., an Israelite’s established norm for a four-legged creature would be a cow or a goat, since these were their herd and flock animals; a pig is thus unclean because, even though it has four legs, it is unlike the norm in that it does not chew the cud). In evaluating the above approaches, it is probably fair to say that no single one of them can provide a rationale that works for all the animals in this chapter. As a result, there might be a number of different reasons why an animal was considered clean or unclean. While the rationale of the classifications is still debated, the purpose of these laws is clear. In brief, they were to help Israel—as the Lord’s holy people—to make distinctions between ritual cleanness and ritual uncleanness (vv. 46–47). Significantly, making these distinctions in the ritual realm would no doubt serve as a constant reminder to the people of their need for making the parallel distinctions in the moral realm as well. Further, adherence to these food laws expresses Israel’s devotion to the Lord: just as he separated the Israelites from the other nations, so they must separate clean from unclean foods (20:24–26). This is why the restrictions can be removed in Acts 10:9–28, when the Jew vs. Gentile distinction is no longer relevant in defining the people of God (cf. also Mark 7:19; Col. 2:16–23; Heb. 9:1–14; 10:1–18). For Israel to obey these dietary restrictions also shows that the people honor the Creator, who has the right to decide how his creatures may be used. A “clean” animal is one “permitted” for food (Lev. 11:2). It is clear that classifying an animal as “unclean” is not the same as declaring that animal “evil”: God cares for all beasts, clean and unclean alike (cf. Ps. 104:17–18; 147:9). Leviticus employs a simple and practical classification system for edible animals, based on readily observable features. It is geared to the kind of life that Israel will live in the land of Canaan, and it is not always easy to apply it to animals that Israelites did not normally encounter (for instance, the sturgeon, which modern rabbis consider to have the wrong kind of scales, is not included here). This system is good for its purpose, a purpose that is different from that of the modern zoologist’s taxonomy. See the parallel list in Deut. 14:3–21 (with notes).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:1–8 The first paragraph deals with land-dwelling animals. In order for a land animal to be considered “clean,” it must meet two conditions: chewing the cud and being cloven-footed. In practical terms, these criteria permit Israel to eat hoofed mammals with two functional toes, including domestic beasts such as sheep, goats, and cattle, and wild ones such as antelopes (cf. Deut. 14:4–5). A horse, on the other hand, which has only one toe, is not clean. The diet of these animals is apparently not the basis of their cleanness or uncleanness. The passage itself says nothing about what the animals eat, and the camel, rock badger (hyrax), and hare are exclusively vegetarian but unclean. The pig is the only animal in this list that is not strictly vegetarian. (Many of the clean aquatic creatures of Lev. 11:9–12 are carnivorous.) The expression translated chews the cud can be applied to camels, rock badgers, and hares (vv. 4–6); based on the observable features of the animal, the thorough chewing of these animals looks like the cud-chewing of, say, cattle.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:9–12 The presence of fins and scales is the mark for distinguishing between clean and unclean water-dwelling creatures. In practical terms, this limits the clean aquatic animals to what modern zoologists would call true fish; anything aquatic that does not have fins and scales (e.g., squid, shellfish) is unclean.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:13–19 Almost all the unclean birds are predators and carrion-eaters (i.e., ones contacting death and consuming blood). The term translated “bird” (Hb. ‘op) covers a variety of creatures that fly (see esv footnote), and thus can include the bat.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:20–23 Insofar as the winged insects have an ability to leave the ground, they are clean. For the locust and grasshopper as allowable food, cf. the diet of John the Baptist (Matt. 3:4).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:24–28 The law gradually introduces the theme of death as a defiling force (see “carcasses” in vv. 8, 11). The carcass of any unclean animal is defiling, i.e., it makes the person who touches it unclean for a period (until the evening).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:29–35 Not only are these creatures unclean for food, but touching them when they are dead will also make one defiled.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:36–38 It is uncertain why the water in a spring or a cistern is not contaminated by an unclean creature that falls into it. Perhaps it is because water in them is naturally flowing and is continuously refreshed and renewed. It may also be an exception because water is in such short supply in Palestine.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:39–40 Even the clean quadrupeds are defiling after they have died.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:44–45 For I am the LORD. This self-identification is used here for the first time in the book; it occurs frequently from ch. 18 on. for I am holy. Cf. 19:2; 20:26; 21:8. The Lord, who is himself holy, calls his people to consecrate themselves, i.e., dedicate themselves to holiness (Hb. hitqaddesh), and to be holy, i.e., practice a holy lifestyle. Cf. 20:7–8 and note. who brought you up out of the land of Egypt. Personal consecration (in which a person imitates God’s own character) is a response to God’s gracious initiative (cf. Ex. 20:2). First Peter 1:16 applies the same principle to Christian readers, portraying them as the heirs of this special status.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 12:1–8 Uncleanness of a Childbearing Mother. A woman who has just given birth is considered unclean. The loss of blood signifies that one is incomplete and unclean. Three steps are required to move from defilement to purity: (1) the woman is to remain unclean for 7 or 14 days, depending on the gender of the child; (2) she then moves into the second stage, which lasts for 33 to 66 days in which she is neither pure nor impure; and (3) finally, she offers sacrifices in order to enter into full communion with the covenant people. The time of purification for the mother is twice as long if she gives birth to a female rather than a male. The reason is uncertain, although it may be that the female is potentially more unclean because of the probability of her menstruating and of her giving birth. In any event, there is no implication that the reason for the distinction is any kind of presumed “inferiority” of women.
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c54
| Tolerated | Punishable/Sinful |
|---|---|
| Discharges (Leviticus 12; 16) | Forgotten cleansing (Numbers 5–6; 19) |
| Skin diseases (Leviticus 13–14) | Idolatry, homicide, illicit sex (Leviticus 17–20; Numbers 35) |
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 12:8 lamb … two turtledoves. Cf. 5:11; and Luke 2:24, indicating the poverty of Jesus’ parents.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:1–14:57 Leprous Diseases and Their Purification. These chapters deal with a specific skin disease called tsara‘at. Chapter 13 addresses cases of the disease on the human skin (13:1–46), followed by a case affecting clothes and articles (13:47–58). Chapter 14 gives the prescribed purificatory rite for the healed person (14:1–32) along with the purificatory rite for an afflicted house (14:33–53).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:1–59 This chapter deals with uncleanness brought about by “leprosy.” The esv adopts the traditional rendering “leprosy” for the Hebrew tsara‘at, but its exact modern equivalent is unclear (see esv footnote on v. 2; cf. also Matt. 8:2 with esv footnote), particularly in view of the fact that it manifests itself not only in humans but also in clothes and articles (Lev. 13:47–59), and even in the walls of houses (14:34–53). The term used in Leviticus is in fact generic: it could include many skin ailments, such as psoriasis, urticaria (hives), favus (which produces honeycomb-shaped crusts), and leukoderma (which produces white patches on the skin). What today is called leprosy (Hansen’s disease) was unknown in the Near East at the time of Leviticus. Clear references to it do not occur until the late first millennium B.C.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:1–8 Basic symptoms of a leprous disease are given in vv. 2–3 (the hair in the diseased area has turned white and the disease appears to be deeper than the skin of his body). priest shall pronounce. By this means, the priest makes the status of uncleanness official. The person receiving such a pronouncement must dwell outside the camp, as stated in vv. 45–46, until he or she becomes clean.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:3 unclean (cf. v. 8). See Introduction: Interpretative Issues. This requires such persons to live outside the camp until they are free of their disease (vv. 45–46), and to present a sacrifice as part of a cleansing ceremony (14:1–32). Modern readers should not confuse this kind of “uncleanness” with “under God’s condemnation,” nor even with “excluded from the love of the community”: the purpose of this law is to prevent what is unclean from coming into contact with what is holy (a contact that would be dangerous for the unclean person and for the whole community).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:9–17 This is the case of a person with a severe, chronic skin condition. The patient has raw flesh, i.e., it is oozing, red, and active. His condition is easily recognizable, and therefore no quarantine is needed. The priest simply declares him ritually unclean and impure.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:18–44 These rules deal with various cases of the leprous disease in relation to other common skin diseases or disorders, such as a boil (vv. 18–23), a burn (vv. 24–28), itching disease (vv. 29–37), leukoderma (vv. 38–39), and baldness (vv. 40–44). The priest is responsible for discerning whether or not the condition is one that makes a person unclean (cf. 10:10–11); this is one way in which the priesthood is to serve the well-being of the people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:45–46 The person with a skin disease is to tear his clothes, go about with an unadorned head, and have his beard and mouth covered. These are all signs of mourning in the OT (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7). Here they symbolize that a person is ritually dead. Cf. Luke 17:12–13, where lepers “stood at a distance” and called for help from Jesus.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:47–59 Except for the symptoms and actual treatments such as washing, the procedure of the examination in cases of leprous disease in a garment follows that of the cases for humans. Causes of such disease include various molds or fungi. When it becomes clear that the suspected area is affected by the disease, the treatment (i.e., tear or burn it) is destructive; the object must no longer be used, or has to be completely abandoned.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:1–32 Chapter 13 told how an unclean person is consigned to a place outside the camp. Chapter 14 explains how that person is readmitted into the covenant community.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:1–9 Cedarwood, scarlet yarn, and hyssop all seem to have cleansing properties (see Num. 19:6) and are thus used in this two-bird ritual. The release of a live bird into the wilderness is reminiscent of the scapegoat in Lev. 16:6–10. The live bird being driven into the fields may symbolize the patient’s disease being carried outside the camp of Israel.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:10–20 This final series of sacrifices, focusing on cleansing at the sanctuary, restores the patient to full fellowship as a member of the covenant community. When the three standard offerings are presented—the sin offering, the burnt offering, and the grain offering—then the person has full restoration.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:21–32 These sacrifices are a concession to the poor who cannot afford the animals of vv. 10–20. Birds are substituted for the expensive large animals, and the amount of grain required is two-thirds less than the normal amount. Cf. note on 12:8.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:33–57 These laws regarding leprous disease in houses anticipate the time when Israel will settle in the Land of Promise and the people will be living in houses. Houses may become infected with disease; this latter term is a general word that may refer to things such as mold, mildew, and fungus. These are unclean and dangerous, and therefore must be eradicated. The priest determines what course of action is to be taken when such a problem occurs.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:1–33 Discharges from Male and Female Reproductive Organs. The rules in this chapter are symmetrically structured:
a serious case of male discharge (vv. 2–15)
man’s emission of semen (vv. 16–17)
sexual intercourse (v. 18)
female menstruation (vv. 19–24)
a serious case of female discharge (vv. 25–30).
One characteristic of these regulations is their emphasis on the transmission of contagion from one person to another. Transmission of infection may occur in any number of ways: for example, by sitting on an object that a defiled person had previously sat on, by touching contaminated cooking utensils, and by having direct contact through touching or spitting. No matter how it happens, the person infected is required to separate and to undergo the purification ritual. It is clear that “unclean” is not the same as “sinful,” but rather has to do with what is permitted (cf. note on 13:3). The Bible does not view the process of reproduction, with its associated bodily functions, as evil; this is part of the original good creation (even though human nature is severely damaged by the fall of Adam). Certainly the Creator of these functions has the right to tell his obedient creatures how and when to use them.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:2 his body. The Hebrew basar (here, “body”; cf. esv footnote, “flesh”) is used euphemistically here for the “genitals.” In fact, the same word is used in v. 19 of the female vagina.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:16–18 The emission of semen is polluting, perhaps because it is the life liquid and its loss makes a man unclean.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:19–23 A woman who is menstruating is unclean, and her uncleanness may be transmitted to others. The structure of this passage corresponds to that of the male with a discharge earlier in the chapter.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:24 If a man has sexual relations with a woman during her menstrual period, then he is considered unclean for seven days. That is the same length of time as is prescribed for the woman herself. It has often been alleged that this rule conflicts with 18:19 and 20:18, in which both parties are cut off from Israel. How are these statements to be harmonized? Perhaps the present verse deals only with the ritual implications of the act, or perhaps it is concerned with an inadvertent sexual act, whereas the later texts focus on a brazen breaking of the law. The texts simply seem to be dealing with different circumstances.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:25–30 These laws are concerned with irregular or unnatural flows of blood from a female (cf. the woman who has a long-term “discharge of blood” in Matt. 9:20–22; Mark 5:25–34; Luke 8:43–48).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:31–33 This section concludes with a warning and summary. You in v. 31 refers to Moses and Aaron (cf. v. 1 and 10:11). defiling my tabernacle. The presence of uncleanness in the camp constantly defiles the sanctuary; this idea prepares for the need for its cleansing in the Day of Atonement ritual (see 16:16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:1–34 The Day of Atonement Ritual. Occasioned by the death of Nadab and Abihu (ch. 10), the prescription sets out how—and for what purpose—Aaron the chief priest is to enter the Most Holy Place. The account ends with the institutionalization of the ritual (16:29–34). The nature of the ritual shows that purification for sins and uncleanness must be done from the innermost part of the tabernacle. All the other purificatory rituals hinge on the ceremony of this day. The sin offerings in this chapter in particular point to the work of Christ on the cross (see Heb. 9:7–14).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:1–2 These verses explain the immediate occasion for the atonement-day ritual, implying that Nadab and Abihu’s sin was not simply being drunk (cf. 10:9) but entering (or attempting to enter) the Most Holy Place (inside the veil).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:3–10 The preparations and the general guidelines for the atonement-day ritual are now described. Aaron prepares a bull … for a sin offering and a ram for a burnt offering (atoning for the house of the priests). He also prepares two male goats for a sin offering and a ram for a burnt offering (atoning for the people). One of the two goats for the people’s sin purifies the tent of meeting, while the other is presented alive to be sent away into the wilderness. As the esv footnote explains, the meaning of Azazel (vv. 8, 10) is uncertain. Many take it to be a proper name (since it is parallel to the LORD in v. 8) and thus conclude that it is the name either of an otherwise unknown demon or of a place. The traditional explanation is that Azazel (Hb. ‘aza’zel) is a compound word, combining “goat” (Hb. ‘ez) with “going away” (Hb. ’azel): the word would then mean “goat that goes away” (hence the conventional “scapegoat”). Each of these explanations has its difficulties; in any event, the idea is clear enough: the goat is sent out in order to take sin away from Israel.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:11–17 The atonement-day ritual starts with atonement for the priests (vv. 11–14) and then moves to atonement for the people (vv. 15–17). Aaron puts incense on the fire and it creates, literally, a cloud. The purpose of this act is to make the Most Holy Place misty and foggy to prevent Aaron from clearly seeing the presence of God. This is for Aaron’s protection. because of the uncleannesses of the people of Israel and because of their transgressions, all their sins (v. 16). Some interpreters assume that this description of sins refers to heinous offenses that have not been dealt with by the rituals on ordinary occasions. But the emphasis of “all their sins” (see also v. 21) appears to require the interpretation that the sins and uncleannesses on the ordinary occasions are once again taken up on this occasion.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:18–19 Presumably, altar here refers to the altar of burnt offering and not the incense altar (the purification of which is implied in v. 16b). The blood that has purified the mercy seat purifies this altar, thus restoring it to its pristine condition.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:20–22 This rite of sending the guilt of all Israel into the desert is commonly understood to be another way of cleansing the people, in addition to the prior purification of the sanctuary (vv. 3–20). But it is possible to see the two rites consecutively, based on the understanding that “bearing iniquity” (or guilt) is part of the atonement (Hb. kipper) process. If so, the relationship between the two rites is that Aaron bears the iniquities in purifying the holy objects (cf. 10:17), and then he places them on the Azazel-goat, so that the latter takes them away into the wilderness.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:23–25 Aaron leaves his Day of Atonement clothes inside the Holy Place because they are holy. They are not to be worn for the normal activity of the high priesthood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:26–28 The person who handles the Azazel-goat is assumed to have been defiled, presumably because he had contact with the uncleanness that the goat bore.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:29–34 On the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishri, i.e., September/October), the Israelites and the strangers are to afflict themselves (v. 29; lit., “afflict or humble their souls”). This term expresses self-denial and self-mortification, connected with fasting and prayer (Ps. 35:13; Isa. 58:3; cf. Ezra 8:21). This is also a day that the people are not to work; it is a day of rest.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:1–16 The Handling and Meaning of Blood. Chapter 17 deals with the handling of animals, beginning with a reminder that the blood of slain animals should be brought to the sanctuary (vv. 3–4). As the chapter progresses, deeper rationales for the instructions are gradually revealed: they are intended to prevent ongoing idolatry (v. 7), and the blood of a sacrificial animal is the “life” that takes the place of the offerer’s death (vv. 11–14). Animal blood is not to be used by Israel indiscriminately as it was used among the pagans of the time.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:1–9 If a person slaughters an animal either in the camp or outside the camp (v. 3) and does not bring the blood to the sanctuary (v. 4), that act is tantamount to human murder (though not identical to it). The immediate purpose for the prohibition is to prevent the people’s idolatry in worshiping the goat demons (v. 7). Anyone who violates the prohibition is to be cut off from his people (v. 9).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:10–12 These verses provide key insight into the understanding of sacrifice and atonement by explaining the meaning and significance of animal blood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:10 eats any blood. This probably refers to eating meat that still has the blood in it (cf. Gen. 9:4; Deut. 12:23).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:11 The blood is here described as the life of the animal. The Hebrew reads literally: “And I, I have given it. …” This underscores the action of the Lord himself in granting the means of atonement; it is his gracious gift. makes atonement by the life. That is, by means of the life of the animal, which ransoms the life of the offerer from the deserved judgment of the Lord.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:12 Therefore. Because the Lord has set aside the blood for the unique role of atonement (v. 11), the Israelites and all sojourners are prohibited from partaking of it.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:13–14 These verses describe how to handle the blood of animals killed in the hunt (vv. 13–14), with v. 14 emphasizing the prohibition against consuming blood (cf. vv. 10–12).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:15–16 A person who eats from these animals is unclean, probably because the animals that have died in these ways have not had their blood drained properly. Therefore, one who eats them becomes unclean and must be purified.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:1–22:33 The Call to Holiness. This section applies the principle of holiness (19:1–2) to various aspects of Israelite life. Chapter 18 considers the realm of sexual behavior and how Israel is to act differently from the pagan nations. Chapters 19–20 give a variety of applications of holiness to Israel’s existence: the manner in which the people treat the land, their neighbors, their parents, and all other things is to be distinct. Holiness is to affect every area of Israelite life. Chapters 21–22 specifically deal with the regulations regarding the holiness of the priesthood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:1–30 Prohibitions against Pagan Practices. The rules from ch. 18 onward aim to lead the people to holiness. Though the term “holy” or “holiness” is not mentioned in ch. 18, avoiding such conduct as practiced in Egypt and particularly in Canaan is the minimal requirement for the people to become holy. In reading the laws, it is important to see both their original context and their underlying and abiding principles. From the latter viewpoint, the laws in this chapter can be seen as commanding the people to avoid any action that ignores the order that God revealed in his creation. In this sense, the prohibited acts in this chapter are representative (i.e., nonexhaustive) examples.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:1–5 The people are commanded not to imitate the customs of the Egyptians and the Canaanites, but to obey the Lord’s rules and statutes.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:5 if a person does them, he shall live by them. Two interrelated interpretative issues arise here. First, what is the meaning of “live”? Does it refer simply to retaining bodily life, or does it refer to life in God’s pleasure, or does it refer to eternal life? Second, what is the connection between “doing” and “living”? In particular, does this verse imply that the doing earns the life (as the questioner in Luke 10:25 seems to imply)? In answer to the first question, when the Pentateuch speaks of “living” by keeping God’s statutes and rules, it refers to enjoying life under God’s pleasure (cf. Deut. 4:1; 8:1). In answer to the second question, when the OT stresses “doing,” it always sees this as the right response to God’s grace that provides both covenant relationship and moral instruction; it never presents obedience as the way of gaining that grace (it is the same as the NT in this respect: cf. Gal. 5:6; 1 John 2:3). Leviticus 18:5 is thus describing how the genuinely faithful guide their “walk” so that they can “abide in God’s love” (cf. John 15:10). The echoes of this text in Deut. 4:1; 8:1; Neh. 9:29; Ezek. 20:11, 13, 21 all appear to assume this reading of the text. In Luke 10:25 (“Teacher, what shall I do to inherit eternal life?”) the lawyer is taking the words of Lev. 18:5 to describe the way of earning eternal life. Jesus has him summarize the law (you must love the Lord and your neighbor), and then urges him, “Do this, and you will live” (Luke 10:28). Since the man wanted to “justify himself” (Luke 10:29), it is best to read this as Jesus’ challenge to all who would use the law (improperly) as a means to earn life: they must obligate themselves to unswerving loving obedience in order to gain their righteousness, or else give up in despair. On the question of how Paul uses the text in Rom. 10:5 and Gal. 3:12, see notes there.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:6–20 These laws prohibit a variety of sexual sins: incest (vv. 6–18), intercourse during menstruation (v. 19), and adultery (v. 20).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:6–18 These laws prohibit sexual relations (approach … to uncover nakedness), and therefore marriage, between people who are too closely related, either by blood (mother, sister, granddaughter, aunt) or by marriage (stepmother, stepsister, stepdaughter, stepgranddaughter, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law, aunt by marriage). “Uncover nakedness” can at times merely refer to voyeurism (cf. Gen. 9:22–23), but in the OT it is most commonly a euphemism for sexual intercourse. No mention is made of the daughter, probably because that needs no comment (cf. Gen. 19:30–38), and this prohibition is already well known in the laws of other cultures. It is assumed that, generally speaking, Israelites will marry other Israelites, and these laws provide a boundary for how close such unions may be. There is some debate over just what motivates this system of requirements; certainly they enforce a distinction between family affection and erotic love as such—a distinction that protects the well-being of the community, and especially of its vulnerable members. This concern would not be limited to the Israelite theocracy and is therefore also applicable to Christians.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:18 a rival wife to her sister. Some have taken this to be a general prohibition of bigamy (with “to her sister” in the sense of “to another woman”). Bigamy is indeed outside the creation ideal (Gen. 2:24), but elsewhere in this chapter the Hebrew term “sister” simply refers to a biological sister. Further, the laws of Israel do not always require the ethical ideal; often they simply set out the minimum level of civility that the Israelite theocracy can tolerate. Biblical narratives generally show polygamous marriages as unhappy ones, and allow the reader to draw the clear conclusion: e.g., Gen. 29:30–30:2 (Jacob’s marriage to two sisters, at a time historically prior to this prohibition); 1 Sam. 1:2–7 (the two wives of Elkanah).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:19 Leviticus offers no explanation for what motivates this law. Unlike most of the other sexual laws of this chapter, such as the ones dealing with adultery and homosexuality, this law is not repeated as prohibitive in the NT. In view of 15:19–24, the concern is probably the ceremonial uncleanness that the man will contract. In other words, the man who touches a woman in her menstrual condition becomes ritually unclean himself.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:20 This prohibition follows from the seventh commandment (Ex. 20:14) and is universally applicable. make yourself unclean with her. Although not all uncleanness is sin, all sin makes a person unclean.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:21 This refers to the cult of Molech (2 Kings 23:10; Jer. 32:35). The precise nature of the offering of children to this pagan god is uncertain. It may be that they are being given to the cult of Molech to train to be temple prostitutes, and that is why this passage is listed in a section dealing with sexual prohibitions. On the other hand, Roman authors describe the practice of sacrificing babies by fire in Carthage (a north African city founded by Phoenicians, who were part of Canaan), and thus this may indeed refer to this horrific custom.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:22 You shall not lie with a male as with a woman. This prohibited all male homosexual activity (cf. 20:13; also note on Rom. 1:26–27). In the larger picture, such activity is utterly at odds with the creation ideal (see note on Gen. 2:23–24).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:24–30 All the above-listed offenses are declared to be abominations to the Lord, and any one of them defiles not just the offender but also the land.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:1–37 Call to Holiness. In ch. 19 the Lord strongly commands the people (including the priests) to become holy in their practice, as he is holy (v. 2). One becomes practically holy by observing all the following negative and positive commandments. Some of the commandments in vv. 3–18 are similar to the Ten Commandments (Ex. 20:2–17), and the topics in this chapter show that holiness must be practiced in every sphere of one’s life. Some of the rules are grounded in the fact that the Lord is the One who saved the Israelites from the bondage in Egypt. Many of these rules (e.g., Lev. 19:9–18) are oriented toward the Israelites’ functioning as a loving community, serving one another’s well-being.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:1–4 Holiness here refers first and foremost to the essential nature of God. The term holy means “set apart, unique, and distinct,” and holiness in humans ordinarily refers to their being set apart for service to God (see note on Isa. 6:3). Human holiness is the imitation of God, i.e., becoming and acting like him.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:5–8 Sacrifices are to be made in a specific way, namely, according to God’s commands. If they are not carried out in the prescribed manner, then the offerer has profaned that which is holy.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:9–10 Thorough harvesting may reflect coveting and greed. Caring for one’s neighbor and helping provide for the poor and the sojourner displays holiness. (For a literal observance of these rules, and for kindness that goes well beyond the simple legal requirement, see Ruth 2.)
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:11–18 This section refers often to the Ten Commandments. Holiness requires that a person keep the Word of God and, in particular, the fundamental moral law enumerated in the Ten Commandments.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:11–12 Dishonesty in human relationships is prohibited. When someone swore an oath, he would do so by invoking the name of the Lord. To swear … falsely, therefore, was to disregard the holiness of God’s name and thus profane it.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:13–14 The prohibition against oppression is exemplified by two cases: delay in paying the wages of the hired worker and insulting the physically disadvantaged.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:15–16 Justice and righteousness must prevail in the Israelite legal system. No favoritism is permitted; the poor and the great are to be treated the same in a court of law.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:17 To hate in one’s heart is prohibited; one should rather reason frankly with his neighbor (cf. Prov. 27:5–6). The instruction is followed by a warning: lest you incur sin because of him. Scholars debate the relationship between reproof and incurring sin, but this probably has to do with a situation in which one who refuses to “reason frankly with his neighbor,” helping him to see his sin, would share in the guilt of the neighbor’s sin when it is committed; it might also suggest that to fail to “reason frankly” will result in bitter feelings that will overflow into sinful action.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:18 The instruction and warning of v. 17 is developed in a heightened way. you shall love your neighbor as yourself. To love one’s neighbor as oneself is a fundamental principle of the Torah, God’s law. Both Jesus and Paul teach that it is a foundational tenet for how believers are to treat one another (Matt. 22:39–40; Rom. 13:9; Gal. 5:14), while James calls this the “royal law” (James 2:8). In Matt. 5:43, Jesus cites a distortion of this rule in order to restore the rule to its rightful place.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:19–37 Holiness means more than mere separation, but it always signifies that something is set apart in its proper sphere. In this section, this principle is applied in a variety of areas of life, such as in agricultural practice in which two different types of seeds are not to be planted together.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:19 Two different kinds of domesticated animals are not to be crossbred, and two types of cloth are not to be woven together. Ceremonial holiness requires that things stay in their proper sphere, just as Israel must observe its separation from the nations (20:22–26).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:20–22 The concept of holiness governs sexual relations in Israel. It requires that a fair judgment be conveyed in legal matters pertaining to adultery and promiscuity.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:23–25 In the land of promise the fruit of the tree must not be eaten for the first three years (v. 23). In the fourth year it is holy and an offering of praise to the LORD (v. 24). Only in the fifth year can it be eaten (v. 25). Forbidden literally means “uncircumcised,” and so the law of the land is being compared to circumcision. As a child is not to be circumcised before the eighth day, so the fruit on a tree is not to be plucked or eaten until after the third year.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:26–31 These are all practices of the Canaanites. Holiness requires Israel not to act like the pagans in any areas of life.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:33–34 Since the Israelites had been strangers in Egypt and knew what it was like, they ought to treat the strangers living among them just like themselves. In this regard the commandment in v. 18b is broadened beyond one’s own countrymen to foreigners (cf. Luke 10:29–37).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:35–36 In a summary way the rule in v. 15—avoid injustice and partiality; judge in righteousness—is taken up again and applied to commercial transactions.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:37 observe all my statutes. This sums up the entire chapter. Cf. 18:5.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:1–27 Punishment for Disobedience. The rules in ch. 20 have much in common with those in ch. 18. This chapter, however, sets forth and stresses the punishments for violating the rules. Special emphasis is laid on Molech worship and mediums/necromancers. Almost all the crimes listed are punishable by the death penalty. Only a few are to receive a lesser sentence, such as in 20:17–18, in which the perpetrator is excommunicated.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:1–6 Worshipers of Molech ought to be stoned to death (v. 2). If that is not implemented, the Lord himself punishes them and their followers directly by cutting them off (vv. 4–5; i.e., by bringing them to a premature death himself; see note on 7:11–36). The Lord carries out the same punishment upon those who consult mediums and necromancers (20:6)—cf. 1 Sam. 28:9, where Saul consults the medium of En-dor.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:7–8 This is the first time in Leviticus that the Lord is said to be the agent of sanctifying the people. The Lord sanctifies the Israelites by making them his holy people, set apart to be his own, giving them a holy status; now he calls on them to consecrate themselves and be holy (i.e., dedicate themselves to holiness in practice); see note on 11:44–45.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:9 anyone who curses his father or his mother. Cursing one’s parents is not merely using condescending or abusive language toward them but refers to a serious breach of a child’s duty to honor his or her parents. It means “to make light of something,” and is the exact opposite of “honoring” one’s parents (Ex. 20:12); cf. Ex. 21:17. For the moral revulsion of such disrespect, cf. Prov. 20:20; 30:11, 17.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:10–20 Each of these sexual activities has already been prohibited in ch. 18. They are repeated here because this section includes the punishment for each of the crimes: capital punishment (20:10–16), exile (vv. 17–18), or barrenness (vv. 19–21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:17 sees her nakedness. See note on 18:6–18.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:22–26 This section of exhortations toward holiness concludes chs. 18–20 (cf. 20:22–24 with 18:3–5, 24–28). Moreover, in light of its reference to clean and unclean creatures in 20:25 (cf. ch. 11), this section may conclude not only chs. 18–20 but chs. 11–20 as well. A land flowing with milk and honey is a common scriptural description of Canaan (Ex. 13:5; 33:3; Num. 13:27; etc.). Egyptian texts such as the Story of Sinuhe also characterize Canaan as a productive, fertile land.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:27 In v. 6, the one who consults a necromancer or a medium was to be put to death. In this verse, the necromancer or the medium is to be put to death. Why this verse appears in this place in the text is puzzling; it may be because the act receives capital punishment, as do most of the other activities of the section.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:1–24 Holiness of the Priests. Chapters 21–22 deal with the Lord’s demand of holiness for the priests and the offerings. While priests have been ordained and are holy in terms of their office (ch. 8), that holiness is only an outward one; it does not necessarily mean that they have inner holiness of heart and conduct (see Introduction: Interpretative Issues). More stringent regulations of holiness are required of the priests because they work directly with the holy objects of the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:1–4 For a layperson, coming into contact with the dead (as in attending a funeral) brings about defilement, though it is allowed (cf. Numbers 19). But ordinary priests (for high priests, see note on Lev. 21:10–15) are prohibited from coming into contact with the dead, except in the case of their closest relatives (v. 2). his virgin sister (v. 3). The assumption is that, once she marries, she is not regarded as one of his closest relatives, but comes under the care of her husband and his clan (see Gen. 2:24).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:5–6 Priests were prohibited from making bald patches on their heads, shaving off the edges of their beards, or making cuts on their body (cf. 19:27–28). These acts are pagan mourning and burial practices. The priests of Israel oversee the ceremonial worship of the people, and therefore, no Canaanite ritual is to penetrate the priestly system. Even in burial practices the priests are to be holy.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:7–8 The priest is required to be holy in the area of matrimony. He is to marry a woman of high moral character. She may not be a prostitute, because that is a defiling profession. He also is not to marry one who has been divorced. The text does not explain this latter prohibition; perhaps it acknowledges that even though divorce is allowed by the laws, a broken or failed marriage always carries an element of falling short of the creation ideal (see note on Deut. 24:1–4), and the priests are to embody the covenant ideal in their lives as well as their teaching (cf. Mal. 2:1–9).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:10–15 The high priest is subject to stricter holiness regulations than is the ordinary priest. Thus, whereas a common priest may marry a widow, the high priest must marry a virgin (vv. 13–14). (Perhaps this rule is given to ensure that all the children in his home are his own.) The high priest may not participate in any mourning or burial activities (vv. 10–12; cf. note on vv. 1–4). This is to keep the high priest from uncleanness that he might otherwise bring into the inner parts of the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:16–20 No priest who has a blemish may approach to offer sacrifices. The same requirement applies to sacrificial animals. Both the priest and the animal are to exemplify holiness and completeness (see 22:17–25).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:21–24 While the priests with physical defects cannot officiate in the priestly work, they are entitled to eat the divine food because of their lineage. for I am the LORD who sanctifies them (v. 23). Although “them” might refer to the priests with physical defects, the singular is used of such priests in vv. 17–23a, and the analogy with v. 15 suggests that “them” in v. 23 refers to my sanctuaries, which immediately precedes it.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:1–33 Holiness of the Offerings. This chapter aims at guaranteeing the holiness of offerings, particularly against those who handle them (i.e., the priests and lay offerers). The offerings, just like the priest, ought to be physically without blemish (cf. vv. 21–22 with 21:17–22).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:1–3 The potential cause of profaning the offerings lies in uncleanness. The heavy responsibility demanded of the priests is reflected in the phrase cut off from my presence (v. 3), which is more severe than the ordinary formula “cut off from his people.” When a layman is cut off in the Levitical law, it is from among the people (19:8; 20:5), but the priest is exiled from the service in the tabernacle (i.e., in God’s presence).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:4–9 For the background of these rules, see 11:1–47; 13:1–59; 15:1–33; and 17:15. Contracting uncleanness is inevitable, but when purification has been made, one can eat the holy offering. If purification is not made and the offering is eaten, the offender forfeits his life.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:10–16 For non-priests, the right of eating the holy offerings is conditioned on whether a person belongs to a priestly house (whether through purchase or by birth). Priests and their families subsisted on food from donations to the tabernacle. Who else may partake of that food? A slave purchased by a priest is included (v. 11), but a hired laborer is not. A priest’s daughter may participate only until she is married outside the priestly family (vv. 12–13). The priests are to guard the holy food so that those unauthorized may not eat of it (vv. 15–16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:17–25 No animal is to be sacrificed if it is blemished. This parallels the requirements of priestly purity (21:17–23). Animals with defects are considered unholy and incomplete, and are therefore not to be offered to the Holy One.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:26–28 The rationale for these laws is uncertain. Some argue that they perhaps have a polemical function against pagan ritual, in particular the fertility rites of the Canaanites. Others believe that they reflect the sanctity of the seven-day cycle in Israel. Yet others maintain that the laws simply show the high regard for all life that the Hebrews are to have (cf. Ex. 23:19; Deut. 20:19–20; 22:6–7).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:29–30 A thanksgiving sacrifice was a type of peace offering (cf. 7:15). While other types of peace offerings could be eaten on the next day (7:16), this one was to be consumed on the same day (see also 7:15). This stricter rule could suggest that this offering was especially sacred or important.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:1–25:55 Holy Times. Following chs. 18–22 (which addressed the theme of human behavioral holiness), these chapters address holiness in relation to time.
The Sabbath principle permeates each of these feasts, which are intended to express the divine-human relationship. Each feast requires (1) cessation from ordinary work and (2) dedication to the Lord by means of offerings.
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c55
| Feast | Reference | General time of year | Specific time of year | Modern equivalent | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sabbath | 23:3 | Weekly | 7th day | Saturday | Creation |
| Passover | 23:4–8 | Spring | 14th of first month (Abib) | March/April (Easter) | Salvation |
| Firstfruits | 23:9–14 | Spring | 16th of first month (Abib) | March/April (Easter) | Dedication |
| Weeks | 23:15–21 | Spring | 1st of third month (Sivan) | Pentecost | Dedication |
| Trumpets | 23:23–25 | Fall | 1st of seventh month (Tishri) | September | Solemn assembly; spiritual preparation |
| Day of Atonement | 23:26–32 | Fall | 10th of seventh month (Tishri) | September/October | Redemption |
| Booths | 23:33–36 | Fall | 15th–22nd of seventh month (Tishri) | September/October | Joyful remembrance of the Lord’s historic guidance |
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:1–44 Holy Feasts. This chapter is a systematic presentation of the festal calendar in Israel (cf. Ex. 23:10–19; 34:18–26; Numbers 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17; see chart). It is based on three national pilgrim festivals: the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Harvest, and the Feast of Booths. The foundation of these three feasts is the Sabbath. Keeping this calendar sets Israel apart from all the surrounding nations.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:1–3 Introduction and Weekly Sabbath. On the Lord’s appointed feasts, people are to meet with the Lord. The Sabbath is a day of solemn rest. Therefore, no work is to be done on that day. This idea of “rest” is the basis for all the following feasts. The day is also one of holy convocation, i.e., of public assembly for worship (cf. the term in vv. 2, 4, 7, 21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:4–8 The Passover. It is also called the Feast of Unleavened Bread (cf. Luke 22:1). The basic rule is set out in Ex. 12:16–19. In addition to eating unleavened bread and doing no ordinary work, this rule adds another element, namely, presenting a food offering to the LORD (Lev. 23:8).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:9–14 The Firstfruits. The rule applies to the life of the people in the Promised Land. For the relevant laws, see Ex. 23:15 and 34:18–20. The feast consists of two stages. It begins with the waving of the sheaves before the Lord. Then comes a series of sacrifices that include a whole burnt offering, a grain offering, and a drink offering (reflecting the grape harvest). These two acts are to dedicate and celebrate the entire harvest as a blessing from God given to his people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:15–22 The Weeks. The Feast of Weeks begins fifty days after the sheaf of the wave offering is brought to the priest (vv. 15–16). This feast is also called “the Feast of the Harvest” (Ex. 23:16) and “the day of the firstfruits” (Num. 28:26); in the NT it is called “Pentecost” (Acts 2:1, from the Gk. word for “fiftieth”). The purpose of this celebration is to recognize the Lord as the provider of all crops and as the One who deserves the firstfruits of all produce. The added rule concerning the harvest (Lev. 23:22) is also in tune with the generosity that is expected of the people on this occasion. In v. 22 God commands Israel not to forget the less fortunate during a time of national celebration of abundance.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:23–25 The Trumpets. The trumpet blasts and a solemn assembly on the first day of the seventh month call the people to prepare for the most sacred month of the Hebrew calendar. In addition, the day marks the end of one agricultural year and the beginning of another. Postexilic Judaism celebrates this day as Rosh Hashanah, i.e., New Year’s Day.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:26–32 The Day of Atonement. The Day of Atonement is on the tenth day of the seventh month. The special nature of this feast is marked by now in v. 27. Although ch. 16 already prescribed the ritual and explained what the people were to do on that day, the emphasis here is on the people’s afflicting themselves (see note on 16:29–34), not doing any work, and the possibility of punishment if they do not observe the regulations of this day.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:33–36 The Booths. The Feast of Booths was a weeklong feast that began on the fifteenth day of the seventh month. Since it celebrates the people’s salvation from Egypt, it was fitting for them to cease from work and to worship before the Lord.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:37–44 Summary of the Annual Feasts. Judging from v. 38, the appointed feasts in v. 37 refers to the six feasts over and above the weekly Sabbath. The purpose of these feasts is to help the people remember the Lord and his work on their behalf and to worship him appropriately. Verses 37–38 summarize the festal calendar, but vv. 39–44 return to a discussion of the Feast of Booths. These verses may simply be a further elaboration because of the lack of detail in the earlier explanation of the festival.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:1–9 Oil and Bread of the Presence. The placement of this text directly after a discussion of the Israelite festal calendar (ch. 23) appears peculiar. But its placement here may be to remind the Israelites not to forget the daily tabernacle activities in light of the annual festivals just discussed.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:5–9 The twelve loaves symbolize the 12 tribes of Israel as they stand in the presence of God. In Ex. 25:30 they are called “the bread of the Presence.” New loaves are to be set out on each Sabbath without exception. This is important because it is a sign of the covenant between the 12 tribes of Israel and God.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:10–23 The Case of a Blasphemer. This section interrupts the flow of divine instructions with a narrative; it indicates the way in which many of the case laws in Israel arose, as responses to specific situations. It also shows how to apply these case laws in new situations that come up, by analogy with the existing laws.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:10–12 The command against blaspheming God’s name has already been given, in Ex. 20:7 and 22:28. It is dealt with again in the present passage for two reasons: first, no penalty for it was provided in the previous prohibitions; second, the one who blasphemes in this case is not a full-fledged Israelite. The man is placed under temporary guard until judgment is passed.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:13–16 The culprit is to be stoned outside the camp (v. 14). The laying on of hands prior to the stoning has been commonly explained in such a way that the congregation, having overheard the curse and become defiled, devolves the guilt onto the culprit, and his death makes atonement for the guilt. Alternatively, it may be taken as a gesture simply to indicate who it is that had cursed the name of the LORD.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:17–23 These verses deal with the principle of lex talionis (Latin, “the law of retribution”). It is a form of ironic justice in which the punishment for the crime is found in the crime itself. The principle applies to everyone in Israel without exception (see Ex. 21:23–25; Deut. 19:21). It is unlikely that fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth actually implies mutilation as the punishment for the offender; rather, the value of the injured member will be the imposed fine (cf. Ex. 21:18–19). This law, when properly applied, guides the judges in assessing damages and sets a limit on the thirst for revenge. Since this is a rule for judges to follow, it should not be invoked in ordinary daily relationships (cf. Jesus’ stance, Matt. 5:38).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:1–22 The Sabbatical Year and Jubilee Year. This section is a sequel to ch. 23, which primarily dealt with the Hebrew festal calendar. Added to that calendar are these two celebrations based on the Sabbath principle (i.e., one in seven). Israel is required to keep these holy times as a symbol that they are a holy people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:1–7 Every seventh year is a sabbatical year, and no agricultural activities should be engaged in. The personified land suggests that the land (more than the Israelites) needs to rest. The Israelites may work the land for six years, but there is to be no organized farming in the seventh year. This practice is clearly a benefit to the soil, but it is also a recognition that all produce belongs to God and that he bestows it freely on his people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:8–12 The Hebrew word yobel, jubilee (v. 10), is related to a term that means “ram” or “ram’s horn.” The ram’s horn (or trumpet) is to be sounded throughout Israel on the Day of Atonement to announce the beginning of the fiftieth year (v. 9). Jubilee is a year of release and liberty (v. 10). In that year, people are to return to their land possession, i.e., their ancestral property (v. 10). Israelites who sold themselves to indenture are also to be released and sent home. This provided a periodic restoration of the means to earn a living for each family in an agrarian society. (The jubilee did not equalize all possessions in Israel, however, since possessions such as cattle and money were not reallocated.) The prohibitions of the jubilee are the same as for the sabbatical year. The land is to lie fallow for two years in a row: the forty-ninth year (sabbatical year) and the fiftieth year (jubilee). This law prohibits the amassing of large estates, which would reduce many Israelites to tenant status on their ancestral land (cf. Isa. 5:8).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:13–17 Basic guidelines for business are given. In selling or purchasing property, the price must be calculated according to how many years have passed since the jubilee, since it is not the estate itself that is to be sold or purchased but the amount of crops that can be harvested before the next jubilee. Since all the Israelites eventually return to their inherited land, the act of selling agricultural land essentially means leasing it (but see vv. 29–31 for land that could be sold permanently). The injunction you shall not wrong one another (vv. 14, 17) is idiomatic for the economic oppression of the poor and needy (cf. 19:33). There is to be no exploitation of fellow Israelites in land transactions.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:18–22 This is an exhortation to keep God’s law, which will bring rich blessings. These blessings include security in the land against external threats (vv. 18–19). God also promises to supply enough food during years of agricultural activity to cover periods in which the land lies fallow, such as during the sabbatical year (vv. 21–22).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:23–55 Laws of Redemption. This section deals with the concept of redemption. If a person gets into difficulty or danger, then a relative (his “nearest redeemer,” v. 25) is to redeem him from his dire straits (see note on Ruth 3:12–13). The various methods of redemption are explained.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:23–24 The land is the Lord’s, so one cannot sell his inherited land as though it were his permanent possession. The status of the Israelites is that of strangers and sojourners with the Lord. Thus they are tenants, so to speak, in the Promised Land. This principle is later applied to the believer’s existence in this world (cf. Ps. 39:12; 1 Pet. 2:11).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:25–28 If an Israelite is forced to sell his land temporarily, he and his family retain the right of redemption. The land may be redeemed in one of three ways: (1) a kinsman-redeemer buys back the land; (2) the seller himself is able to buy it back; or (3) it is restored to the rightful owner at the jubilee.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:29–34 Houses in walled cities are not regulated by rights of redemption as are houses in unwalled villages. The former are not released at the jubilee, and their redemption is for only one year (not in perpetuity). Why this distinction is made is uncertain, although it may be that houses in walled settlements are considered privately owned, rather than part of a tribal inheritance. One exception to the rule is that houses belonging to Levites in their cities carry full rights of redemption.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:35–38 Israelites are to show mercy to one another because they are recipients of God’s mercy.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:39–46 A further predicament is envisaged, namely, that an Israelite, becoming impoverished, had to sell himself to a fellow Israelite. In this case the poor man must not be treated like an ordinary slave (v. 39) but as a hired worker and a sojourner (v. 40). His right to return to his house at the jubilee means that he has sold just his labor, and not his status as a free Israelite, to his fellow Israelite. ruthlessly (vv. 43, 46). Treating a fellow Israelite like a slave is prohibited by language echoing the Israelites’ hard labor in Egypt (cf. Ex. 1:13).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:47–55 A Hebrew in dire financial straits may indenture himself to a stranger or sojourner in the land. Yet the Israelite retains his right of redemption. He may be redeemed by a kinsman or he may redeem himself if he gains sufficient means (vv. 48–49). In addition, his indenture ceases at the jubilee (v. 54). These verses demonstrate that the sojourner is required to keep the laws of Israel while residing in the land.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:1–46 Blessings and Curses. A principal element of a covenant document is a section of sanctions, i.e., blessings and curses that are dependent on how one keeps the covenant agreement. Often they appear at the close of a covenant document, and there they enumerate the sovereign’s granting of rewards or punishments based on the vassal’s obedience or disobedience. Verses 1–13 display the blessings if Israel obeys the covenant; vv. 14–39 pronounce curses.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:1–2 Fundamental Conditions. These verses remind Israel what is at the heart of Israelite law: fidelity to God and the keeping of the Sabbath.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:3–13 Blessings for Obedience. If Israel is faithful to the Word of God, then blessings of abundance will be theirs: rain, abundant crops, rich harvest, and protection from enemies (vv. 4–10). In addition, God will make them fruitful and multiply them (v. 9; cf. Gen. 1:28; 28:3; 35:11). All these blessings are visible manifestations of the Lord’s presence (Lev. 26:11–12) as the Israelites live out their privilege as God’s new humanity.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:11–12 The apostle Paul uses these verses to describe the privileges of God’s people as his temple (2 Cor. 6:16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:14–17 The First Stage. The reverse side of the blessings in vv. 4–7 is set out as punishment. your soul abhors (v. 15). The phrase appeared in v. 11, and here it refers to the Israelites’ inner attitude to the Lord’s commandments, and thus to the Lord himself.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:18–20 The Second Stage. If the people continue to walk in disobedience, the Lord will target their pride and power by stopping the rain. sevenfold (v. 18). Rather than “seven times,” it means “fully” or “completely.” If the Hebrews refuse to alter their behavior as a result of the first series of judgments, these punishments will be added.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:21–22 The Third Stage. This time the people’s hardness of heart will be punished by wild beasts (cf. v. 6). From this section onward, the idea of walking contrary to the Lord (v. 21) appears frequently (vv. 23, 27, 40; cf. the complementary judgment theme of the Lord’s walking contrary to them: vv. 24, 28, 41).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:23–26 The Fourth Stage. This stage is characterized by the Lord’s wrath that manifests itself in the sending of sword and pestilence on the people (cf. vv. 5–6, 8). For the first time, the deliverance of the people into the hand of the enemy is mentioned.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:27–39 The Fifth Stage. This is the final set of curses. Intensification is clear in this last series as the people continue in their stubbornness and God increases his punishments. The final place for the covenant breakers will be in exile (v. 34).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:27–33 The punishment includes an unbelievable form of cannibalism and the destruction of the religious centers, the cities, and the land. The Lord’s wrath is actually carried out by the people’s enemies.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:34–39 All of this is followed by the Lord’s ironical judgment that the evacuation of the people brings about a rest for the land (cf. 25:2–7). Once the covenant breakers are gone, then the land will enjoy its Sabbaths (26:34). The verb “enjoy” is commonly used in reference to either God or man, but here it is employed as a personification. In this way, the land will be purified and will recover its holiness.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:40–46 Conditions and Confession within the Covenant. God’s rejection of Israel is not final. If the people repent, confess their sins, and walk humbly before God, then he will deliver them from exile and restore them to the Land of Promise. The people, however, have an uncircumcised heart (v. 41); this means that although the Israelites are circumcised in the flesh, their hearts are actually like the hearts of the pagan peoples.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:1–34 Vows and Dedication. This final chapter of Leviticus sets out the means of redemption as it relates to vows made to the Lord and his sanctuary. The material appears to be an appendix or addendum to the book; it does not fit smoothly with the content of the previous Holiness Code. This does not mean that the chapter was added at a later time, but it was placed here at the end to underscore the importance of funding the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:1–8 The Case of Persons. In Israel, a man may make a vow to the Lord dedicating himself or a member of his family. This pledge entails service in the sanctuary. However, because non-Levites cannot serve on the temple grounds, a person may be freed from this service by making a payment to the sanctuary. These verses establish the payment scale, perhaps determined by the customary prices for slaves.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:9–13 The Case of Animals. One of the vows a man can make is to donate a clean animal to the sanctuary. No redemption of the animal is permitted once the animal has been donated. A person may also contribute an unclean animal for the service of the tabernacle. It is, however, not to be sacrificed. The priests may sell it in the markets and use the money for the sanctuary. If the original owner tries to buy it back, it will cost him 20 percent more than its valuation by the priests.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:14–15 The Case of a House. This is a more expensive donation than that of an animal. Its value is estimated by the priest; to redeem it one must add, as in the animal case, a fifth to the value.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:16–25 The Case of Land. Dedication of land is divided into two cases, that of inherited land (vv. 16–21) and that of purchased land (vv. 22–25). Since the land belongs to the Lord, only the crops can be donated to the Lord (which, in practice, means donating them to the priests). Hence the rules on the jubilee year apply as necessary (vv. 17–18; see 25:15–16). If the donor does not redeem the land when the Jubilee comes, then he forfeits the land to the priesthood. It becomes a binding donation.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:26–27 The Case of the Firstborn. The firstborn of man or animal cannot be made the subject of a vow because the firstborn already belongs to the LORD (Ex. 13:2; 34:19–20).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:28–29 The Case of Devoted Things. The devoted thing (Hb. kherem) belonged irreversibly to the Lord and could not be ransomed. This kind of devoting was part of Israel’s war against the Canaanites (see notes on Deut. 2:34–35; Josh. 6:17); a blasphemer or idolater could also be devoted (Ex. 22:20; Deut. 13:15). Probably only recognized leaders had the authority to pronounce such a sentence.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:30–33 The Case of Tithes. The tithe is already the Lord’s; this law allows the rules for ordinary vows to govern the tithes as well (cf. vv. 9–13).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:34 Postscript. The phrase on Mount Sinai appeared in 25:1 and 26:46, giving the impression that just chs. 25–27 were spoken on Mount Sinai. But the semantic range of commandments (Hb. mitswot), which probably includes “rules and statutes” (cf. 26:14–15), suggests that this verse refers to the entire content of Leviticus.