Notes

Introduction

1.“Edward L. Katzenbach, Jr., 55, Ex-Defense Official, Is Suicide,” New York Times, April 24, 1974.

2.“E.L. Katzenbach, Civic Leader, Dies,” New York Times, December 19, 1934.

3.Major Michael J. Muolo, Space Handbook: A War Fighter’s Guide to Space. vol. 1 (Maxwell Air Force Base: Air University Press, 1998), 18; UPI, “Rocket Achieves 3 Orbits in Test,” New York Times, February 12, 1965; UPI, “Air Force Rocket Put into 4 Orbits,” New York Times, May 7, 1965; UPI, “Titan 3-C Orbits Satellites for Pentagon Radio Net,” New York Times, June 17, 1966; UPI, “U.S. Plugs 8 Radio Gaps with Single Rocket Shot,” New York Times, January 19, 1967.

4.“Edward L. Katzenbach, Jr.,” New York Times, April 24, 1974; personal communication from E. Thomas Katzenbach, son of Edward L. Katzenbach Jr., March 6, 2017; Douglas Martin, “Nicholas Katzenbach, 90, Dies,” New York Times, May 10, 2012.

5.E. Lawrence Katzenbach 3d, “Sonnet,” New York Times, March 24, 1976.

6.Roy L. Swank, MD, and Walter E. Marchand, MD, “Combat Neuroses, Development of Combat Exhaustion,” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 55 (March 1946): 236–47.

7.See Nina S. Adams and Alfred W. McCoy, eds., Laos: War and Revolution (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).

8.The 34 percent figure was cited in US Executive Office of the President, Special Action Office for Drug Abuse Prevention, The Vietnam Drug User Returns: Final Report (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1974), ix, 29. See also Alfred W. McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (New York: Lawrence Hill Books, 2003), 258.

9.Tom Tripodi, Crusade: Undercover against the Mafia and KGB (New York: Brassey’s Inc., 1993).

10.Frances Stonor Saunders, The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters (New York: New Press, 1999), 136–37; David H. Price, Cold War Anthropology: The CIA, the Pentagon, and the Growth of Dual Use Anthropology (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2016), 243.

11.Saunders, The Cultural Cold War, 210–11, 234–41; Deborah Davis, Katherine the Great: Katherine Graham and The Washington Post (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979), 129–31.

12.Carl Bernstein, “The CIA and the Media,” Rolling Stone, October 20, 1977; Lance Morrow, “44 Years Later, a Washington, D.C. Death Unresolved,” Smithsonian Magazine, December 2008, www.smithsonianmag.com/history/44-years-later-a-washington-dc-death-unresolved-93263961; Don Oberdorfer, “JFK Had Affair with Artist, Smoked ‘Pot,’ Paper Alleges,” Washington Post, February 23, 1976; Christopher Marquis, “Cord Meyer Jr. Dies at 80; Communism Fighter at C.I.A.,” New York Times, March 16, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/03/16/us/cord-meyer-jr-dies-at-80-communism-fighter-at-cia; Graeme Zielinski, “Key CIA Figure Cord Meyer Dies,” Washington Post, March 15, 2001, www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2001/03/15/key-cia-figure-cord-meyer-dies/fc90ef11-4137-4582-9f01-c7c13461e1bf/.

13.Saunders, Cultural Cold War, 341–42.

14.Seymour M. Hersh, “C.I.A. Aides Assail Asia Drug Charge: Agency Fights Reports That It Ignored Heroin Traffic among Allies of U.S.,” New York Times, July 21, 1972.

15.Zielinski, “Key CIA Figure Cord Meyer Dies.”

16.US Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, New Haven, Title: Alfred William McCoy, Character: Security Matter—Communist, Field Office File #: 100-207191, Date: August 14, 1972, released under Freedom of Information Request No. 341419 of November 28, 1990.

17.James M. Markham, “The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia,” New York Times Book Review, September 3, 1972, 1.

18.According to a report by Vientiane correspondent John Everingham, in the weeks preceding publication of The Politics of Heroin, an Air America helicopter flew this district chief, a Hmong named Gair Su Yang, to a US operations base where he was “interrogated for more than an hour by a short, fat American” who asked angrily “if it’s true the American helicopters carried away our opium.” Afraid that “they will send a helicopter to arrest me, or Vang Pao soldiers to shoot me,” the district chief said, “I didn’t know if it was true or not.” The CIA then released a report of the interrogation saying the district chief “denies making any statement regarding officers arriving at Long Pot to collect opium harvest for transport back to [the main CIA airbase] Long Tieng in American helicopters.” See John Everingham, “Laotian District Chief Intimidated by CIA—Move Seen as Attempt to Discredit Writers and Publisher,” Release #409, Dispatch News Service International, Washington, DC, August 15, 1972; John Everingham, “Let Them Eat Bombs,” Washington Monthly, September 1972, 10–16, www.unz.org/Pub/WashingtonMonthly-1972sep-00010.

19.US Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, 94th Congress, 2d Session, Foreign and Military Intelligence, Book I: Final Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, Report No. 94-755, 1976), 205, 227–33.

20.Peter Burroughs, “David Fieldhouse and the Business of Empire,” in Peter Burroughs and A. J. Stockwell, eds., Managing the Business of Empire: Essays in Honour of David Fieldhouse (London: Frank Cass, 1998), 7.

21.Jeff Gerth and Joel Brinkley, “Marcos Wartime Role Discredited in U.S. Files,” New York Times, January 23, 1986.

22.Alfred W. McCoy, “Coup! The Real Story Behind the February Revolt,” Veritas (Manila), October 1986; Alfred W. McCoy, Closer Than Brothers: Manhood at the Philippine Military Academy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999), chapter 7.

23.Alfred W. McCoy, “The RAM Boys,” National Midweek (Manila), September 21, September 28, and October 12, 1988; Alfred W. McCoy, “The RAM Boys,” Philippine Daily Inquirer (Manila), January 1–8, 1990; Alfred W. McCoy, “Philippine Military Reformists: Specialists in Torture,” Los Angeles Times, February 4, 1990.

24.Alfred W. McCoy, “Torture at Abu Ghraib Followed CIA’s Manual,” Boston Globe, May 14, 2004, http://archive.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/05/14/torture_at_abu_ghraib_followed_cias_manual/.

25.Alfred W. McCoy, A Question of Torture: CIA Interrogation, from the Cold War to the War on Terror (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006).

26.US Senate, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program: Findings and Conclusions; Executive Summary (Washington, DC: US Senate, December 3, 2014).

27.See Alfred W. McCoy, Policing America’s Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 16, 39.

28.US Senate, 94th Congress, 2nd Session Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, book 3, 3–4, 7–8, 3–16; Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, book 2, 5, 15–20, 67, 77, 86–89, 98–104 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976).

29.See Alfred W. McCoy, “Welcome Home, War! How America’s Wars Are Systematically Destroying Our Liberties,” TomDispatch, November 12, 2009, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175154/.

30.See, for example, Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease, eds., Cultures of United States Imperialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1993).

31.Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco Scarano, eds., Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of a Modern American State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009); Alfred W. McCoy, Josep Ma. Fradera, and Stephen Jacobson, eds., Endless Empire: Spain’s Retreat, Europe’s Eclipse, America’s Decline (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012).

32.Henry R. Luce, “The American Century,” Life, February 17, 1941, 61, 64.

33.Francis Fukuyama, “The End of History?,” National Interest 16 (Summer 1989): 3–18; James Atlas, “What Is Fukuyama Saying? And to Whom Is He Saying It?,” New York Times Magazine, October 22, 1989, www.nytimes.com/1989/10/22/magazine/what-is-fukuyama-saying-and-to-whom-is-he-saying-it.html.

34.Office of the Director of National Intelligence, National Intelligence Council, Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds (NIC 2012-001, December 2012), i–iii, 105, www.dni.gov/files/documents/GlobalTrends_2030.pdf.

35.Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (London: Penguin Books, 2007), 339, 613, 634.

36.See, for example, Will Durant and Ariel Durant, The Lessons of History (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968); Ezra F. Vogel, Japan as Number One: Lessons for America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979); Jon Woronoff, Japan as (Anything but) Number One (New York: M.E. Sharp, 1990).

Chapter One: The World Island and the Rise of America

1.Joseph S. Nye Jr., Is the American Century Over? (Malden, MA: Polity Books, 2015), 50, 57, 114, 125–26.

2.Henry Kissinger, World Order (New York: Penguin Press, 2014), 247–76, 280–84, 322–27, 374; Michiko Kakutani, “Long View of History Includes Today,” New York Times, September 8, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/09/09/books/in-world-order-henry-kissinger-sums-up-his-philosophy.html; James Traub, “Book Review: ‘World Order’ by Henry Kissinger,” Wall Street Journal, September 5, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/book-review-world-order-by-henry-kissinger-1409952751.

3.H. J. Mackinder, “The Geographical Pivot of History (1904),” Geographical Journal 170, no. 4 (December 2004): 320–21.

4.H. J. Mackinder, “The Geographical Pivot of History,” Geographical Journal 23, no. 4 (December 1904): 434–37; H. J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality (New York: Henry Holt, 1919), 79–85.

5.Mackinder, “Geographical Pivot of History,” 432–34.

6.Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, 67.

7.Ibid., 82, 186.

8.Mackinder, “Geographical Pivot of History,” 434–36.

9.Mackinder, “Geographical Pivot of History” (December 2004 reprint), 314–16.

10.Ibid., 316–20.

11.Mackinder, “Geographical Pivot of History,” 435.

12.For example, the US publisher Rand McNally & Company issued its Indexed Atlas of the World: Historical, Descriptive and Statistical (Chicago, 1897) with a “Map of the World on Mercator’s Projection” showing North and South America prominently displayed at the center and a divided Eurasia pushed to the map’s margins. Throughout much of the twentieth century, the company’s folding or pull-down schoolroom version, “Rand McNally’s Cosmopolitan World Map,” usually measuring about 30 by 50 inches, made this self-referential array the standard view of the world for millions of American schoolchildren.

13.Klaus Dodds and James D. Sidaway, “Halford Mackinder and the ‘Geographical Pivot of History’: A Centennial Perspective,” Geographical Journal 170, no. 4 (December 2004): 292–97.

14.Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, 72–73, 110–11, 165, 171.

15.Paul Kennedy, “The Pivot of History,” Guardian, June 19, 2004, www.theguardian.com/world/2004/jun/19/usa.comment.

16.Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, 78–79.

17.Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (New York: Basic Books, 1998), 38–39; Edmund A. Walsh, S. J., “The Mystery of Haushofer,” Life, September 16, 1946, 107–20; Henning Heske, “Karl Haushofer: His Role in German Politics and in Nazi Politics,” Political Geography Quarterly 6, no. 2 (1987): 135–44.

18.Karl Haushofer, Geopolitics of the Pacific Ocean: Studies on the Relationship between Geography and History (Lewiston, ME: Edwin Mellen Press, 2002), 2.

19.Walsh, “Mystery of Haushofer,” 108, 110, 118; Heske, “Karl Haushofer,” 138–39.

20.John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405 (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2008), 469–71.

21.Halford J. Mackinder, “The Round World and the Winning of the Peace,” Foreign Affairs 21, no. 4 (1943): 595–605.

22.Alfred W. McCoy, “Circles of Steel, Castles of Vanity: The Geopolitics of Military Bases on the South China Sea,” Journal of Asian Studies 75, no. 4 (2016): 989–95.

23.Ibid., 989–90.

24.Ibid., 980, 994.

25.Darwin, After Tamerlane, 469.

26.“Ramstein Air Force Base in Kaiserslautern, Germany: US Military Bases in Germany,” MilitaryBases.com, http://militarybases.com/ramstein-air-base-air-force-base-in-kaiserslautern-germany/.

27.Jovito Salonga, A Journey of Struggle and Hope (Quezon City, Philippines: Regina Publishing, 2001), 445; Nick Cullather, Illusions of Influence: The Political Economy of United States–Philippines Relations, 1942–1960 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 79–80; Stephen Rosskamm Shalom, The United States and the Philippines: A Study of Neocolonialism (Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1981), 63–66, 109–10; Alfredo Bengzon and Raul Rodrigo, A Matter of Honor: The Story of the 1990–91 RP-US Bases Talks (Manila: Anvil, 1997), 16–18, 41–42; Gerald R. Anderson, Subic Bay: From Magellan to Mt. Pinatubo (Dagupan, Philippines: Lazer, 1991), 76–89.

28.Darwin, After Tamerlane, 470–71.

29.Andrew Marshall, “Terror ‘Blowback’ Burns CIA,” Independent, October 31, 1998, www.independent.co.uk/news/terror-blowback-burns-cia-1182087.html.

30.“Interview with Zbigniew Brzezinski,” Le Nouvel Observateur (Paris), January 15–21, 1998, 76, www.voltairenet.org/article165889.html; Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard, 38–39; Zbigniew Brzezinski, Strategic Vision: America and the Crisis of Global Power (New York: Basic Books, 2013), 130–31.

31.Kennedy, “The Pivot of History.”

32.Nick Turse, “America’s Secret Empire of Drone Bases: Its Full Extent Revealed for the First Time,” TomDispatch, October 16, 2011, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175454/tomgram%3A_nick_turse%2C_mapping_america%27s_shadowy_drone_wars; Nick Turse, “The Crash and Burn Future of Robot Warfare,” TomDispatch, January 15, 2012, www.tomdispatch.com/archive/175489/; Eric Schmitt, “In the Skies over Iraq, Silent Observers Become Futuristic Weapons,” New York Times, April 18, 2003, www.nytimes.com/2003/04/18/international/18PRED.html; David Cenciotti, “Future Drone’s World Capital? Sigonella, Italy,” Aviationist, February 9, 2012, http://theaviationist.com/2012/02/09/future-drones-world-capital-sigonella-italy/; Gaynor Dumat-ol Daleno, “New Drone to Be Deployed to Guam,” sUAS News, March 6, 2015, www.suasnews.com/2015/03/34634/new-drone-to-be-deployed-to-guam/.

33.Tyler Rogoway, “Why the USAF’s Massive $10 Billion Global Hawk UAV Is Worth the Money,” Foxtrot Alpha, September 9, 2014, http://foxtrotalpha.jalopnik.com/why-the-usafs-massive-10-billion-global-hawk-uav-was-w-1629932000; “Northrop Grumman’s Global Hawk Unmanned Aircraft Sets 33-Hour Endurance Record,” Space War, March 31, 2008, www.spacewar.com/reports/Northrop_Grumman_Global_Hawk_Unmanned_Aircraft_Sets_33_Hour_Flight_Endurance_Record_999.html.

34.Eric Schmitt, “Russia Expands Submarine Fleet as Rivalry Grows,” New York Times, April 21, 2016.

35.Kyodo, “Trump Urges Japan to Pay More to Maintain U.S. Military Bases Here,” Japan Times, May 5, 2016, www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/05/05/national/politics-diplomacy/trump-urges-japan-pay-maintain-u-s-military-bases/#.WCqZbHc-LuM; Jesse Johnson, “Trump Rips U.S. Defense of Japan as One-Sided, Too Expensive,” Japan Times, August 6, 2016, www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/08/06/national/politics-diplomacy/trump-rips-u-s-defense-japan-one-sided-expensive/#.WCqW3Xc-LuM; Carol Morello and Adam Taylor, “Trump Says U.S. Won’t Rush to Defend NATO Countries If They Don’t Spend More on Military,” Washington Post, July 21, 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/trump-says-us-wont-rush-to-defend-nato-countries-if-they-dont-spend-more-on-military/2016/07/21/76c48430-4f51-11e6-a7d8-13d06b37f256_story.html.

36.William Appleman Williams, Empire as a Way of Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 170, quoted in Andrew J. Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 243.

37.Mark Twain, “To the Person Sitting in Darkness,” North American Review, February 1901, 174–76.

38.William Graham Sumner, War and Other Essays (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1911, 292, 322, 326, 331–32, 347–48.

39.“Remarks by the President in the State of the Union Address,” The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, January 27, 2010, www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-state-union-address.

40.E. J. Dionne Jr., “Off-Message Biden Recasts the Obama Agenda,” Washington Post, February 4, 2010.

41.Cullen Murphy, Are We Rome? The Fall of an Empire and the Fate of America (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007), 1–6; Vaclav Smil, Why America Is Not a New Rome (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010), ix–xii.

42.Anne-Marie Slaughter, preface to Mr. Y, A National Strategic Narrative (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2011), 2, www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/A%20National%20Strategic%20Narrative.pdf; Robert Kagan, “Not Fade Away: The Myth of American Decline,” New Republic, January 10, 2012, www.tnr.com/article/politics/magazine/99521/america-world-power-declinism; Schuyler Null, “In Search of a New Security Narrative: National Conversation Series Launches at the Wilson Center,” New Security Beat, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, April 13, 2011, www.newsecuritybeat.org/2011/04/in-search-of-new-security-narrative.html.

43.Niall Fergusson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (New York: Penguin Press, 2004), 14–15.

44.Ian Tyrrell, “American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History,” American Historical Review 96, no. 4 (1991): 1031–35; Julian Go, “The Provinciality of American Empire: ‘Liberal Exceptionalism’ and U.S. Colonial Rule, 1898–1912,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 49, no. 1 (2007): 74–108.

45.Richard W. Leopold, “The Emergence of America as a World Power: Some Second Thoughts,” in John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, and Everett Walters, eds., Change and Growth in Twentieth Century America (New York: Harper & Row, 1966), 13–14.

46.William Appleman Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York: Dell, 1962), 24, 37–38, 43–45; Bradford Perkins, “The Tragedy of American Diplomacy: Twenty-Five Years After,” Reviews in American History 12, no. 1 (1984): 1–3; Bacevich, American Empire, 23–31.

47.William Appleman Williams, “Fred Harvey Harrington: Committed, Tough and Foxy Educator and Liberal,” unpublished manuscripts, ca. 1985, Special Collections & Archives, Oregon State University, http://scarc.library.oregonstate.edu/coll/williams/manuscripts/page7.html; Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy, 232–34, 244–59; Perkins, “The Tragedy of American Diplomacy,” 9–11, 17n43.

48.Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963), 127–30, 218–29, 242–83, 285–300, 333–51.

49.For examples of their close collaboration, see Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter F. LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, vol. 1, U.S. Diplomatic History to 1901 (New York: Rand McNally & Co., 1973); and William Appleman Williams, Thomas McCormick, Lloyd C. Gardner, and Walter LaFeber, America in Vietnam: A Documentary History (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1989).

50.Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr., The Cycles of American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 143; Joseph Fry, “From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late Nineteenth Century American Foreign Relations,” Pacific Historical Review 65, no. 2 (1996): 278.

51.Alejandro Colas, Empire (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2007), 5–11, 162–78.

52.Chalmers Johnson, The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2004), 5.

53.Bacevich, American Empire, 2–3, 232–33.

54.Fergusson, Colossus, 2–19.

55.Niall Fergusson, “A World without Power,” Foreign Policy, no. 143 (2004): 32–39.

56.Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage, 1989), 528–40.

57.Paul Kennedy, “The Eagle Has Landed,” Financial Times, February 2, 2002.

58.Michael Ignatieff, “The Burden,” New York Times Magazine, January 5, 2003, 22–23.

59.Charles S. Maier, Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006), 14–15, 32–33.

60.Max Boot, “American Imperialism? No Need to Run Away from Label,” USA Today, May 6, 2003; Andrew J. Bacevich, ed., The Imperial Tense: Prospects and Problems of American Empire (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2003), xii–xiii.

61.Max Boot, The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 2002), xx, 351–52.

62.Eliot A. Cohen, “History and the Hyperpower,” Foreign Affairs 83, no. 4 (July–August 2004): 56.

63.Schlesinger, The Cycles of American History, 141, quoted in Bacevich, American Empire, 30.

64.Cohen, “History and the Hyperpower,” 49–63; Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI Yearbook, 2006: Armament, Disarmament, and International Security (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 301.

65.Bacevich, American Empire, 244; Boot, “American Imperialism?”

66.Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Meridian, 1958), 222–66.

67.Darwin, After Tamerlane, 16–17.

68.Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire (New York: Vintage Books, 2010), 605.

69.Alfred McCoy, Francisco Scarano, and Courtney Johnson, “On the Tropic of Cancer: Transitions and Transformations in the U.S. Imperial State,” in Alfred W. McCoy and Francisco Scarano, eds., Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of a Modern American State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 24–26.

70.Andrew J. Bacevich, “New Rome, New Jerusalem,” in Bacevich, ed., The Imperial Tense, 98–101.

71.Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 26, 45–56; Daniel P. Carpenter, “The Multiple and Material Legacies of Stephen Skowronek,” Social Science History 27, no. 3 (2003): 465–74; Richard R. John, “Ruling Passions: Political Economy in Nineteenth-Century America,” Journal of Public Policy 18, no. 1 (2006): 1–20; Richard Franklin Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859–1877 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 5–17.

72.McCoy, Scarano, and Johnson, “On the Tropic of Cancer,” 3–33.

73.Paul Sutter, “Tropical Conquest and the Rise of the Environmental Management State: The Case of U.S. Sanitary Efforts in Panama,” in McCoy and Scarano, eds., Colonial Crucible, 317–26.

74.Mariola Espinosa, “A Fever for Empire: U.S. Disease Eradication in Cuba as Colonial Public Health,” in McCoy and Scarano, eds., Colonial Crucible, 288–96.

75.Ray Stannard Baker, “General Leonard Wood: A Character Sketch,” McClure’s, February 1900, 368–79.

76.James A. Field Jr., “American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book,” American Historical Review 83, no. 3 (1978): 652–53.

77.George W. Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U.S. Navy, 1890–1990 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994), 21–22, 30–33; Theodore Roosevelt’s speech to the Great White Fleet, February 1909, Theodore Roosevelt Birthplace National Historic Site, www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Research/Digital-Library/Record.aspx?libID=o283081.

78.Gregory Barton, “Informal Empire: The Case of Siam and the Middle East,” in McCoy, Fradera, and Jacobson, eds., Endless Empire, 247–48.

79.Fred T. Jane, Jane’s Fighting Ships: All the World’s Fighting Ships (London: William Clowes and Sons, 1900), 68–70; Clark G. Reynolds, Navies in History (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1998), 104–20.

80.Niall Fergusson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 201–4; Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 98–99. The figure of 99,000 soldiers includes only those units serving in the regular British army that were funded by Great Britain’s defense budget. Counting troops paid by India, the British Empire had a standing army of some 386,000 men. See T. A. Heathcote, “The Army of British India,” in David Chandler, ed., The Oxford History of the British Army (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 379; The World Almanac and Encyclopedia, 1899 (New York: Press Publishing, 1899), 342; John Darwin, email to author, August 10, 2011.

81.Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, xviii–xx, 660–62.

82.Ronald Robinson, “Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration,” in Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London: Longman, 1972), 138–39.

83.David M. Kennedy, “The Origins and Uses of American Hyperpower,” in Andrew J. Bacevich, ed., The Short American Century: A Postmortem (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 16, 28–29, 32; Christopher Chase-Dunn, Andrew K. Jorgenson, Thomas Reifer, and Shoon Lio, “The Trajectory of the United States in the World-System: A Quantitative Reflection,” Sociological Perspectives 48, no. 2 (2005): 233–54; William H. Branson, Herbert Giersch, and Peter G. Peterson, “Trends in United States International Trade and Investment since World War II,” in Martin Feldstein, ed., The American Economy in Transition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), 191; Walter LaFeber, “Illusions of an American Century,” in Bacevich, The Short American Century, 163.

84.Kennedy, “The Origins and Uses of American Hyperpower,” 33.

85.S. Gozie Ogbodo, “An Overview of the Challenges Facing the International Court of Justice in the 21st Century,” Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law 18, no. 1 (2012): 93–113.

86.G. John Ikenberry, “The Future of the Liberal World Order: Internationalism after America,” Foreign Affairs 90, no. 3 (May/June 2011): 61.

87.Elliott V. Converse III, Circling the Earth: United States Plans for a Postwar Overseas Military Base System, 1942–1948 (Maxwell Air Force Base: Air University Press, 2005), 88, 101, 208–10.

88.Darwin, After Tamerlane, 470–71.

89.US Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1961 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1961), 239–44; “U.S. Has 300 Bases on Foreign Soil,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 11, 1954; Walter Trohan, “U.S. Strategy Tied to World Air Superiority,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 14, 1955.

90.Elliott V. Converse III, History of Acquisition in the Department of Defense, vol. 1, Rearming for the Cold War, 1945–1960 (Washington, DC: Historical Office, Office of the Secretary of Defense, 2012), 457–64, 490–500, 522–30; Baer, One Hundred Years of Sea Power, 343.

91.Ikenberry, “The Future of the Liberal World Order,” 57–59.

92.John Gallagher and Ronald Robinson, “The Imperialism of Free Trade,” Economic History Review 6, no. 1 (1953): 5.

93.Arnold J. Toynbee, America and the World Revolutions (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 105–13; “U.S. Has 300 Bases on Foreign Soil,” Chicago Daily Tribune, September 11, 1954; Trohan, “U.S. Strategy Tied to World Air Superiority,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 14, 1955; James R. Blaker, United States Overseas Basing: An Anatomy of the Dilemma (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1990), table 2.

94.Tim Weiner, Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA (New York: Random House, 2008), 29–30, 39–40, 44–54, 61–70, 84–87, 92–105, 133–40, 142, 187–89, 321–22; William Rosenau, US Internal Security Assistance to South Vietnam: Insurgency, Subversion and Public Order (New York: Routledge, 2005), 18–26; David E. Sanger, “War President Takes on Riddles of Cyberwarfare,” New York Times, December 18, 2016.

95.LaFeber, “Illusions of an American Century,” 169–70; Dov H. Levin, “Partisan Electoral Interventions by the Great Powers: Introducing the PEIG Dataset,” Conflict Management and Peace Science (August 2016): 1–19.

96.Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 157, 322–23, 717; Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 16–21; Robert Kagan, The World America Made (New York: Knopf, 2012), 23–24; John Charmley, Churchill’s Grand Alliance: The Anglo-American Special Relationship, 1940–1957 (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1995), 97.

97.Julian Go, Patterns of Empire: The British and American Empires, 1688 to Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 170.

98.The World Bank, World Development Indicators, GDP (Current US$), 1987–91, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?page=5; Chase-Dunn et al., “The Trajectory of the United States in the World-System.”

99.For figures on overseas bases, see Report of the Defense Secretary’s Commission, Base Realignments and Closures (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, 1988), 15; for fighters and missiles, US Department of the Air Force, United States Air Force Statistical Digest, FY 1998 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1999), 92; for naval strength, US General Accounting Office, Navy Aircraft Carriers: Cost-Effectiveness of Conventionally and Nuclear-Powered Carriers (Washington, DC: US General Accounting Office, 1998), 4.

100.“Table 3.1: Outlays by Superfunction and Function: 1940–2009,” in Office of Management and Budget, Historical Tables, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2005 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2004), 50, www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2005/pdf/hist.pdf.

101.Dana Priest and William M. Arkin, “Top Secret America,” Washington Post, July 18, 19, 20, and 21, 2010.

102.Scott Shane, “New Leaked Document Outlines U.S. Spending on Intelligence Agencies,” New York Times, August 30, 2013; Barton Gellman and Greg Miller, “‘Black Budget’ Summary Details U.S. Spy Network’s Successes, Failures and Objectives,” Washington Post, August 29, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/black-budget-summary-details-us-spy-networks-successes-failures-and-objectives/2013/08/29/7e57bb78-10ab-11e3-8cdd-bcdc09410972_story.html; Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Comptroller)/Chief Financial Officer, Overview: United States Department of Defense, Fiscal Year 2013 Budget Request (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, February 2012), 1.1, comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/fy2013/FY2013_Budget_Request_Overview_Book.pdf.

103.US Special Operations Command, USSOCOM Fact Book 2015, 12, www.socom.mil/Documents/2015%20Fact%20Book.pdf; Bob Woodward, “Secret CIA Units Playing a Central Combat Role,” Washington Post, November 18, 2001, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/18/AR2007111800675.html.

104.Greg Miller and Julie Tate, “CIA Shifts Focus to Killing Targets,” Washington Post, September 1, 2011, www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/cia-shifts-focus-to-killing-targets/2011/08/30/gIQA7MZGvJ_story.html; Bureau of Investigative Journalism, “Get the Data: Drone Wars,” www.thebureauinvestigates.com/category/projects/drones/drones-graphs/.

105.James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers without Courts,” New York Times, December 16, 2005; James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “Extent of E-Mail Surveillance Renews Concerns in Congress,” New York Times, June 16, 2009.

106.Thom Shanker, “San Antonio Built Community Coalition to Land Cyberwarfare Headquarters,” New York Times, October 31, 2009; Thom Shanker and David E. Sanger, “Privacy May Be a Victim in Cyberdefense Plan,” New York Times, June 12, 2009.

107.David Alexander, “Pentagon to Treat Cyberspace as ‘Operational Domain,’” Reuters, July 14, 2011, www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/14/us-usa-defense-cybersecurity-idUSTRE76D5FA20110714.

108.Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, “U.S. Weighed Use of Cyberattacks to Weaken Libya,” New York Times, October 18, 2011; David E. Sanger, “Obama Ordered Wave of Cyberattacks against Iran,” New York Times, June 1, 2012; David E. Sanger and Mark Mazzetti, “U.S. Drew Up Cyberattack Plan in Case Iran Nuclear Dispute Led to Conflict,” New York Times, February 17, 2016; David E. Sanger and William J. Broad, “Trump Inherits Secret Cyberwar on North Korea,” New York Times, March 5, 2017; Joel Brenner, introduction to America the Vulnerable: Inside the New Threat Matrix of Digital Espionage, Crime, and Warfare (New York: Penguin Press, 2011); Ian Traynor, “Russia Accused of Unleashing Cyberwar to Disable Estonia,” Guardian, May 16, 2007, www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/17/topstories3.russia; Lolita C. Baldor, “Pentagon Takes Aim at China Cyber Threat,” Associated Press, August 19, 2010, http://archive.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2010/08/19/pentagon_takes_aim_at_china_cyber_threat/; Lolita C. Baldor, “U.S., China to Cooperate More on Cyber Threat,” Associated Press, http://cnsnews.com/news/article/us-china-cooperate-more-cyber-threat.

109.Ann Scott Tyson, “Increased Security in Fallujah Slows Efforts to Rebuild,” Washington Post, April 19, 2005.

110.Laura Blumenfeld, “Spurred by Gratitude, ‘Bomb Lady’ Develops Better Weapons for U.S.,” Washington Post, December 1, 2007; Robert Parry, “Mobile Labs to Target Iraqis for Death,” consortiumnews.com, December 13, 2007, https://consortiumnews.com/2007/121307.html.

111.Richard Tomkins, “Biometrics Play Important Role in Afghanistan,” Human Events, February 23, 2010, www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=35735; Richard A. Oppel Jr., “NATO Apologizes for Killing Unarmed Afghans in Car,” New York Times, April 21, 2010.

112.The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks on the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2004), 189–90, 210–14; Richard Whittle, Predator: The Secret Origins of the Drone Revolution (New York: Henry Holt, 2014), 78–80, 88–89, 98–104, 147–49, 157–61, 190–94, 243–59.

113.“Air Force Report,” Air Force News, October 27, 2008, www.youtube.com/watch?v=ureJE68i5q4&feature=related.

114.Nick Turse, “The Drone Surge: Today, Tomorrow, and 2047, “ TomDispatch, January 24, 2010, www.tomdispatch.com/archive/175195/nick_turse_the_forty_year_drone_war.

115.Peter W. Singer, “Do Drones Undermine Democracy?,” New York Times, January 22, 2012.

116.Elisabeth Bumiller and Thom Shanker, “War Evolves with Drones, Some Tiny as Bugs,” New York Times, June 20, 2011.

117.HQ, USAF/XPXC, Future Concepts and Transformation Division, The U.S. Air Force Transformation Flight Plan, 2004 (Washington, DC, 2004), 48, 53, www.iwar.org.uk/rma/resources/usaf/transformation-flight-plan-2004.pdf.

118.Air Force Space Command, Strategic Master Plan, FY06 and Beyond (Washington, DC, 2006), 8, 11, 36, www.wslfweb.org/docs/final%2006%20smp--signed!v1.pdf; United States Strategic Command, “Joint Functional Component Command for Space,” www.stratcom.mil/factsheets/7/JFCC_Space/.

119.William J. Broad, “Surveillance Suspected as Spacecraft’s Main Role,” New York Times, May 23, 2010; Paul Rincon, “X-37B US Military Spaceplane Returns to Earth,” BBC News, December 3, 2010, www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11911335; Alicia Chang, “Unmanned Air Force Space Plane Lands in Calif.,” Associated Press, June 16, 2012, www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/jun/16/unmanned-air-force-space-plane-lands-calif/.

120.Gregg Easterbrook, “Undisciplined Spending in the Name of Defense,” Reuters, January 20, 2011, http://blogs.reuters.com/gregg-easterbrook/2011/01/20/undisciplined-spending-in-the-name-of-defense/; National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, Geospatial Intelligence Standards: Enabling a Common Vision (Washington, DC: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, November 2006), www.fas.org/irp/agency/nga/standards.pdf; National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, National System for Geospatial Intelligence (NSG): Statement of Strategic Intent (Washington, DC: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency, March 2007), https://knxup2.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=19363; Priest and Arkin, “Top Secret America,” Washington Post, December 20, 2010.

121.Office of the Secretary of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China, 2010 (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, August 2010), i, 1–3, 7, 25–26, 30, 34–37; Thom Shanker, “Pentagon Cites Concerns in China Military Growth,” New York Times, August 17, 2010; “China Launches New Global Positioning Satellite,” Reuters, July 31, 2010, www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE67005R20100801.

122.Marc Kaufman and Dafna Linzer, “China Criticized for Anti-Missile Test,” Washington Post, January 19, 2007.

123.Tim Prudente, “In the Era of GPS, Naval Academy Revives Celestial Navigation,” Los Angeles Times, October 25, 2015, www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-celestial-navigation-20151025-story.html.

124.Andrew Jacobs, “China’s Space Program Bolstered by First Docking,” New York Times, November 4, 2011.

Chapter Two: “Our S.O.B.s”–America and the Autocrats

1.Robert Mackey et al., “All Leaked Cables Were Made Available Online as WikiLeaks Splintered,” New York Times, September 1, 2011.

2.Lisa Hajjar, “Suleiman: The CIA’s Man in Cairo,” Al Jazeera, February 7, 2011, www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/02/201127114827382865.html.

3.“Memorandum of Discussion at the 229th Meeting of the National Security Council, Tuesday, December 21, 1954,” (Top Secret, Eyes Only) US Department of State, Foreign Relations Series of the United States, 1952–1954, vol. 2, National Security Affairs, Part 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1984), 838.

4.“Memorandum of Discussion at the 410th Meeting of the National Security Council, Washington, June 18, 1959,” in US Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960. East Asia–Pacific Region; Cambodia; Laos. vol. 16 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1992), 97–102; Matthew F. Holland, America and Egypt: From Roosevelt to Eisenhower (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1996), ix.

5.David D. Kirkpatrick, “Egypt Erupts in Jubilation as Mubarak Steps Down,” New York Times, February 12, 2011; David E. Sanger, “When Armies Decide,” New York Times, February 20, 2011; Jeremy M. Sharp, Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations (Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, February 26, 2016), 23.

6.Embtel 496, Embassy Manama to Embassy Baghdad, July 25, 2008, WikiLeaks Cablegate Archive, Reference ID: 08MANAMA496, http://wikileaks.org/cable/2008/07/08MANAMA496.html.

7.Robinson, “Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism,” 138–39.

8.Brett Reilly, “Cold War Transition: Europe’s Decolonization and Eisenhower’s System of Subordinate Elites,” in McCoy, Fradera, and Jacobson, eds., Colonial Crucible, 344–59; Frank Baldwin, “America’s Rented Troops: South Koreans in Vietnam,” Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars 7, no. 4 (1975): 33–40.

9.Edward Miller, Misalliance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States, and the Fate of South Vietnam (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2013), 1–6; Edward Geary Lansdale, In the Midst of Wars: An American’s Mission to Southeast Asia (New York: Harper & Row, 1972), 154–58.

10.Lansdale, In the Midst of Wars, 171–76, 333–34.

11.McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, 155–61, 203–9.

12.US Department of Defense, The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking on Vietnam, Senator Gravel Edition, vol. 1 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1971), 242–69.

13.Pierre Asselin, Hanoi’s Road to the Vietnam War, 1954–1965 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2013), 6–7.

14.Monique Brinson Demery, Finding the Dragon Lady: The Mystery of Vietnam’s Madame Nhu (New York: Perseus Books Group, 2013), 1; Miller, Misalliance, 310–11.

15.Miller, Misalliance, 321–23; “Interview with Lucien Conein,” May 7, 1981, Vietnam: A Television History, Open Vault, WGBH-TV, http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_17B091E22675449F9D3E61ABF070482F.

16.Anne Blair, Lodge in Vietnam: A Patriot Abroad (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 159; David Halberstam, The Best and the Brightest (New York: Random House, 1993).

17.Dan Slater, Ordering Power: Contentious Politics and Authoritarian Leviathans in Southeast Asia (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2010), 259–62.

18.Frank Snepp, Decent Interval (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2002), 433–38; Evan Thomas, “The Last Days of Saigon,” Newsweek, April 30, 2000, www.newsweek.com/last-days-saigon-157477.

19.Anand Gopal, No Good Men among the Living (New York: Henry Holt, 2014), 30–34.

20.William R. Polk, “Legitimation Crisis in Afghanistan,” Nation, April 19, 2010, www.thenation.com/article/legitimation-crisis-afghanistan/.

21.Catherine Lutz and Sujaya Desai, “US Reconstruction Aid for Afghanistan: The Dollars and Sense,” January 5, 2015, Watson Institute for International Studies, Brown University, http://watson.brown.edu/costsofwar/files/cow/imce/papers/2015/US%20Reconstruction%20Aid%20for%20Afghanistan.pdf.

22.“Corruption Perceptions Index 2009,” Transparency International, www.transparency.org/research/cpi/cpi_2009/0/.

23.James Risen, “U.S. Inaction Seen after Taliban P.O.W.’s Died,” New York Times, July 10, 2009; Elizabeth Rubin, “Karzai in His Labyrinth,” New York Times Magazine, August 4, 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/08/09/magazine/09Karzai-t.html.

24.Sabrina Tavernise and Helene Cooper, “Afghan Leader Said to Accept Runoff after Election Audit,” New York Times, October 19, 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/10/20/world/asia/20afghan.html.

25.Ben Farmer, “US Diplomat Claims UN Tried to Gag Him,” Telegraph, October 4, 2009, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/6259530/US-diplomat-claims-UN-tried-to-gag-him.html.

26.“Abdullah Pulls Out of Afghan Vote,” BBC News, November 1, 2009, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8336388.stm.

27.“Afghan President Blames UN, Other Foreigners for Vote,” Washington Post, April 1, 2010.

28.Alissa J. Rubin, “Karzai’s Words Leave Few Choices for the West,” New York Times, April 4, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/04/05/world/asia/05karzai.html.

29.Alissa J. Rubin and Helene Cooper, “In Afghan Trip, Obama Presses Karzai on Graft,” New York Times, March 28, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/03/29/world/asia/29prexy.html.

30.Helene Cooper and Mark Landler, “U.S. Now Trying Softer Approach to Afghan Leader,” New York Times, April 9, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/04/10/world/asia/10prexy.html.

31.Rajiv Chandrasekaran, “As U.S. Assesses Afghan War, Karzai a Question Mark,” Washington Post, December 13, 2010, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/12/12/AR2010121203747.html?sid=ST201012120420.

32.Matthew Rosenberg and Carlotta Gall, “Kerry Pushes for Solutions to Afghanistan’s Election Crisis,” New York Times, July 12, 2014; Ali M. Latifi and Shashank Bengali, “Delays, Fights Marred Afghanistan’s Recount,” Los Angeles Times, August 28, 2014, www.latimes.com/world/afghanistan-pakistan/la-fg-afghanistan-election-recount-delays-20140828-story.html.

33.Mujib Mashal, “Amid Afghan Chaos, Karzai Keeps Power in Play,” New York Times, August 6, 2016.

34.Aluf Benn, “WikiLeaks Cables Tell the Story of an Empire in Decline,” Haaretz, December 1, 2010, www.haaretz.com/wikileaks-cables-tell-the-story-of-an-empire-in-decline-1.328145.

35.“US Embassy Cables: Bomb al-Qaida Where You Want, Yemen Tells US, but Don’t Blame Us If They Strike Again,” Guardian, December 3, 2010, www.guardian.co.uk/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/225085; “US Embassy Cables: Profile of ‘Intellectually Curious’ but ‘Notoriously Mercurial’ Gaddafi,” Guardian, December 7, 2010, www.guardian.co.uk/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/167961; “US Embassy Cables: King Hamad and Bahrain’s Relationship with the US,” Guardian, February 15, 2011, www.guardian.co.uk/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/237626.

36.Helene Cooper, “With Egypt, Diplomatic Words Often Fail,” New York Times, January 30, 2011.

37.Scott Anderson, “Fractured Lands,” New York Times Magazine, August 14, 2016, 13–14; Gregory A. Barton, “Informal Empire,” 256–61; Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam (London: Macmillan, 1994), 147–89; D. K. Fieldhouse, Western Imperialism in the Middle East 1914–1958 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 69–116, 245–336.

38.Anderson, “Fractured Lands,” 23–24.

39.Bryan Denton and Michael R. Gordon, “At the Mosul Front, Smoke Screens and Suicide Bombers,” New York Times, October 18, 2016; Tim Arango, “Flee Their City or Stay? For Mosul Residents, Both Choices Seem Bleak,” New York Times, October 22, 2016; Robert F. Worth, “Weakened ISIS Still Able to Sow Deadly Mayhem,” New York Times, December 26, 2016; Anderson, “Fractured Lands,” 23–24, 44.

40.“US Embassy Cables: Tunisia—a US Foreign Policy Conundrum,” Guardian, December 7, 2010, www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/217138.

41.Embtel 2543, Embassy Cairo to State, December 21, 2008, WikiLeaks Cablegate Archive, Reference ID: 08CAIRO2543, http://wikileaks.org/cable/2008/12/08CAIRO2543.html.

42.Embtel 874, Embassy Cairo to State, April 16, 2008, WikiLeaks Cablegate Archive, Reference ID: 08CAIRO783, http://wikileaks.org/cable/2008/04/08CAIRO783.html.

43.“Obama Interview: The Transcript,” BBC News World Service, June 2, 2009, www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/news/2009/06/090602_obama_transcript.shtml.

44.Hajjar, “Suleiman: The CIA’s Man in Cairo.”

45.Scott Shane and David D. Kirkpatrick, “Military Caught between Mubarak and Protesters,” New York Times, February 11, 2011; Geoffey Wheatcroft, “America’s Unraveling Power,” New York Times, February 11, 2011; Scott Shane, “As Islamists Gain Influence, Washington Reassesses Who Its Friends Are,” New York Times, July 10, 2012.

46.Anderson, “Fractured Lands,” 41–42, 54; Sharp, Egypt, 15, 23–25.

47.Thomas L. Friedman, “Up with Egypt,” New York Times, February 8, 2011.

48.Charlie Savage, “ U.S. Diplomats Noted Canadian Mistrust,” New York Times, December 2, 2010.

49.09 ANKARA 1717, From: Turkey Ankara, To: Afghanistan Kabul, January 20, 2010, WikiLeaks Reference ID: 10ANKARA87_a, https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/10ANKARA87_a.html.

50.Scott Shane and Andrew W. Lehren, “Leaked Cables Offer Raw Look at U.S. Diplomacy,” New York Times, November 29, 2010; “WikiLeaks: Phobias, Flamenco Dancing, and a ‘Voluptuous Blonde’ Nurse: Inside the Wacky World of Colonel Gaddafi,” Daily Mail, December 8, 2010, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1336783/WikiLeaks-Colonel-Gaddafis-phobias-flamenco-dancing-voluptuous-blonde-nurse.html.

51.Deptel 37561, State to Embassy Bujumbura, April 16, 2009, WikiLeaks Cablegate Archive, Reference ID: 09STATE37561, http://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/04/09STATE37561.html.

52.Deptel 105048, State to Embassy Manama, October 8, 2009, WikiLeaks Cablegate Archive, Reference ID: 09STATE105048, http://wikileaks.org/cable/2009/10/09STATE105048.html.

53.Associated Press, “Kyrgyzstan: Ex-Leader Convicted over Crackdown,” New York Times, July 26, 2014; Borut Grgic, “Democratic Change It’s Not,” New York Times, May 31, 2010; Mark Landler, “Clinton Moves to Ease Tensions over Key Kyrgyz Base,” New York Times, December 3, 2010; David Trilling, “Letter from Bishkek: How Did Kurmanbek Bakiyev’s Presidency Fail?,” Foreign Affairs, April 12, 2010, www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/russia-fsu/2010-04-12/letter-bishkek.

Chapter Three: Covert Netherworld

1.John Prados, Safe for Democracy (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2006), 500–567; David Johnston, “Bush Pardons 6 in Iran Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial,” New York Times, December 25, 1992.

2.Transparency International, “Plundering Politicians and Bribing Multinationals Undermine Economic Development, Says TI,” press release, March 24, 2004, www.transparency.org/news/pressrelease/plundering_politicians_and_bribing_multinationals_undermine_economic_develo; Michela Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in Mobutu’s Congo (London: Fourth Estate, 2000), 250–55; “DR Congo War Deaths ‘Exaggerated,’” BBC News, January 20, 2010, news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8471147.stm.

3.“Afghan President’s Brother, Ahmad Wali Karzai, Killed,” BBC News, July 12, 2011, www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14118884; James Risen, “Reports Link Karzai’s Brother to Afghanistan Heroin Trade,” New York Times, October 4, 2008; Dexter Filkins, Mark Mazzetti, and James Risen, “Brother of Afghan Leader Said to Be Paid by CIA,” New York Times, October 28, 2009.

4.Elisabetta Povoledo, “Italy Gasps as Inquiry Reveals Mob’s Long Reach,” New York Times, December 12, 2014.

5.Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 321.

6.UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, World Drug Report 2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 5, 12–14, 143–48; UN International Drug Control Programme, World Drug Report (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 132, 162–63.

7.Lieutenant Colonel Lucien Conein (former CIA operative in Saigon), interview with author, McLean, Virginia, June 18, 1971.

8.Frederick Wakeman, Policing Shanghai, 1927–1937 (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1996), 25–39; Frank J. Prial, “Secret Group Linked to Killing of French Detective,” New York Times, July 29, 1981.

9.Bryan Christy, “Ivory Worship,” National Geographic 222, no. 4 (October 2012): 46, 52–55; David Western, “The Undetected Trade in Rhino Horn,” Pachyderm 11 (1989), 26–28.

10.International Opium Commission, Report of the International Opium Commission, vol. 2 (Shanghai: North-China Daily News & Herald, 1909), 44–66, 356; US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States 1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1916), 713.

11.David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973), 5; David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 9–28; Virginia Berridge and Griffith Edwards, Opium and the People (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987), 21–35, 274; UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Bulletin on Narcotics: A Century of International Drug Control (Vienna: UN, 2010), 54–58.

12.Ethan A. Nadelmann, “Global Prohibition Regimes,” International Organization 44, no. 4 (1990): 484–513.

13.Musto, The American Disease, 37–52.

14.Alan A. Block, East Side, West Side (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1983), 133–34; Alan A. Block, “European Drug Traffic and Traffickers between the Wars,” Journal of Social History 23, no. 2 (1989): 315–37.

15.UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, World Drug Report 2000, 5, 13–14, 143–48; UN International Drug Control Programme, World Drug Report (1997), 162–63.

16.See Alfred W. McCoy, “The Stimulus of Prohibition,” in Michael K. Steinberg, Joseph J. Hobbs, and Kent Mathewson, eds., Dangerous Harvest: Drug Plants and the Transformation of Indigenous Landscapes (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 24–111.

17.US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Program, Bureau of Justice Statistics, “Prisoners in 1988,” Bureau of Justice Statistics (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1989), 1; US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1990 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1991), 604; Ethan A. Nadelmann, “U.S. Drug Policy,” Foreign Policy, no. 70 (1988), 99; Adam Liptak, “U.S. Prison Population Dwarfs That of Other Nations,” New York Times, April 23, 2008; “Editorial: Thirty-Five Years of Rockefeller ‘Justice,’” New York Times, May 27, 2008.

18.US Cabinet Committee on International Narcotics Control, World Opium Survey 1972 (Washington, DC, July 1972), 7, 11, A11–15; UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 2008 World Drug Report (Vienna: UNODC, 2008), 25.

19.Christopher S. Wren, “ U.N. Report Says Tens of Millions Use Illicit Drugs,” New York Times, June 26, 1997; UN International Drug Control Programme, World Drug Report (1997), 31, 32, 124, 132, 162–63; UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, World Drug Report 2000, 5, 13–14, 70, 143–48.

20.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, 2007 World Drug Report (Vienna: UNODC, 2007), 170.

21.US Senate, 100th Congress, 2d Session, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Terrorism, Narcotics and International Operations, Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, December 1988), 73–75.

22.Ibid., 75.

23.Mort Rosenblum, “Hidden Agendas,” Vanity Fair, March 1990, 120.

24.US Senate, Drugs, Law Enforcement and Foreign Policy, 42–49.

25.Gary Webb, “Day One: Backers of CIA-Led Nicaraguan Rebels Brought Cocaine to Poor L.A. Neighborhoods in Early ’80s to Help Finance War—and a Plague Was Born,” San Jose Mercury News, August 18, 1996; Gary Webb, “Day Two: How a Smuggler, a Bureaucrat and a Driven Ghetto Teen-ager Created the Cocaine Pipeline, and How Crack was ‘Born’ in the San Francisco Bay Area in 1974,” San Jose Mercury News, August 19, 1996; Gary Webb, “Day Three: The Impact of the Crack Epidemic on the Black Community and Why Justice Hasn’t Been for All,” San Jose Mercury News, August 20, 1996. For a book-length exposition of this case, see Gary Webb, Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion (New York: Seven Stories Press, 1998).

26.Between the time I downloaded this report from the CIA website on November 1, 1998, and reviewed it on October 12, 2015, these forty-eight paragraphs were replaced by a notice reading “[Paragraphs 913 to 961 removed].” See US Central Intelligence Agency, Office of the Inspector General, Allegations of Connections between CIA and Contras in Cocaine Trafficking in the United States (1) (96-0143-IG), vol. 2, The Contra Story, pars. 913–61, www.fas.org/irp/cia/product/cocaine2/contents.html.

27.Ibid.

28.Ibid., pars. 914, 916–17, 921.

29.Ibid., par. 916.

30.Ibid., par. 922.

31.Ibid., par. 925.

32.Ibid., par. 930.

33.Ibid., par. 936.

34.Ibid., pars. 938–39, 942.

35.Ibid., par. 943.

36.Ibid., par. 927.

37.Ibid., pars. 932–33.

38.Ibid., pars. 949–50.

39.Ibid., par. 951.

40.Ibid., par. 952.

41.Ibid., par. 953.

42.Tracy L. Snell, Correctional Populations in the United States, 1991 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, NCJ-147729, August 1993), 6; US Department of Justice, “Prisoners in 1988,” Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1; US Department of Justice, Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics 1990, 604; Nadelmann, “U.S. Drug Policy,” 83–108, 99; Adam Liptak, “Inmate Count Dwarfs Other Nations’,” New York Times, April 23, 2008; “Editorial: Thirty-Five Years of Rockefeller ‘Justice.’”

43.Christopher Uggen, Ryan Larson, and Sarah Shannon, “6 Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felony Disenfranchisement, 2016,” The Sentencing Project, October 6, 2016, www.sentencingproject.org/publications/6-million-lost-voters-state-level-estimates-felony-disenfranchisement-2016/.

44.National Security Archive, “The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On,” November 24, 2006, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/.

45.Webb, “Day One”; “Editorial: Another CIA Disgrace: Helping the Crack Flow,” San Jose Mercury News, August 21, 1996.

46.Adam Pertman, “CIA-Dug Link Stories Outrage Blacks in L.A.,” Boston Globe, October 6, 1996; Tim Golden, “Though Evidence Is Thin, Tale of C.I.A. and Drugs Has a Life of Its Own,” New York Times, October 21, 1996; Michael A. Fletcher, “Black Caucus Urges Probe of CIA-Contra Drug Charge,” Washington Post, September 13, 1996; Peter Kornbluh, “The Storm over ‘Dark Alliance,’” CJR, January/February 1997, 33–35.

47.Roberto Suro and Walter Pincus, “The CIA and Crack: Evidence Is Lacking of Alleged Plot,” Washington Post, October 4, 1996; Golden, “Though Evidence Is Thin”; Jesse Katz, “Tracking the Genesis of the Crack Trade,” Los Angeles Times, October 20–22, 1996.

48.Geoff Dyer and Chloe Sorvino, “$1tn Cost of Longest US War Hastens Retreat from Military Intervention,” Financial Times, December 15, 2014, www.cnbc.com/2014/12/15/-for-us-cost-1tn.html.

49.Joel Brinkley, “Money Pit: The Monstrous Failure of US Aid to Afghanistan,” World Affairs, January/February 2013, www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/money-pit-monstrous-failure-us-aid-afghanistan.

50.Michael S. Schmidt and Eric Schmitt, “U.S. Broadens Fight against ISIS with Attacks in Afghanistan,” New York Times, February 1, 2016.

51.US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics Matters, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1986).

52.Lawrence Lifschultz, “Dangerous Liaison,” Newsline (Karachi), November 1989, 49–54; David Rohde, “Warlord Rule Is Re-emerging in Some Towns,” New York Times, November 16, 2001; James Dao, “Afghan Warlord May Team Up with Al Qaeda and Taliban,” New York Times, May 30, 2002; Charles G. Cogan, “Partners in Time,” World Policy Journal 10, no. 2 (1993): 76, 79.

53.US Cabinet Committee on International Narcotics Control, World Opium Survey 1972, 10–11, 47; US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics Matters, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, April 1994 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1994), 4; “Afghanistan,” Geopolitical Drug Dispatch, no. 3 (January 1992): 1, 3.

54.Mathea Falco, “Asian Narcotics,” Drug Enforcement (February 1979): 2–3; US Cabinet Committee on International Narcotics Control, World Opium Survey 1972, A-7, A-14, A-17; International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (1994), 4; William French Smith, “Drug Traffic Today—Challenge and Response,” Drug Enforcement (Summer 1982): 2–3; International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 1986, 480.

55.Pakistan Narcotics Control Board, National Survey on Drug Abuse in Pakistan (Islamabad: Pakistan Narcotics Control Board, 1986), iii, ix, 23, 308; Zahid Hussain, “Narcopower,” Newsline (Karachi), December 1989, 17; UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, World Drug Report 2000, 78, 150.

56.International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 1986, 480–81.

57.US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics Matters, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, March 1988), 177–78.

58.Arthur Bonner, “Afghan Rebel’s Victory Garden,” New York Times, June 18, 1986, www.nytimes.com/1986/06/18/world/afghan-rebel-s-victory-garden-opium.html.

59.Tim Golden, “Afghan Ban on Growing of Opium Is Unraveling,” New York Times, October 22, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/10/22/world/a-nation-challenged-war-and-drugs-afghan-ban-on-growing-of-opium-is-unraveling.html.

60.Kathy Evans, “The Tribal Trail,” Newsline (Karachi), December 1989, 26.

61.Barnett R. Rubin, Testimony before the Subcommittee on Europe and the Middle East, Foreign Affairs Committee, US House of Representatives, “Answers to Questions for Private Witnesses,” March 7, 1990, 18–19; James Rupert and Steve Coll, “U.S. Declines to Probe Afghan Drug Trade,” Washington Post, May 13, 1990, www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/05/13/us-declines-to-probe-afghan-drug-trade/f07eadd2-3d25-4dd5-9e8c-05beed819769/.

62.Lawrence Lifschultz, “Inside the Kingdom of Heroin,” Nation, November 14, 1988, 495–96.

63.Rupert and Coll, “U.S. Declines to Probe Afghan Drug Trade.”

64.Dealing with the Demon: Part II, directed by Chris Hilton (Sydney: Aspire Films PL, 1995). Distributed in the United States by Icarus Films, http://icarusfilms.com/new97/dealing_w.html.

65.US Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics Matters, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, March 2000), 56; United Nations International Drug Control Programme, Afghanistan: Annual Survey 2000 (Islamabad: UN, 2000), 15.

66.Tim Weiner, “A Nation Challenged: Drug Trade; with Taliban Gone, Opium Farmers Return to Their Only Cash Crop,” New York Times, November 26, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/11/26/world/nation-challenged-drug-trade-with-taliban-gone-opium-farmers-return-their-only.html; Daniel Balland, “Nomadic Pastoralists and Sedentary Hosts in the Central and Western Hindukush Mountains, Afghanistan,” in Nigel J. R. Allan, Gregory W. Knapp, and Christoph Stadel, eds., Human Impact on Mountains (Lanham, MD: Rownman & Littlefield, 1988), 265–70; Nigel Allan, “Modernization of Rural Afghanistan,” in Louis Dupree and Linette Albert, eds., Afghanistan in the 1970s (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1974), 117–18.

67.United Nations Information Service, “Opium Production in Myanmar Declines,” press release (UNIS/NAR/760), August 27, 2002, www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/en/pressrels/2002/nar760.html; United Nations International Drug Control Programme, Strategic Study #4 (Islamabad: UN, 1999), 2; Afghanistan: Annual Survey 2000, 23.

68.World Drug Report 2000, 7–11; United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, Strategic Study #3: The Role of Opium as a Source of Informal Credit (Islamabad: UN, 1999), http://david-mansfield.tumblr.com/page/4.

69.Dexter Filkins, “A Nation Challenged: Kabul; Afghans Round Up Hundreds in Plot against Leaders,” New York Times, April 4, 2002, www.nytimes.com/2002/04/04/international/asia/04AFGH.html.

70.Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 118–20.

71.United Nations International Drug Control Programme, World Drug Report (1997), ii; United Nations, Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 1999 (New York: UN, 2000), 370–71, 49; Alain Labrousse and Laurent Laniel, “The World Geopolitics of Drugs, 1998/1999,” Crime, Law & Social Change 36, nos. 1–2 (2001): 62.

72.Afghanistan: Annual Survey 2000, iii; Barry Bearak, “At Heroin’s Source Taliban Do What ‘Just Say No’ Could Not,” New York Times, May 24, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/05/24/world/at-heroin-s-source-taliban-do-what-just-say-no-could-not.html.

73.Afghanistan: Annual Survey 2000, 21–23; United Nations International Drug Control Programme, Afghanistan: Annual Survey 2001 (Islamabad: UN, 2001), iii, 11, 15–17; Weiner, “A Nation Challenged,” New York Times; David Mansfield, A State Built on Sand: How Opium Undermined Afghanistan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 108–9.

74.Barbara Crossette, “Taliban Open a Campaign to Gain Status at U.N.,” New York Times, September 21, 2000, www.nytimes.com/2000/09/21/world/taliban-open-a-campaign-to-gain-status-at-the-un.html.

75.US Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Secretary Colin L. Powell, “Statement at Press Briefing on New U.S. Humanitarian Assistance for Afghans,” May 17, 2001, https://2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2001/2928.htm.

76.R. W. Apple Jr., “A Nation Challenged: Washington Letter; Pondering the Mystery of the Taliban’s Collapse,” New York Times, November 30, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/11/30/us/nation-challenged-washington-letter-pondering-mystery-taliban-s-collapse.html.

77.United Nations, Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, Global Illicit Drug Trends 2002 (New York: UN, 2002), 41.

78.United Nations General Assembly, Report of the Secretary General: Emergency International Assistance for Peace, Normalcy and Reconstruction of War-Stricken Afghanistan (56th Session, Agenda item 20 [f], December 7, 2001), 9.

79.Mansfield, A State Built on Sand, 109, 126–27, 137.

80.Gopal, No Good Men among the Living, 15–19.

81.Barnett R. Rubin, “Putting an End to Warlord Government,” New York Times, January 15, 2002, www.nytimes.com/2002/01/15/opinion/putting-an-end-to-warlord-government.html; Bob Woodward, Bush at War (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002), 35, 139–43, 194, 253, 298–99, 317; Bob Woodward, “CIA Led Way with Cash Handouts,” Washington Post, November 18, 2002, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A3105-2002Nov17.html.

82.Michael R. Gordon and Steven Lee Myers, “A Nation Challenged: Reinforcements; Allies Building Force to Keep Order in a Vacuum,” New York Times, November 16, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/11/16/world/nation-challenged-reinforcements-allies-building-force-keep-order-vacuum.html.

83.Rubin, “Putting an End to Warlord Government.”

84.Tim Golden, “The World: A War on Terror Meets a War on Drugs,” New York Times, November 25, 2001, www.nytimes.com/2001/11/25/weekinreview/the-world-a-war-on-terror-meets-a-war-on-drugs.html.

85.Doris Buddenberg and William A. Byrd, eds., Afghanistan’s Drug Industry (Vienna: UN Office on Drugs and Crime, and The World Bank, 2006), 25–28, www.unodc.org/pdf/Afgh_drugindustry_Nov06.pdf.

86.James Risen, “Poppy Fields Are Now a Front Line in Afghan War,” New York Times, May 16, 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/05/16/world/asia/16drugs.html.

87.Ashraf Ghani, “Where Democracy’s Greatest Enemy Is a Flower,” New York Times, December 11, 2004, www.nytimes.com/2004/12/11/opinion/where-democracys-greatest-enemy-is-a-flower.html.

88.Carlotta Gall, “Another Year of Drug War, and the Poppy Crop Flourishes,” New York Times, February 17, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/02/17/international/asia/17poppy.html.

89.Carlotta Gall, “Opium Harvest at Record Level in Afghanistan,” New York Times, September 3, 2006, www.nytimes.com/2006/09/03/world/asia/03afghan.html.

90.Martin Jelsma and Tom Kramer, Downward Spiral: Banning Opium in Afghanistan and Burma (Amsterdam: Transnational Institute, 2005), 4–9; David Rhode and David E. Sanger, “How a ‘Good War’ in Afghanistan Went Bad,” New York Times, August 12, 2007; Kirk Semple and Tim Golden, “Afghans Pressed by U.S. on Plan to Spray Poppies,” New York Times, October 8, 2007; Anna Bawden, “US Backs Down over Afghan Poppy Fields Destruction,” Guardian, December 7, 2007, www.theguardian.com/world/2007/dec/07/afghanistan.usa.

91.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2007 (Islamabad: UNODCCP, 2007), iii–iv, 7, 39, 60, 71, 77, 86. www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan-Opium-Survey-2007.pdf.

92.Gretchen Peters, How Opium Profits the Taliban (Washington, DC: US Institute of Peace, 2009), 23, www.usip.org/sites/default/files/resources/taliban_opium_1. pdf; UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2008 (Vienna: UNODC, 2008), 2–3; Brian Steward, “The New Afghan Battle Plan, Bribing the Taliban,” CBC News, January 27, 2010, www.cbc.ca/news/world/the-new-afghan-battle-plan-bribing-the-taliban-1.893983; “Afghanistan Crossroads: Taliban Pay vs. Afghan Forces Pay,” Afghanistan Crossroads, CNN blog, posted December 9, 2009, at 10:08 am, http://afghanistan.blogs.cnn.com/2009/12/09/taliban-pay-vs-afghan-forces-pay.

93.Steven Lee Meyers and Thom Shanker, “Pentagon Considers Adding Forces in Afghanistan,” New York Times, May 3, 2008, www.nytimes.com/2008/05/03/world/asia/03military.html.

94.Mansfield, A State Built on Sand, 100–101, 110–11, 104; UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2015 (Vienna: UNODC, 2015), 12.

95.J. Edward Conway, “Analysis in Combat: The Deployed Threat Finance Analyst,” Small Wars Journal, July 5, 2012, http://smallwarsjournal.com/printpdf/12915; US Department of Treasury, Press Center, “Fact Sheet: Combating the Financing of Terrorism, Disrupting Terrorism at Its Core,” September 8, 2011, www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1291.aspx.

96.C. J. Chivers, “Afghan Attack Gives Marines a Taste of War,” New York Times, February 13, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/world/asia/14marja.html.

97.Rob Norland, “U.S. Turns a Blind Eye to Opium in an Afghan Town,” New York Times, March 20, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/03/21/world/asia/21marja.html.

98.Alissa J. Rubin, “ In Marja, a Vice President Speaks with Warmth but Reaps Cool,” New York Times, March 1, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/03/02/world/asia/02marja.html.

99.Alfred W. McCoy, “Can Anyone Pacify the World’s Number One Narco-State? The Opium Wars in Afghanistan,” TomDispatch, March 30, 2010, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175225/alfred_mccoy_afghanistan_as_a_drug_war.

100.Matthew Rosenberg and Rod Norlund, “U.S. Scales Back Plans for Afghan Peace,” New York Times, October 2, 2012, www.nytimes.com/2012/10/02/world/asia/us-scales-back-plans-for-afghan-peace.html.

101.Joseph Goldstein, “Taliban Make Gains across 3 Provinces in Afghanistan,” New York Times, July 28, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2015/07/29/world/asia/taliban-make-gains-across-3-provinces-in-afghanistan.html.

102.James Rosen, “U.S. Inspector: Billions in Failed Programs Wasted in Afghanistan,” McClatchyDC, September 12, 2014, www.mcclatchydc.com/news/nation-world/national/national-security/article24773107.html; Editorial, “Afghanistan’s Unending Addiction,” New York Times, October 27, 2014; Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction, Poppy Cultivation in Afghanistan (Arlington, VA: Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction, October 2014), 1–12, www.sigar.mil/pdf/Special%20Projects/SIGAR-15-10-SP.pdf.

103.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2013: Summary Findings (Vienna: UNODC, 2013), 3–7, www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghan_report_Summary_Findings_2013.pdf.

104.Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction, Poppy Cultivation in Afghanistan, 2.

105.The $320 million estimate was calculated as follows. According to Gretchen Peters, the Taliban’s fixed tax rates collected $425 million from a 2008 opium crop worth $4 billion, based on the UN’s estimate for the comparable 2007 crop. (See Peters, How Opium Profits the Taliban, 23; UNODC, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2008, 1.) Applying this same Taliban tax rate of 10.6 percent to the UN’s estimate of $3 billion value for the 2013 opium crop yields revenues of $319 million. (See Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction, Poppy Cultivation in Afghanistan, 2.) A study for the Congressional Research Service reports that the total Taliban income for 2012 was between $400 and $620 million, thereby making $319 million in opium revenues well over half the Taliban’s total income. (See Liana Rosen and Kenneth Katzman, Afghanistan: Drug Trafficking and the 2014 Transition [Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, May 2014], 1, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/R43540.pdf.)

106.Special Inspector General for Afghanistan Reconstruction, Poppy Cultivation in Afghanistan, 10.

107.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2014: Cultivation and Production (Vienna: UNODC, 2014), 6–7, www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghan-opium-survey-2014.pdf.

108.Elizabeth Chuck, “As Heroin Use Grows in U.S., Poppy Crops Thrive in Afghanistan,” NBC News, July 7, 2015, www.nbcnews.com/news/world/heroin-use-grows-u-s-poppy-crops-thrive-afghanistan-n388081.

109.Joseph Goldstein, “Taliban’s New Leader Strengthens His Hold with Intrigue and Battlefield Victory,” New York Times, October 5, 2015.

110.Alissa J. Rubin, “Afghan Forces Rally in Kunduz, but Fight Is Far from Decided,” New York Times, October 2, 2015.

111.David Jolly and Taimoor Shah, “Afghan Province Teetering to the Taliban, Draws in Extra U.S. Forces,” New York Times, December 14, 2015.

112.Rod Nordland and Joseph Goldstein, “Afghan Taliban’s Reach Is Widest Since 2001, U.N. Says,” New York Times, October 12, 2015.

113.Mujib Mashal, “Taliban Kill at Least 22 Afghan Police Officers,” New York Times, October 21, 2015.

114.Jolly and Shah, “Afghan Province Teetering to the Taliban.”

115.Mujib Mashal and Taimoor Shah, “Last Refuge from Taliban May Prove No Refuge at All,” New York Times, December 28, 2015; David Jolly, “U.S. to Send More Troops to Aid Afghan Forces Pressed by Taliban,” New York Times, February 10, 2016; Mujib Mashal, “Afghan Troops Retreat under Pressure from Taliban,” New York Times, February 20, 2016; Mujib Mashal, “Facing the Taliban and His Past, an Afghan Leader Aims for a Different Ending,” New York Times, February 29, 2016; Rod Nordland and Taimoor Shah, “A 5th District in Helmand Province Falls to the Taliban,” New York Times, March 16, 2016.

116.Rod Nordland, “Violence and Corruption in the World’s Heroin Heartland,” New York Times, April 7, 2016; Rod Nordland, “General Plants Flowers in Helmand, but Taliban Lurk,” New York Times, April 10, 2016.

117.Mujib Mashal and Taimoor Shah, “Airstrikes Barely Holding Off Taliban in Helmand, Afghan Officials Say,” New York Times, August 9, 2016; Mujib Mashal, “Afghanistan Forces Struggle to Hold Firm against Taliban in South,” New York Times, August 15, 2016.

118.Mark Landler, “Obama Says He Will Slow Troop Reductions in Afghanistan,” New York Times, July 7, 2016; Missy Ryan and Thomas Gibbons-Neff, “U.S. Widens War in Afghanistan, Authorizes New Action against Taliban,” Washington Post, June 10, 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/news/checkpoint/wp/2016/06/09/defense-official-u-s-to-begin-striking-taliban-advise-regular-afghan-soldiers-again/.

119.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, “After Six Years on the Rise, Afghan Opium Crop Cultivation Declines: New UNODC Survey,” press release, October 14, 2015, www.unodc.org/unodc/en/press/releases/2015/October/after-six-years-on-the-rise--afghan-opium-crop-cultivation-declines_-new-unodc-survey.html.

120.David Mansfield, “Where Have All the Flowers Gone? The Real Reasons for the Drop in the Poppy Crop in Afghanistan in 2015,” Alcis, October 20, 2015, https://stories.alcis.org/where-have-all-the-flowers-gone-7de7b34e8478#.af0gf3vu8; David Mansfield, “Helmand on the Move: Migration as Response to Crop Failure,” research brief, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, October 2015, www.areu.org.af/Uploads/EditionPdfs/1521E-%20Helmand%20on%20the%20Move%20Migration%20as%20a%20Response%20to%20Crop%20Failure.pdf.

121.Azam Ahmed, “Tasked with Combating Opium, Afghan Officials Profit from It,” New York Times, February 16, 2016.

122.UN Security Council, “Report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team on Specific Cases of Cooperation between Organized Crime Syndicates and Individuals, Groups, Undertakings and Entities Eligible for Listing under Paragraph 1 of Security Council Resolution 2160 (2014): S/2015/79,” February 2, 2015, 9–10, www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2015/79.

123.Ahmed, “Tasked with Combating Opium.”

124.David Mansfield, “The Devil Is in the Details: Nangarhar’s Continued Decline into Insurgency, Violence, and Widespread Drug Production,” Afghan Research and Evaluation Unit Brief, February 2016, 1–3, 6–9, 12–13.

125.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2015: Executive Summary (Vienna: UNODC, October 2015), 7, www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afg_Executive_summary_2015_final.pdf.

126.Ahmed, “Tasked with Combating Opium.”

127.UN Office on Drugs and Crime, Afghanistan Opium Survey 2014: Socio-economic Analysis (Vienna: UNODC, March 2015), 8, 11, www.unodc.org/documents/crop-monitoring/Afghanistan/Afghanistan_Opium_Survey_Socio-economic_analysis_2014_web.pdf.

128.Rosen, “U.S. Inspector: Billions in Failed Programs Wasted in Afghanistan.”

Chapter Four: A Global Surveillance State

1.Alfred W. McCoy, “Welcome Home, War! How America’s Wars Are Systematically Destroying Our Liberties,” TomDispatch, November 12, 2009, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175154/tomgram%3A_alfred_mccoy%2C_surveillance_state%2C_u.s.a.

2.James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), 1–3, 11–22, 24, 29–33, 44–45, 59–61, 64–72, 373.

3.G. Tilghman Richards, The History and Development of Typewriters (London: HMSO, 1964), 23–25; Lewis Coe, The Telegraph: A History of Morse’s Invention and Its Predecessors in the United States (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1993), 89.

4.Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 33–34, 40–42; Charles J. Austin, Information Systems for Health Services Administration (Ann Arbor, MI: Health Administration Press, 1992), 13–21; F. H. Wines, “The Census of 1900,” National Geographic, January 1900, 34–36; Friedrich W. Kistermann, “Hollerith Punched Card System Development (1905–1913),” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 27, no. 1 (2005): 56–66; Emerson W. Pugh, Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 1–36; “The Electric Tabulating Machine Applied to Cost Accounting,” American Machinist, August 16, 1902, 1073–75; S. G. Koon, “Cost Accounting by Machines,” American Machinist, March 26, 1914, 533–36; Douglas W. Jones, “Punched Cards: A Brief Illustrated Technical History,” http://homepage.divms.uiowa.edu/~jones/cards/history.html; Mark Howells, “Counting the Lost Census: The Infant Stage of Modern Technology,” Ancestry 18, no. 2 (March/April 2000): 53–55.

5.Helmut Gernsheim and Alison Gernsheim, The History of Photography from the Camera Obscura to the Beginning of the Modern Era (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969), 403–9.

6.Wayne A. Wiegand, Irrepressible Reformer: A Biography of Melvil Dewey (Chicago: ALA Editions, 1996), 14–24; Wayne A. Wiegand and Donald G. Davis Jr., Encyclopedia of Library History (New York: Routledge, 1994), 147–50; John Comaromi and M. Satija, Dewey Decimal Classification: History and Current Status (New York: Sterling Pub Private, 1988), 4–9; Leo E. LaMontagne, American Library Classification with Special Reference to the Library of Congress (Hamden, CT: Shoe String Press, 1961), 52–60, 63–99, 179–233.

7.Elizabeth Bethel, “The Military Information Division: Origin of the Intelligence Division,” Military Affairs 11, no. 1 (Spring 1947): 17–24.

8.Alphonse Bertillon, Alphonse Bertillon’s Instructions for Taking Descriptions for the Identification of Criminals and Others by the Means of Anthrometric Indications (New York: AMS Press, 1977), 6, 17, 91–94; Frank Morn, “The Eye That Never Sleeps”: A History of the Pinkerton National Detective Agency (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), 124–27; E. R. Henry, Classification and Uses of Fingerprints (London: HMSO, 1900), 61; Henry T. F. Rhodes, Alphonse Bertillon: Father of Scientific Detection (London: George G. Harrap, 1956), 71–109; Jürgen Thorwald, The Century of the Detective (New York: Harcourt, 1965), 20–26.

9.Donald C. Dilworth, ed., Identification Wanted: Development of the American Criminal Identification Systems, 1893–1943 (Gaithersburg, MD: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1977), 1–3, 6–8, 60–68, 78–79, 82–83, 103–6, 131, 161–66; Henry, Classification and Uses of Fingerprints, 4–7, 61–69; Bertillon, Alphonse Bertillon’s Instructions, 10–12; Police Chiefs News Letter 2, no. 3 (March 1934): 2; Police Chiefs News Letter 3, no. 7 (July 1936): 2; Richard Polenberg, Fighting Faiths: The Abrams Case, the Supreme Court, and Free Speech (New York: Viking Adult, 1987), 165.

10.Gamewell Fire Alarm Telegraph Co., Emergency Signaling (New York: Gamewell Fire Alarm Telegraph Co., 1916), chaps. 2–7; William Maver Jr., American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph: Systems, Apparatus, Operation (New York: Maver Publishing, 1903), 440–53; Paul Ditzel, Fire Alarm! (New Albany, IN: Fire Buff House Publishers, 1990), 5, 16–28, 40–42; William Werner, History of the Boston Fire Department and Boston Fire Alarm System (Boston: Boston Sparks Association, 1974), 177–84.

11.Robert W. Little Jr. and Blaine Bruggeman, History of the York Fire Department, 1776–1976 (Marceline, MO: Walsworth, 1976), 83; Richard Heath, Mill City Firefighters: The First Hundred Years, 1879–1979 (Minneapolis, MN: Extra Alarm Association of the Twin Cities, 1981), 32, 45, 69–71; Ditzel, Fire Alarm! 27; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Abstract of the Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904), 421–22.

12.Ronald Robinson, “Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration,” in Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe, eds., Studies in the Theory of Imperialism (London: Longman, 1972), 132–33, 138–39.

13.Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War: 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2000), 127, 191; Brian McAllister Linn, “Intelligence and Low-Intensity Conflict in the Philippine War, 1899–1902,” Intelligence and National Security 6, no. 1 (1991): 90–96. See testimony by Colonel Arthur L. Wagner, former head of the Military Intelligence Division, in US Senate, 57th Congress, 1st Session, doc. no. 331, part 3, Affairs in the Philippine Islands: Hearings before the Committee on the Philippines of the United States Senate (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), 2850–51.

14.Joan M. Jensen, Army Surveillance in America, 1775–1980 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 112; Marc B. Powe, “American Military Intelligence Comes of Age,” Military Review 40, no. 12 (1975): 18–21; Kenneth Campbell, “Major General Ralph H. Van Deman: Father of Modern American Military Intelligence,” American Intelligence Journal 8 (Summer 1987): 13; Michael E. Bigelow, “Van Deman,” Military Intelligence 16, no. 4 (1990): 38.

15.Ralph E. Weber, ed., The Final Memoranda: Major General Ralph H. Van Deman, USA Ret., 1865–1952, Father of U.S. Military Intelligence (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1988), 7–8; Linn, “Intelligence and Low-Intensity Conflict in the Philippine War,” 100–108; Brian McAllister Linn, The U.S. Army and Counterinsurgency in the Philippine War, 1899–1902 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989), 155–56.

16.Thomas H. Barry, Brigadier General US Volunteers, Chief of Staff to the Commanding General, Department of Northern Luzon, March 11, 1901, Entry 4337, RG 395, National Archives and Records Administration (hereafter, NARA).

17.Weber, The Final Memoranda, 8–18; John Moran Gates, Schoolbooks and Krags: The United States Army in the Philippines, 1898–1902 (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1973), 250–51; Linn, “Intelligence and Low-Intensity Conflict in the Philippine War,” 104–5; Captain R. H. Van Deman, For the Information of the Division Commander, December 9, 1901, Philippine Insurgent Records, Special Documents, Publication 254, Microreel 80, Folder 1303, NARA.

18.Khaki and Red, September 1927, 5–8, 9; Khaki and Red, September 1932, 12; Philippines Free Press, May 11, 1918, 3.

19.Heath Twitchell Jr., Allen: The Biography of an Army Officer, 1859–1930 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1974), 4–6, 19, 24, 26, 36–59, 65–67, 75–84, 86, 290.

20.McCoy, Policing America’s Empire, 104–6, 129.

21.“Family History of M.Q.” [ca. 1900], Box 7, File: 1900 Oct., Henry T. Allen Papers, Manuscript Division, US Library of Congress. Although the document only gives the author’s name as “Captain Pyle, P.S.,” army records show that a Frank L. Pyle joined the Philippine Scouts as a second lieutenant on June 27, 1902, while retaining the permanent rank of sergeant in Troop D, US First Cavalry. See Military Secretary’s Office, Official Army Register for 1905 (Washington, DC: Military Secretary’s Office, 1904), 359, and Hartford Beaumont, letter to Honorable Henry C. Ide, December 7, 1904, Book 21:II, Dean C. Worcester Papers, Harlan Hatcher Library, University of Michigan.

22.Leonard Wood, “Diaries, 1921–27,” August 15, 1923, Leonard Wood Papers, Manuscript Division, US Library of Congress.

23.Mark Twain, “Passage from ‘Outlines of History’ (suppressed) Date 9th Century,” in Jim Zwick, ed., Mark Twain’s Weapons of Satire: Anti-imperialist Writings on the Philippine-American War (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1992), 78–79.

24.Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 8–18, 39–46.

25.Theodore Kornweibel Jr., “Seeing Red”: Federal Campaigns against Black Militancy, 1919–1925 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 7, 184; Jeffrey M. Dorwart, Conflict of Duty: The U.S. Navy’s Intelligence Dilemma, 1919–1945 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1983), 7; Charles H. McCormick, Seeing Reds: Federal Surveillance of Radicals in the Pittsburgh Mill District, 1917–1921 (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 3, 12–13; Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, The FBI: A History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 65–72.

26.Washington Evening Star, February 20, 1940, Personal Name Information Files: John R. White, Entry 21, RG 350, NARA; H. H. Bandholtz, “Provost Marshal General’s Department,” April 30, 1919, United States Army in the World War 1917–1919: Reports of the Commander-in-Chief, Staff Sections and Services (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1991), 313–28; Robert Wright Jr., Army Lineage Series: Military Police (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1992), 8–9.

27.Major General J. G. Harbord, letter to Brigadier General H. H. Bandholtz, August 31, 1921; Brig. Gen. H. H. Bandholtz, Proclamation, September 2, 1921; A Proclamation by the President of the United States, n.d.; Bandholtz, Copy Telegram No. 2, To: Adjutant General, n.d.; Minutes, Twenty-Ninth Consecutive and Fourth Biennial Convention of District No. 5, United Mine Workers of America, First Day, Pittsburg, Pa., September 6, 1921; Brigadier General H. H. Bandholtz, To: the Adjutant General, September 12, 1921, Reel 9, Harry H. Bandholtz Papers, Michigan Historical Society; Institute for the History of Technology and Industrial Anthropology, The Battle of Blair Mountain (West Virginia): Cultural Resource Survey and Recording Project (Morgantown, WV, 1992), 35–50; Clayton D. Laurie and Ronald H. Cole, The Role of Federal Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1877–1945 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, 1997), 320–24.

28.Joan Jensen, The Price of Vigilance (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1968), 287–89; Harold M. Hyman, To Try Men’s Souls: Loyalty Tests in American History (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1959), 323–24; McCormick, Seeing Reds, 202; Kornweibel, “Seeing Red,” 174–75; David Kahn, The Reader of Gentlemen’s Mail: Herbert O. Yardley and the Birth of American Codebreaking (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), 94–103; Roy Talbert Jr., Negative Intelligence: The Army and the American Left, 1917–1941 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991), 208–11; Ralph Van Deman, December 15, 1928, Office of Chief of Staff, Cross Reference Card, Microform 1194, RG 350, NARA; US Senate, Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, 94th Congress, 2d Session, Supplementary Reports on Intelligence Activities, book 6 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), 105–6; Regin Schmidt, Red Scare: FBI and the Origins of Anticommunism in the United States, 1919–1943 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2000), 324–28, 368.

29.Talbert, Negative Intelligence, 255–59; US Senate, 94th Congress, 2d Session, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, book 2 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), 33–38.

30.Associated Press, “Hundreds Named as Red Appeasers,” New York Times, June 9, 1949; “Never Were or Would Be Reds, Fredric March and Wife Assert,” New York Times, June 10, 1949; Richard Halloran, “Senate Panel Holds Vast ‘Subversives’ Files Amassed by Ex-Chief of Army Intelligence,” New York Times, September 7, 1971; California Legislature, Fifth Report of the Senate Fact-Finding Committee on Un-American Activities, 1949 (Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1948), 411, 448–49, 488–537; Patrick McGilligan and Paul Buhle, Tender Comrades: A Backstory of the Hollywood Blacklist (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 368–69. The famous Appendix 9 of HUAC’s 1944 report, which included a similarly massive list of communists, was unknown to the public and restricted to a narrow circle of government investigators as late as 1951. See Edward L. Barrett Jr., The Tenney Committee: Legislative Investigation of Subversive Activities in California (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1951), 20–22.

31.Halloran, “Senate Panel Holds Vast ‘Subversives’ Files.”

32.Talbert, Negative Intelligence, 270–71; Halloran, “Senate Panel Holds Vast ‘Subversives’ Files”; R. R. Roach to D. M. Ladd, July 13, 1945; D. M. Ladd to E. A. Tamm, October 29, 1945; Colonel F. W. Hein to Commanding Officer 115th CIC Detachment, March 8, 1951; A. H. Belmont to D. M. Ladd, November 9, 1951; Colonel H. S. Isaacson to Major General A. R. Bolling, November 27, 1951; Director to SAC San Diego, December 11, 1951; V. P. Keay to A. H. Belmont, January 22, 1952; Santoiana to Director, January 22, 1952; SAC San Diego to Director, February 4, 1952; SAC SF to Director, n.d.; Subject: Van Deman, Ralph Henry, Files 65-37516, 94-37515, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, DC.

33.Tim Weiner, Enemies: A History of the FBI (New York: Random House, 2013), 77, 86–90, 134–35.

34.David Burnham, “Truman’s Wiretaps on Ex-New Deal Aide Cited,” New York Times, February 1, 1986, www.nytimes.com/1986/02/01/us/truman-wiretaps-on-ex-new-deal-aide-cited.html.

35.Robin W. Winks, Cloak and Gown 1939–1961: Scholars in the Secret War (New York: Harvill Press, 1987), 60, 74–75, 104, 111, 113–14.

36.Ibid., 104–5.

37.James William Gibson, Perfect War: The War We Couldn’t Lose and How We Did (New York: Random House, 1986), 305–15; Robert Lester, A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of the Records of the Military Assistance Command Vietnam: Part 3. Progress Reports on Pacification in South Vietnam, 1965–1973 (Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 1990), 2–5; R. W. Komer, Organization and Management of the “New Model” Pacification Program—1966–1969 (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, May 7, 1970), 198–204, 207–8, 243.

38.Richard A. Hunt, Pacification: The American Struggle for Vietnam Hearts and Minds (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1990), 185–86, 194–95, 197–99, 260–61; Lester, A Guide to the Microfilm Edition of the Records of the Military Assistance Command Vietnam, 2.

39.US Senate, 94th Congress, 2d Session, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, book 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), 3–4, 7–8.

40.Weiner, Enemies, 178, 249–50; Michael O’Brien, “The Exner File—Judith Campbell Exner, John F. Kennedy’s Mistress,” Washington Monthly, December 1999, www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-58170292.html; Kitty Kelley, “The Dark Side of Camelot,” People Magazine 29, no. 8 (January 29, 1988), http://archive.people.com/people/archive/jpgs/19880229/19880229-750-113.jpg.

41.Ronald Kessler, The Secrets of the FBI (New York: Crown Publishing, 2011), 37–41.

42.Anthony Summers, “The Secret Life of J Edgar Hoover,” Guardian, December 31, 2011, www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jan/01/j-edgar-hoover-secret-fbi.

43.Seymour M. Hersh, “Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported in U.S. against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years,” New York Times, December 22, 1974; Seymour M. Hersh, “C.I.A. Admits Domestic Acts, Denies ‘Massive’ Illegality,” New York Times, January 16, 1975; John M. Crewdson, “Triumph and Defeat: The C.I.A. Record,” New York Times, June 11, 1975; “Summary of Rockefeller Panel’s C.I.A. Report,” New York Times, June 11, 1975; John M. Crewdson, “File Said to Indicate C.I.A. Had a Man in White House,” New York Times, July 10, 1975; Seymour M. Hersh, “Report on C.I.A. Is Praised, but Recommendations Are Called Weak,” New York Times, June 12, 1975; Anthony Lewis, “The Teller of Truth,” New York Times, July 10, 1975; Nicholas M. Horrock, “F.B.I. Is Accused of Political Acts for Six Presidents,” New York Times, December 4, 1975; Nicholas M. Horrock, “C.I.A. Panel Finds ‘Plainly Unlawful’ Acts That Improperly Invaded American Rights,” New York Times, June 11, 1975; Victor S. Navasky, “FBI,” review of FBI, by Sanford J. Ungar, New York Times, March 14, 1976.

44.Hersh, “Huge C.I.A. Operation Reported”; “Text of Ford Plan on Intelligence Units and Excerpts from his Executive Order,” New York Times, February 19, 1976; “Excerpts from Senate Intelligence Report,” New York Times, April 29, 1976; Nicholas M. Horrock, “Senate Passes Bill to Bar Bugging in U.S. without Court Order,” New York Times, April 21, 1978.

45.Dana Priest and William M. Arkin, “Top Secret America,” Washington Post, July 18–21, 2010.

46.Philip Shenon, “Threats and Responses,” New York Times, September 10, 2002; Eric Lichtblau, “Administration Plans Defense of Terror Law,” New York Times, August 19, 2003; Eric Lichtblau, “Secret Warrant Requests Increased in 2003,” New York Times, May 3, 2004; Eric Lichtblau, “Large Volume of F.B.I. Files Alarms U.S. Activist Groups,” New York Times, July 18, 2005. Nat Hentoff, “Rescued by Dick Armey from Big Brother,” Washington Times, July 29, 2002; Dan Eggen, “Under Fire, Justice Shrinks TIPS Program,” Washington Post, August 10, 2002; Cynthia Crossen, “Early TIPS Corps Did More Harm Than Good in Hunt for Subversives,” Wall Street Journal, October 2, 2002; Nat Hentoff, “The Death of Operation TIPS,” Village Voice, December 18, 2002.

47.Tim Weiner, “Look Who’s Listening,” New York Times, January 20, 2002; Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, 482–83.

48.James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “How the U.S. Uses Technology to Mine More Data More Quickly,” New York Times, June 8, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/06/09/us/revelations-give-look-at-spy-agencys-wider-reach.html?_r=0.

49.National Security Agency, Office of Inspector General, “Working Draft,” March 24, 2009, 7–13, Washington Post, apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/world/national-security-agency-inspector-general-draft-report/277/.

50.James Bamford, “Every Move You Make,” Foreign Policy, September 7, 2016, http://foreignpolicy.com/2016/09/07/every-move-you-make-obama-nsa-security-surveillance-spying-intelligence-snowden/.

51.Robert S. Mueller, III, Testimony: “FBI Oversight,” US Senate Committee on the Judiciary, May 2, 2006, www.fas.org/irp/congress/2006_hr/050206mueller.html; Ellen Nakashima, “FBI Show Off Counterterrorism Database,” Washington Post, August 30, 2006; Barton Gellman and Laura Poitras, “U.S., British Intelligence Mining Data from Nine U.S. Internet Companies in Broad Secret Program,” Washington Post, June 7, 2013, http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-06-06/news/39784046_1_prism-nsa-u-s-servers.

52.Risen and Lichtblau, “How the U.S. Uses Technology.”

53.James Risen and Eric Lichtblau, “Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers without Courts,” New York Times, December 16, 2005, www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html.

54.Leslie Cauley, “NSA Has Massive Database of Americans’ Phone Calls,” USA Today, May 11, 2006, http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/washington/2006-05-10-nsa_x.htm.

55.Gellman and Poitras, “U.S., British Intelligence Mining Data.”

56.Eric Lichtblau, “In Secret, Court Vastly Broadens Powers of N.S.A.,” New York Times, July 7, 2013; Grant Gross, “Surveillance Court Renews NSA Phone Records Program,” Computer World, January 3, 2014, www.computerworld.com/article/2487309/government-it/surveillance-court-renews-nsa-phone-records-program.html.

57.Xan Rice, “Internet: Last Piece of Fibre-Optic Jigsaw Falls into Place as Cable Links East Africa to Grid,” Guardian, August 17, 2008, www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/aug/18/east.africa.internet; International Telecommunications Union, “ITU Releases Latest Tech Figures & Global Rankings,” press release, October 7, 2013, www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/2013/41.aspx#.V05902ZrXpf.

58.Floor Boon, Steven Derix, and Huib Modderkolk, “NSA Infected 50,000 Computer Networks with Malicious Software,” NRC Handelsblad, November 23, 2013, www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2013/11/23/nsa-infected-50000-computer-networks-with-malicious-software.

59.On telephones, see Series R1–R12, 783, and for mail see Series R163–171 and R172–187, 804–6, in US Census Bureau, Bicentennial Edition, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1975).

60.Federal Bureau of Investigation, “A Brief History of the FBI,” www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/brief-history.

61.John O. Koehler, Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000), 8–9; Belinda Cooper, “A Nation of Spies,” New York Times, April 25, 1999.

62.“Introverted? Then NSA Wants You,” FCW, Circuit blog, posted by Camille Tuutti on April 16, 2012 at 12:11 pm, https://fcw.com/blogs/circuit/2012/04/fedsmc-chris-inglis-federal-workforce.aspx.

63.Charlie Savage and Scott Shane, “Top-Secret Court Castigated N.S.A. on Surveillance,” New York Times, August 22, 2013.

64.James Risen and Laura Poitras, “N.S.A. Examines Social Connections of U.S. Citizens,” New York Times, September 29, 2013.

65.Senator Ron Wyden, “Wyden, Udall Statement on the Disclosure of Bulk Email Records Collection Program,” press release, July 2, 2013, www.wyden.senate.gov/news/press-releases/wyden-udall-statement-on-the-disclosure-of-bulk-email-records-collection-program.

66.Glenn Greenwald, “NSA Collecting Phone Records of Millions of Verizon Customers Daily,” Guardian, June 6, 2013, www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jun/06/nsa-phone-records-verizon-court-order.

67.Barton Gellman and Ashkan Soltani, “NSA Infiltrates Links to Yahoo, Google Data Centers Worldwide, Snowden Documents Say,” Washington Post, October 30, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/nsa-infiltrates-links-to-yahoo-google-data-centers-worldwide-snowden-documents-say/2013/10/30/e51d661e-4166-11e3-8b74-d89d714ca4dd_story.html.

68.Steve Mansfield-Devine, “Biometrics at War: The US Military’s Need for Identification and Authentication,” Biometric Technology Today, no. 5 (May 2012): 5–6.

69.Zach Howard, “Police to Begin iPhone Iris Scans amid Privacy Concerns,” Reuters, July 20, 2011, www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/20/us-crime-identification-iris-idUSTRE76J4A120110720; Nathan Hodge, “General Wants to Scan More U.S. Irises, Fingerprints,” Wired, January 29, 2009, www.wired.com/dangerroom/2009/01/biometrics-need/.

70.Charlie Savage, “Facial Scanning Is Making Gains in Surveillance,” New York Times, August 21, 2013.

71.Charlie Savage, “Report, Evidence Redacted, Ties Snowden to Russian Agencies,” New York Times, December 23, 2016; Glenn Kessler, “Clapper’s ‘Least Truthful’ Statement to the Senate,” Washington Post, June 12, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/fact-checker/post/james-clappers-least-untruthful-statement-to-the-senate/2013/06/11/e50677a8-d2d8-11e2-a73e-826d299ff459_blog.html?utm_term=.396004be0e7b.

72.James Bamford, “They Know Much More Than You Think,” New York Review of Books, August 15, 2013, www.nybooks.com/articles/2013/08/15/nsa-they-know-much-more-you-think/.

73.National Security Agency, “Driver 1: Worldwide SIGINT/Defense Cryptologic Platform” (2012), in Boon, Derix, and Modderkolk, “NSA Infected 50,000 Computer Networks.”

74.Glenn Greenwald, “XKeyscore: NSA Tool Collects ‘Nearly Everything a User Does on the Internet,’” Guardian, July 31, 2013, www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jul/31/nsa-top-secret-program-online-data.

75.Nicole Perlroth, Jeff Larson, and Scott Shane, “N.S.A. Able to Foil Basic Safeguards of Privacy on Web,” New York Times, September 6, 2013.

76.Ewen MacAskill, Julian Borger, Nick Hopkins, Nick Davies, and James Ball, “GCHQ Taps Fibre-Optic Cables for Secret Access to World’s Communications,” Guardian, June 21, 2013, www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2013/jun/21/gchq-cables-secret-world-communications-nsa.

77.Bamford, “Every Move You Make”; Richard Norton-Taylor, “Not So Secret: Deal at the Heart of UK-US Intelligence,” Guardian, June 24, 2010, www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jun/25/intelligence-deal-uk-us-released; “Minutes of the Inauguration Meeting British Signal Intelligence Conference, 11–27 March 1946,” National Security Agency, “UKUSA Agreement Release 1940–1956,” www.nsa.gov/news-features/declassified-documents/ukusa/.

78.Scott Shane, “No Morsel Too Miniscule for All-Consuming N.S.A.,” New York Times, November 2, 2013; Ewen MacAskill and Julian Borger, “New NSA Leaks Show How US Is Bugging Its European Allies,” Guardian, June 30, 2013, www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/jun/30/nsa-leaks-us-bugging-european-allies; Laura Poitras, Marcel Rosenbach, Fidelius Schmid, Holger Stark, and Jonathan Stock, “How the NSA Targets Germany and Europe,” Der Spiegel, July 1, 2013, www.spiegel.de/international/world/secret-documents-nsa-targeted-germany-and-eu-buildings-a-908609.html.

79.Simon Romero and Randal C. Archibold, “Brazil Angered over Report N.S.A. Spied on President,” New York Times, September 3, 2013; Alissa J. Rubin, “French Condemn Surveillance by N.S.A.,” New York Times, October 22, 2013; Alison Smale, “Anger Growing among Allies on U.S. Spying,” New York Times, October 24, 2013; Alison Smale, “Indignation over U.S. Spying Spreads in Europe,” New York Times, October 25, 2013; Alison Smale, Melissa Eddy, and David E. Sanger, “Data Suggest Push to Spy on Merkel Dates to ’02,” New York Times, October 28, 2013; David E. Sanger, “In Spy Uproar, ‘Everyone Does It’ Just Won’t Do,” New York Times, October 26, 2013; Mark Mazzetti and David E. Sanger, “Tap on Merkel Provides Peek at Vast Spy Net,” New York Times, October 31, 2013; Joe Cochrane, “N.S.A. Spying Scandal Hurts Close Ties between Australia and Indonesia,” New York Times, November 20, 2013; Ian Austen, “Ire in Canada over Report N.S.A. Spied from Ottawa,” New York Times, November 29, 2013.

80.Peter Allen, “Obama in Crisis Call with French President after WikiLeaks Documents Reveal NSA Spied on Him and Two of His Predecessors,” Daily Mail, June 23, 2015, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3136659/New-WikiLeaks-documents-reveal-NSA-eavesdropping-THREE-French-presidents.html; Reuters, “NSA Tapped German Chancellery for Decades, WikiLeaks Claims,” Guardian, July 8, 2015, www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jul/08/nsa-tapped-german-chancellery-decades-wikileaks-claims-merkel.

81.James Ball and Nick Hopkins, “GCHQ and NSA Targeted Charities, Germans, Israeli PM and EU Chief,” Guardian, December 20, 2013, www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2013/dec/20/gchq-targeted-aid-agencies-german-government-eu-commissioner; James Glanz and Andrew W. Lehren, “U.S. and Britain Extended Spying to 1,000 Targets,” New York Times, December 21, 2013.

82.Steven Erlanger, “Outrage in Europe Grows over Spying Disclosure,” New York Times, July 2, 2013.

83.James Bamford, The Shadow Factory: The Ultra-Secret NSA from 9/11 to the Eavesdropping on America (New York: Doubleday, 2008), 141–42.

84.Glenn Greenwald, No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State (New York: Henry Holt, 2014), 142–43.

85.Glenn Greenwald, Ryan Gallagher, and Ryan Grim, “Top-Secret Document Reveals NSA Spied on Porn Habits as Part of Plan to Discredit ‘Radicalizers,’” Huffington Post, November 26, 2013, www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/26/nsa-porn-muslims_n_4346128.html.

86.Edward Snowden, “An Open Letter to the People of Brazil,” Folha de S. Paulo, December 16, 2013, www1.folha.uol.com.br/internacional/en/world/2013/12/1386296-an-open-letter-to-the-people-of-brazil.shtml.

87.Bamford, “Every Move You Make.”

88.David Rosen, “Is Success Killing the Porn Industry,” Alternet, May 27, 2013, www.alternet.org/sex-amp-relationships/success-killing-porn-industry.

89.“Press Releases,” TopTenReviews, March 12, 2007, available at “Pornography Statistics,” Family Safe Media, www.familysafemedia.com/pornography_statistics.html.

90.Danny Hakim and William K. Rashbaum, “Spitzer Is Linked to Prostitution Ring,” New York Times, March 10, 2008; Nico Pitney, “Spitzer as Client 9: Read Text Messages from Spitzer to Prostitute,” Huffington Post, March 28, 2008, www.huffingtonpost.com/2008/03/10/spitzer-as-client-9-read-_n_90787.html.

91.Angelique Chrisafis, “French Budget Minister Accused of Hiding Swiss Bank Account,” Guardian, December 27, 2012, www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/27/french-budget-minister-swiss-account; Angelique Chrisafis, “France’s Former Budget Minister Admits Lying about Secret Offshore Account,” Guardian, April 2, 2013, www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/02/jerome-cahuzac-france-offshore-account?INTCMP=SRCH.

92.Alison Smale, “Surveillance Revelations Shake U.S.-German Ties,” New York Times, August 26, 2013; David E. Sanger and Mark Mazzetti, “Allegation of U.S. Spying on German Leader Puts Obama at Crossroads,” New York Times, October 25, 2013; Smale, “Anger Growing among Allies.”

93.Erlanger, “Outrage in Europe Grows”; Rubin, “French Condemn Surveillance.”

94.Martin Shultz, “Arrival and Doorstep by Martin Schulz, President of the European Parliament, Prior to the European Council Taking Place on 24 October 2013 in Brussels,” clip and transcript, TV Newsroom—European Council of the EU, http://tvnewsroom.consilium.europa.eu/video/shotlist/arrival-and-doorstep-ep-president-schulz4.

95.Simon Romero, “Brazil’s Leader Postpones State Visit to Washington over Spying,” New York Times, September 17, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/09/18/world/americas/brazils-leader-postpones-state-visit-to-us.html; “Brazil Will Have Its Own National-Made Secure Communications Satellite by 2016,” MercoPress, November 29, 2013, http://en.mercopress.com/2013/11/29/brazil-will-have-its-own-national-made-secure-communications-satellite-by-2016.

96.Jonathan A. Obar and Andrew Clement, “Internet Surveillance and Boomerang Routing: A Call for Canadian Sovereignty,” TEM 2013: Proceedings of the Technology & Emerging Media Track – Annual Conference of the Canadian Communication Association, Victoria, June 5–7, 2012, 1–8.

97.Julian E. Barnes and Nathan Hodge, “Military Faces Historic Shift,” Wall Street Journal, January 6, 2012; US Department of Defense, Sustaining U.S. Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense (Washington, DC: US Department of Defense, January 2012), 2–5, www.defense.gov/news/Defense_Strategic_Guidance.pdf.

98.Thom Shanker and David E. Sanger, “Privacy May Be a Victim in Cyberdefense Plan,” New York Times, June 12, 2009.

99.Armed Forces News Service, “Gates Established US Cyber Command, Names First Commander,” US Air Force, May 21, 2010, www.stratcom.mil/news/2010/161/Gates_establishes_US_Cyber_Command_and_names_first_commander/; David Alexander, “Pentagon to Treat Cyberspace as ‘Operational Domain,’” Reuters, July 14, 2011, www.reuters.com/article/2011/07/14/us-usa-defense-cybersecurity-idUSTRE76D5FA20110714.

100.Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, “U.S. Weighed Use of Cyberattacks to Weaken Libya,” New York Times, October 18, 2011; David E. Sanger, “Obama Order Sped Up Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran,” New York Times, June 1, 2012; Joel Brenner, America the Vulnerable: Inside the New Threat Matrix of Digital Espionage, Crime, and Warfare (New York: Penguin Press, 2011), 102–5; Ian Traynor, “Russia Accused of Unleashing Cyberwar to Disable Estonia,” Guardian, May 16, 2007, www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/may/17/topstories3.russia; Lolita C. Baldor, “Pentagon Takes Aim at China Cyber Threat,” Associated Press, August 19, 2010, http://archive.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2010/08/19/pentagon_takes_aim_at_china_cyber_threat/; Lolita C. Baldor, “U.S., China to Cooperate More on Cyber Threat,” Associated Press, May 7, 2012, http://cnsnews.com/news/article/us-china-cooperate-more-cyber-threat.

101.Shane, “New Leaked Document Outlines U.S. Spending on Intelligence Agencies.”

102.Mattea Kramer and Chris Hellman, “‘Homeland Security’: The Trillion-Dollar Concept That No One Can Define,” TomDispatch, February 28, 2013, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/175655/.

103.David E. Sanger, “Obama Panel Said to Urge N.S.A. Curbs,” New York Times, December 13, 2013.

104.Bamford, “Every Move You Make.”

105.Ibid.

106.MacAskill and Borger, “New NSA Leaks”; Poitras et al., “How the NSA Targets Germany and Europe”; James Bamford, “The NSA Is Building the Country’s Biggest Spy Center (Watch What You Say),” Wired, March 15, 2012, www.wired.com/2012/03/ff_nsadatacenter/.

107.Bamford, The Shadow Factory, 338–39; Wolfgang Gruener, “Cray’s New Supercomputer XC30 Delivers 66 TFlops/Cabinet,” Tom’s Hardware, November 12, 2012, www.tomshardware.com/news/cray-xc30-supercomputer,19014.html.

108.Bamford, “Every Move You Make.”

109.Ibid.; Charlie Savage, “N.S.A. Culled Fewer Phone Records in ’16: 151 Million,” New York Times, May 3, 2017; Charlie Savage, “Fight Brews Over Warrantless Surveillance,” New York Times, May 7, 2017

110.James Risen and Laura Poitras, “N.S.A. Report Outlined Goals for More Power,” New York Times, November 23, 2013.

111.Sam Perlo-Freeman, Elisabeth Sköns, Carina Solmirano, and Helen Wilandh, Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2012 (Stockholm: Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 2013), 2; Åsa Johansson et al., “Looking to 2060: Long-Term Global Growth Prospects: A Going for Growth Report,” in OECD Economic Policy Papers, No. 3 (Paris: OECD Publishing, 2012), Fig. 10, 23.

112.International Monetary Fund, “World Economic Outlook Database,” April 2011 edition, www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/index.aspx; Mark Weisbrot: “2016: When China Overtakes the US,” Guardian, April 27, 2011, www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/apr/27/china-imf-economy-2016; Michael Mandelbaum, The Frugal Superpower: America’s Global Leadership in a Cash-Strapped Era (New York: Public Affairs, 2010), 20, 46–52, 185.

113.Shane, “New Leaked Document Outlines U.S. Spending on Intelligence Agencies,” New York Times, August 30, 2013.

Chapter Five: Torture and the Eclipse of Empires

1.Ron Baer, See No Evil: The True Story of a Ground Soldier in the CIA’s War on Terrorism (New York: Three Rivers Press, 2002), 268–69.

2.The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004), 90–93.

3.Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion: Communication Research & Psychological Warfare, 1945–1960 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 9.

4.Central Intelligence Agency, “Proposed Study on Special Interrogation Methods,” February 14, 1952, CIA Behavior Control Experiments Collection (John Marks Donation), National Security Archive, Washington, DC [hereafter, NSA].

5.US Senate, 94th Congress, 2d Session, Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, book I (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1976), 387–88.

6.Woodburn Heron, “The Pathology of Boredom,” Scientific American 196 (January 1957): 52–56.

7.D. O. Hebb, “This Is How It Was,” Canadian Psychological Association, ca. 1980 (copy provided to author by Mary Ellen Hebb).

8.Lawrence E. Hinkle Jr., “A Consideration of the Circumstances under Which Men May Be Interrogated, and the Effects That These May Have upon the Function of the Brain” (n.d., ca. 1958), 1, 5, 6, 11–14, 18, File: Hinkle, Box 7, CIA Behavior Control Experiments Collection (John Marks Donation), NSA; Lawrence E. Hinkle Jr. and Harold G. Wolff, “Communist Interrogation and Indoctrination of ‘Enemies of the States’: Analysis of Methods Used by the Communist State Police (A Special Report),” Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 76 (1956): 115–74.

9.Joseph Margulies, Guantánamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006), 120–25; United Press, “Officers to Study ‘Brainwash’ Issue,” New York Times, August 23, 1954; United Press, “Red Tactics Spur Code for P.O.W.’s,” New York Times, August 14, 1955; Anthony Leviero, “New Code Orders P.O.W.s to Resist in ‘Brainwashing,’” New York Times, August, 18, 1955; Dwight D. Eisenhower, “Executive Order 10631—Code of Conduct for Members of the Armed Forces of the United States,” August 17, 1955, American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=59249.

10.“KUBARK Counterintelligence Interrogation” (July 1963), File: Kubark, Box 1: CIA Training Manuals, NSA, 87–90. The term KUBARK is an agency cryptonym denoting the CIA itself.

11.McCoy, A Question of Torture, chap. 3. To reach the figure of 46,776 Phoenix deaths, I took the total of 40,994 cited by Saigon authorities in 1971 and added 5,782 more, the difference between the US figure of 20,587 that William Colby gave in mid-1971 and the US figure of 26,369 released in 1972.

12.Central Intelligence Agency, Inspector General, “Special Review: Counterterrorism Detention and Interrogation Activities (September 2001–October 2003),” May 7, 2004, 10; Central Intelligence Agency, “Human Resources Exploitation Training Manual—1983,” Box 1, CIA Training Manuals, NSA.

13.Erik Holst, “International Efforts on the Rehabilitation of Torture Victims,” in June C. Pagaduan Lopez and Elizabeth Protacio Marcelino, eds., Torture Survivors and Caregivers: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Therapy and Research Issues (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 1995), 8–14, 190–91, 291–316, 356–57.

14.US Senate, 100th Congress, 2d Session, Treaty Doc. 100-20, Message from the President of the United States Transmitting the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1988), iii–iv; Ahcene Boulesbaa, The U.N. Convention on Torture and the Prospects for Enforcement (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1999), 19.

15.United Nations Treaty Collection, Convention Against Torture, Status as at: 18-11-2016, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-9&chapter=4&clang=_en.

16.Congressional Record, Proceedings and Debates of the 103d Congress, Second Session, vol. 140—Part I (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1994), February 2, 1994, 827; Foreign Relations Authorization Act, PL 103–236, Title V, Sec. 506, 108 Stat. 463 (1994), 18 USC§ 2340-2340A.

17.Richard A. Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Free Press, 2004), 24.

18.Robert G. Kaiser, “Congress-s-s: That Giant Hissing Sound You Hear in Capitol Hill Giving Up Its Clout,” Washington Post, March 14, 2004.

19.John Yoo, “How the Presidency Regained Its Balance,” New York Times, September 17, 2006.

20.US Senate Committee on Armed Services, 110th Congress, 2d Session, Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 2008), xiii, www.democrats.com/senate-armed-services-committee-report-on-torture; George W. Bush, The White House, Washington, For: The Vice President, “Subject: Humane Treatment of Taliban and al Qaeda Detainees,” February 7, 2002, www.pegc.us/archive/White_House/bush_memo_20020207_ed.pdf.

21.Alfred W. McCoy, Torture and Impunity: The U.S. Doctrine of Coercive Interrogation (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012), 28–31.

22.Jane Mayer, “The Black Sites: A Rare Look Inside the CIA’s Secret Interrogation Program,” New Yorker, August 13, 2007, www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/08/13/070813fa_fact_mayer; US Senate, Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody, xiii.

23.Stephen Grey, Ghost Plane: The True Story of the CIA Torture Program (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2006), 87, 181, 227, 269–308; Scott Shane, “C.I.A. Expanding Terror Battle under Guise of Charter Flights,” New York Times, May 31, 2005.

24.Douglas Jehl, “Report Warned C.I.A. on Tactics in Interrogation,” New York Times, November 9, 2005.

25.Jay Bybee, Office of the Assistant Attorney General, “Memorandum for Alberto R. Gonzales, Counsel to the President, Re: Standards of Conduct for Interrogation under 18 U.S.C. §§ 2340-2340A,” August 1, 2002, 1, www.justice.gov/olc/file/886061/download; U.S. Senate, Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody, xv–xvi, xxi.

26.Jay Bybee, Office of the Assistant Attorney General, “Memorandum for John Rizzo, Acting General Counsel of the Central Intelligence Agency,” August 1, 2002, 5–6, 11, 17, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/pdf/OfficeofLegalCounsel_Aug2Memo_041609.pdf.

27.Steven G. Bradbury, Office of Legal Counsel, “Memorandum for John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy General Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, Re: Application of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2340-2340A to the Combined Use of Certain Techniques in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees,” May 10, 2005, 60, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/pdf/OfficeofLegalCounsel_May10Memo.pdf.

28.Steven G. Bradbury, Office of the Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General, Office of Legal Counsel, “Memorandum for John A. Rizzo Senior Deputy Counsel, Central Intelligence Agency, Re: Application of United States Obligations Under Article 16 of the Convention Against Torture to Certain Techniques That May Be Used in the Interrogation of High Value al Qaeda Detainees,” May 30, 2005, 38, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/torture_archive/docs/Bradbury%20memo.pdf.

29.Mark Mazzetti, “U.S. Says C.I.A. Destroyed 92 Tapes of Interrogations,” New York Times, March 3, 2009.

30.Bradbury, “Memorandum for John A. Rizzo,” May 10, 2005, 53–56.

31.Bradbury, “Memorandum for John A. Rizzo,” May 30, 2005, 37.

32.Jan Crawford Greenburg, Howard L. Rosenberg, and Ariane De Vogue, “Sources: Top Bush Advisors Approved ‘Enhanced Interrogation,’” ABC News, April 9, 2008, www.abcnews.go.com/TheLaw/LawPolitics/story?id=4583256; CIA, “Special Review,” 5, 24, 45, 101.

33.US Senate, Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees in U.S. Custody, xix; William J. Haynes II, General Counsel, Department of Defense, For: Secretary of Defense, “Subject: Counter-Resistance Techniques,” November 27, 2002, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/nation/documents/dodmemos.pdf; Mark Mazzetti and Scott Shane, “Notes Show Confusion on Interrogation Methods,” New York Times, June 18, 2008.

34.US Senate, Inquiry into the Treatment of Detainees, xix; Hayes, For: Secretary of Defense, November 27, 2002; Mazzetti and Shane, “Notes Show Confusion.”

35.M. Gregg Bloche and Jonathan H. Marks, “Doctors and Interrogators at Guantanamo Bay,” New England Journal of Medicine 353, no. 1 (July 7, 2005): 7; Jonathan H. Marks, “The Silence of the Doctors,” Nation, December 8, 2005, www.thenation.com/article/silence-doctors/.

36.Neil A. Lewis, “Red Cross Finds Detainee Abuse in Guantánamo,” New York Times, November 30, 2004.

37.Ricardo S. Sanchez, “Memorandum for: C2, Combined Joint Task Force Seven, Baghdad, Iraq 09335, Subject: CJTF-7 Interrogation and Counter-Resistance Policy,” Truthout, September 14, 2003, http://truth-out.org/archive/component/k2/item/53410:gen-ricardo-sanchez-orders-torture-in-iraq-his-memo.

38.Eric Schmitt and Carolyn Marshall, “In Secret Unit’s ‘Black Room,’ a Grim Portrait of U.S. Abuse,” New York Times, March 19, 2006.

39.Phil Klay, “What We’re Fighting For,” New York Times, February 12, 2017; US State Department, Canonical ID: 06KUWAIT913_a, From: Kuwait City, Kuwait, “Regional CT Strategy for Iraq and Its Neighbors: Results and Recommendations from March 7–8 COM Meeting,” March 18, 2006, WikiLeaks, Public Library of US Diplomacy, wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/06KUWAIT913_a.html.

40.Terrence McCoy, “How the Islamic State Evolved in an American Prison,” Washington Post, November 4, 2014, www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2014/11/04/how-an-american-prison-helped-ignite-the-islamic-state/.

41.Martin Chulov, “ISIS: The Inside Story,” Guardian, December 11, 2014, www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/11/-sp-isis-the-inside-story.

42.Public Law 109-366, Oct. 17, 2006, Military Commissions Act of 2006, § 950v (12) (B) (i) (IV).

43.US House of Representatives, 105th Congress, 1st Session, Report 105-204, Expanded War Crimes Act of 1997: Report Together with Dissenting Views, July 25, 1997, 2–3.

44.Antonio Taguba, preface to Farnoosh Hāshemian, Broken Laws, Broken Lives: Medical Evidence of Torture by U.S. Personnel and Its Impact (Cambridge, MA: Physicians for Human Rights, June 2008), viii.

45.Scott Wilson, “Obama Reverses Pledge to Release Photos of Detainee Abuse,” Washington Post, May 14, 2009, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/13/AR2009051301751.html.

46.Greg Miller, “Cheney Assertions of Lives Saved Hard to Support,” Los Angeles Times, May 23, 2009, http://articles.latimes.com/2009/may/23/nation/na-cheney23.

47.“Statement of President Barack Obama on Release of OLC Memos,” The White House, Press Office, April 16, 2009, www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Statement-of-President-Barack-Obama-on-Release-of-OLC-Memos/.

48.Peter Baker and Scott Shane, “Pressure Grows to Investigate Interrogations,” New York Times, April 21, 2009; Editorial, “How the Obama Administration Should Deal with Torture’s Legacy,” Washington Post, April 24, 2009, www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2009/04/23/AR2009042303476.html.

49.McCoy, Torture and Impunity, 255–56.

50.Jose A. Rodriguez Jr., Hard Measures: How Aggressive CIA Actions after 9/11 Saved American Lives (New York: Threshold Editions, 2012).

51.US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program: Executive Summary (Washington, DC: US Senate, December 3, 2014).

52.Ibid., 49–57.

53.Mark Mazzetti and Matt Apuzzo, “C.I.A. Director Rebuts Report, Calling Interrogators ‘Patriots,’” New York Times, December 12, 2014.

54.Sheri Fink, James Risen, and Charlie Savage, “New Details of C.I.A. Torture, and a New Clash,” New York Times, January 20, 2017; US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program: Findings and Conclusions (Washington, DC: US Senate, December 3, 2014), 11.

55.Ibid., 3–5, 9–11; US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program: Executive Summary, 17–48, 204–9, 405–8.

56.Rebecca Gordon, “The Al-Qaeda Leader Who Wasn’t: The Shameful Ordeal of Abu Zubaydah,” TomDispatch, April 24, 2016, www.tomdispatch.com/blog/176132/; US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Committee Study of the Central Intelligence Agency’s Detention and Interrogation Program: Executive Summary, 21.

57.Dick Cheney, In My Time: A Personal and Political Memoir (New York: Threshold Editions, 2011), 357–59.

58.Ali H. Soufan, The Black Banners: The Inside Story of 9/11 and the War against al-Qaeda (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 547; McCoy, Torture and Impunity, 256–59.

59.US Senate, Committee on the Judiciary, 111th Congress, 1st Session, What Went Wrong: Torture and the Office of Legal Counsel in the Bush Administration, Testimony of Ali Soufan, May 13, 2009, www.judiciary.senate.gov/meetings/what-went-wrong-torture-and-the-office-of-legal-counsel-in-the-bush-administration; Soufan, The Black Banners, 377, 395–96.

60.Hinkle and Wolff, “Communist Interrogation and Indoctrination,’” 115–74.

61.Jason Leopold and Ky Henderson, “Tequila, Painted Pearls, and Prada—How the CIA Helped Produce ‘Zero Dark Thirty,’” Vice News, September 9, 2015, https://news.vice.com/article/tequila-painted-pearls-and-prada-how-the-cia-helped-produce-zero-dark-thirty.

62.PBS, “Secrets, Politics, Torture,” Frontline, May 19, 2015, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/secrets-politics-and-torture/.

63.Jane Mayer, “The Unidentified Queen of Torture,” New Yorker, December 18, 2014, www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/unidentified-queen-torture.

64.Glenn Greenwald and Peter Maas, “Meet Alfreda Bikowsky, the Senior Officer at the Center of the CIA’s Torture Scandals,” Intercept, December 19, 2014, https://theintercept.com/2014/12/19/senior-cia-officer-center-torture-scandals-alfreda-bikowsky/; Center for Legitimate Government, “CIA Torture Queen Bought $825K House While Torturing Her Way to the Top,” CLG Newsletter, December 20, 2014, www.legitgov.org/CLG-Exclusive-CIA-Torture-Queen-Bought-825K-House-While-Torturing-Her-Way-Top.

65.Jenna Johnson, “Trump Says ‘Torture Works,’ Backs Waterboarding and ‘Much Worse,’” Washington Post, February 17, 2016, www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-says-torture-works-backs-waterboarding-and-much-worse/2016/02/17/4c9277be-d59c-11e5-b195-2e29a4e13425_story.html.

66.Matt Apuzzo and James Risen, “Donald Trump Faces Obstacles to Resuming Waterboarding,” New York Times, November 29, 2016; Ryan Browne and Nicole Gaouette, “Donald Trump Reverses Position on Torture, Killing Terrorists’ Families,” CNN, March 4, 2006, www.cnn.com/2016/03/04/politics/donald-trump-reverses-on-torture/index.html.

67.Steve Benen, “Trump Sees Geneva Conventions as ‘Out of Date,’” MSNBC: The Rachel Maddow Show/The Maddow Blog, July 27, 2016, www.msnbc.com/rachel-maddow-show/trump-sees-geneva-conventions-out-date.

68.Editorial, “Torture and Its Psychological Aftermath,” New York Times, October 21, 2016.

69.Julie Hirschfeld Davis, “Trump Selects Loyalists on Right Flank to Fill National Security Posts,” New York Times, November 19, 2016; Julie Pace and Jonathan Lemire, Associated Press, “Trump Makes AG, CIA Picks,” Wisconsin State Journal, November 19, 2016; Curis Tate, McClatchey News, “Feinstein: Pompeo ‘Absolutely Wrong’ about Her Report on CIA Interrogation Program,” The State, November 18, 2016, www.thestate.com/news/politics-government/article115734493.html#2; Lindsay Wise and Bryan Lowry, McClatchey News, “CIA Nominee Mike Pompeo on Torture, Muslims, Terror, Iran, NSA Spying,” Wichita Eagle, November 18, 2016, www.kansas.com/news/politics-government/article115646238.html.

70.Apuzzo and Risen, “Donald Trump Faces Obstacles”; Charlie Savage, “Trump Poised to Lift Ban on C.I.A. ‘Black Site’ Prisons,” New York Times, January 25, 2017; Mark Mazzetti and Charlie Savage, “Leaked Order Could Revive C.I.A. Prisons,” New York Times, January 26, 2017; “Transcript: ABC News Anchor David Muir Interviews President Trump,” ABC News, January 25, 2017, www.abcnews.go.com/Politics/transcript-abc-news-anchor-david-muir-interviews-president/story?id=45047602; M. Gregg Bloche, “When Doctors First Do Harm,” New York Times, November 23, 2016; “Donald Trump’s New York Times Interview: Full Transcript,” New York Times, November 23, 2016, www.nytimes.com/2016/11/23/us/politics/trump-new-york-times-interview-transcript.html.

71.Office of the Prosecutor, International Criminal Court, Report on Preliminary Examination Activities 2016, November 14, 2016, para. 211, p. 47, www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/otp/161114-otp-rep-PE_ENG.pdf.

72.Marnia Lazreg, Torture and the Twilight of Empire: From Algiers to Baghdad (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008), 3, 255–56.

73.George J. Andreopoulos, “The Age of National Liberation Movements,” in Michael Howard, George J. Andreopoulos, and Mark R. Shulman, eds., The Laws of War: Constraints on Warfare in the Western World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 205–6; T. Lightcap and J. Pfiffer, eds., Examining Torture: Empirical Studies of State Repression (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), chap. 1.

74.Edward Peters, Torture (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 139; Adam Shatz, “The Torture of Algiers,” New York Review of Books, November 21, 2002, 53–57.

75.Peters, Torture, 138–40; Shatz, “Torture of Algiers,” 53–57; Henri Alleg, The Question (New York: G. Braziller, 1958), 54–67; Interview with Saadi Yacef, in “The Battle of Algiers: Remembering History,” The Battle of Algiers, directed by Gillo Pontecorvo, 1966 (Criterion Collection, DVD, 2004); Paul Aussaresses, The Battle of the Casbah: Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in Algeria, 1955–1957 (New York: Enigma, 2002), 120–21, 126–27, 162–63.

76.“Sir Alistair Horne interview,” in The Battle of Algiers.

77.Alleg, The Question, 61; “Henri Alleg interview,” in The Battle of Algiers; Shatz, “Torture of Algiers,” 57.

78.Peters, Torture, 138–40; “Benjamin Stora interview,” in The Battle of Algiers.

79.Lord Parker of Waddington, Report of the Committee of Privy Counsellors Appointed to Consider Authorised Procedures for the Interrogation of Persons Suspected of Terrorism (London: Stationery Office, Cmnd. 4901, 1972), 3, 12, 17; S. Smith and W. Lewty, “Perceptual Isolation in a Silent Room,” Lancet 1959, 2 (September 12, 1959), 342–45; James Meek, “Nobody Is Talking,” Guardian, February 18, 2005, www.theguardian.com/world/2005/feb/18/usa.afghanistan; “Lancaster Moor Hospital,” www.asylumprojects.org/index.php?title=Lancaster_Moor_Hospital,

80.Sir Edmund Compton, Report of the Enquiry into Allegations against the Security Forces of Physical Brutality in Northern Ireland Arising Out of Events on the 9th August, 1971 (London: Stationery Office, Cmnd. 4823, November 1971), para. 46; Parker of Waddington, Report of the Committee of Privy Counsellors, 1–3, 23–24; Piers Brendon, The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997 (New York: Vintage, 2010), 563–74.

81.Parker of Waddington, Report of the Committee of Privy Counsellors, 1, 12; Roderic Bowen, Report by Mr. Roderic Bowen, Q.C. on Procedures for the Arrest, Interrogation and Detention of Terrorists in Aden (London: Stationery Office, Cmnd 3165, December 1966), 3–7, 16–24.

82.“Ireland v. The United Kingdom,” No. 5310/17, European Court of Human Rights, January 18, 1978, para. 32, 34, 39, 81, 96–97, www.worldlii.org/eu/cases/ECHR/1978/1.html.

83.Ibid., para. 96.

84.Compton, Report of the Enquiry into Allegations, para. 1; Times (London), October 17, October 19, October 20, 1971.

85.Compton, Report of the Enquiry into Allegations, para. 46–52, 64, 92, 98; Times (London), November 17 and November 18, 1971, July 9, 1973.

86.Times (London), November 9, November 11, March 13, 1972; Report of an Enquiry into Allegations of Ill-treatment in Northern Ireland (London: Amnesty International, March 1972), 36–38.

87.Times (London), May 14, August 27, September 3, 1976; “Ireland v. The United Kingdom,” para. 102, 147, 166–67, 246; Meek, “Nobody Is Talking.”