ENDNOTES

1 Here I paraphrase from Adam Curtis’s brilliant BBC documentary, The Trap (2007).

2 Carlat, D. Unhinged: the trouble with psychiatry. London: Free Press, 2010 (p. 52).

3 See: Cooper, J. E. et al. Psychiatric Diagnosis in New York and London. Maudsley Monograph, no 20. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972.

Also see: International Pilot Study of Schizophrenia. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1973.

4 Such was the problem at that time that each psychiatrist had his own personal system of classification. see: Kendell, R. E. The Role of Diagnosis in Psychiatry. Oxford: Blackwell, 1975.

5 I was often told that poor diagnostic reliability was not the only driver for the DSM’s reform. There was also a need to match DSM terminology to that used in the ICD. However, Robert Spitzer, Melvin Sabshin, and other leaders in the APA knew that the reliability issue was paramount and that the DSM must make that issue its priority.

6 Caplan, Paula J. (1995) They Say You’re Crazy. New York: Da Capo (p. 53).

7 Quoted in Carlat, D. (2010) Unhinged: the trouble with psychiatry.

8 Quoted in Kirk, S. A., and Kutchins, H. “The Myth of the Reliability of DSM,” Journal of Mind and Behavior, (1994) 15(1&2): 71–86.

9 Spiegel, A. “The Dictionary of Disorder: how one man revolutionized psychiatry,” The New Yorker, January 3, 2005.

10 Aboraya, A. “Clinicians’ Opinions on the Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnoses in Clinical Settings,” Psychiatry, (2007) 4 (11): 31–33.

11 The psychologist Paula J. Caplan argues that one study showed when different psychiatrists were diagnosing patients from the Axis II group of disorders (basically the personality and developmental disorders), their diagnoses were the same only about two-thirds of the time (66 percent), whereas for the remaining disorders they were only the same about half the time (54 percent). see: Caplan, They Say You’re Crazy, (pp. 197–20).

12 Aboraya, A. et al. “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited.” Psychiatry, (2006) 3(1): 41–50.

Also, for a summary of diagnostic reliability research undertaken in the 1980s and 1990s, please see: Caplan, They Say You’re Crazy, pp. 197–20.

13 Aboraya, A. et al. “The Reliability of Psychiatric Diagnosis Revisited,” 41–50.

14 See: Andrews, G., Slade, T., & Peters, L. “Classification in Psychiatry: ICD-10 versus DSM-IV.” British Journal of Psychiatry, (1999) 175: 3–5.

15 NICE prefers DSM-IV because the evidence base for treatments refers, to a larger extent, to DSM criteria. See: http://www.cks.nhs.uk/depression/management/scenario_detection_assessment_diagnosis/assessment_and_diagnosis/basis_for_recommendation.

16 Andrews, G., Slade, T., & Peters, L. “Classification in Psychiatry,” 3–5.

17 Caplan, They Say You’re Crazy, pp. 205–6.

18 Kutchins, H., & Kirk, S. A. Making Us Crazy. New York: Free Press, 1997.

19 Ibid.

20 Quoted in: Angell, M. “Drug Companies & Doctors: A Story of Corruption,” The New York Review of Books, January 15, 2009.

21 Spiegel, “The Dictionary of Disorder: how one man revolutionized psychiatry.”

22 Lane, C. Shyness: how normal behaviour became a sickness. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009, 44.

23 Spiegel, “The Dictionary of Disorder: how one man revolutionized psychiatry.”

24 Andreasen, N. C. “DSM and the Death of Phenomenology in America: an example of unintended consequences.” Schizophrenia Bulletin, 33(1) (2007): 108–112.

25 Macaskill, N., Geddes, J., & Macaskill, A. “DSM-III in the Training of British Psychiatrists: a national survey.” International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 37(3) (1991):182–6.

26 Polanczyk, G. et al. “The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis.” The American Journal of Psychiatry, 164 (6) (2007): 942–8.

27 Waddell, C. “Child Psychiatric Epidemiology and Canadian Public Policy-Making: the state of the science and the art of the possible.” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 47 (9) (2002): 825–832. Also see: Merikangas, K. R. et al. “Prevalence and Treatment of Mental Disorders among US Children in the 2001–2004 NHANES.” Pediatrics, 125 (1) (2010): 75–81.

28 Kessler, R. C. “Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of twelve-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R).” Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6) (2005): 617–27.

29 Singleton, N., Bumpstead, R., O’Brien, M., Lee, A., and Meltzer, H. “Psychiatric Morbidity among adults living in private households,” The Office for National Statistics Psychiatric Morbidity report, London: TSO, 2001.

30 See chapter 12 on recent well-being rates in Britain.

31 For interview, see Adam Curtis’s BBC documentary The Century of the Self (2002).

32 This discussion is paraphrased from my book: The Importance of Suffering (Davies, 2012).

33 DSM-IV was published in 1994, while a slightly revised edition called DSM IV–TR, under the chairmanship of Frances, was issued in 2000.

34 Much higher standards were applied when it came to adding new diagnoses. Eight were added out of the more than one hundred proposed. Four others were reformulated. An additional thirty were included in an appendix for further study.

35 See the Lancet http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(12)60248-7/fulltext.

36 It was pointed out to me that, although it was right for Frances to indicate the danger of these new inclusions, he failed, however, to discuss how disorders in his DSM-IV, like Generalised Anxiety Disorder, similarly led to the pathologization of many ordinary responses—in this case, stress reactions.

37 See: http://www.ipetitions.com/petition/dsm5/

38 While I have been long aware of Kirsch’s research, I am grateful for an excellent piece on Kirsch by CBS News, entitled Treating Depression: is there a placebo effect—Their interviews with Walter Brown and Tim Kendall prompted me to interview them for this book.

39 I have gathered this biographical information from Wikipedia, which I have double-checked for its accuracy.

40 For original graph, see: Kirsch, 2009: 10.

41 Kirsch, I. The Emperor’s New Drugs: exploding the antidepressant myth. London: Bodley Head, 2009, 54.

42 Ibid., 62.

43 Kirsch, I. “Challenging Received Wisdom: Antidepressants and the Placebo Effect.” Mcgill Journal of Medicine, 11(2) (2008): 219–222.

44 Khan, A., Redding, N., and Brown, W. A. “The persistence of the placebo response in antidepressant clinical trials.” Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42 (10) (2008): 791–796.

45 But this is not all. For a trial to be considered “positive,” the difference between placebo and antidepressant does not have to be clinically significant (e.g., it can be just 1 or 2 points on the Hamilton Scale), which essentially means it can be small enough to make no real difference in people’s lives.

46 Mojtabai, R., and Olfson, M. “Proportion of Antidepressants Prescribed Without A Psychiatric Diagnosis Is Growing.” Health Affairs, 30:8,(2011): 1434–1442.

47 Blanchflower, D. G., and Oswald, A. J. Antidepressants and Age. IZA Discussion Paper No. 5785. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1872733 [accessed Sept. 2011].

48 Middleton, H., and Moncrieff, J. “They won’t do any harm and might do some good: time to think again on the use of antidepressants?” British Journal of General Practice, (1) (2011): 47–9.

49 PMDD was originally called “late luteal phase dysphoric disorder” (LLPDD). It was renamed PMDD by the American Psychiatric Association in its May 1993 revision of the DSM-IV.

50 Eli Lilly television broadcast advertisement (aired 2000). As part of its routine monitoring and surveillance program, the Division of Drug Marketing, Advertising, and Communications at the FDA reviewed this advertisement and concluded that it is misleading, lacking in fair balance, and therefore in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and its applicable regulations. Unfortunately, this advert was widely aired before the DDMAC requested its removal.

51 Nathan Greenslit makes this point. see: Greenslit, N. “Depression and Consumption.” Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 29 (2005): 477–501.

52 About this case, a colleague usefully pointed out: Since there is no scientific evidence that there actually is a premenstrual mental illness, if taking this drug helped her, then neither she nor her therapist would know why or be able to discuss why. Furthermore, by treating her based on the PMDD diagnosis when there is no evidence that PMDD even exists, the doctor was subjecting her to experimental treatment without her knowledge or consent.

53 Patent protections for most pharmaceutical products are not lifelong, but only last for around seven years.

54 Quoted in Greenslit, “Depression and Consumption,” 477–501.

55 Ibid.

56 Ibid.

57 Meyer, B. et al. “Treatment Expectancies, Patient Alliance, and Outcome: Further Analyses from the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(4) (2002): 1051–1055.

58 The meaning the healing environment has for the patient has been shown to increase the placebo effect to varying degrees. see: Moerman, D. E. Meaning, Medicine and the ‘Placebo Effect.’ Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

The presence of a doctor also increases expectancy, which in turn increases therapeutic outcome, especially if the doctor is warm and/or enthusiastic about the treatment. In one study, the response to a placebo increased from 44 percent to 62 percent when the doctor treated them with “warmth, attention, and confidence.” see: Kaptchuk, T.J. et al. “Components of Placebo Effect: randomized controlled trial in patients with irritable bowel syndrome.” British Medical Journal, 336 [7651] (2008): 999–1003.

My statement “up to 40 percent” is based on the likely outcome of adding doctor/patient expectancy to environmental expectancy. Admittedly, not all patients will experience 40 percent placebo improvement, but most will react positively to environments triggering expectations for recovery. For an extended analysis of expectancy, see: Kirsch, I. “Response Expectancy as a Determinant of Experience and Behavior.” American Psychologist, 40(11) (1985): 1189–1202.

59 Experiment cited in: Moerman, D. E., and Jonas, W. B. “Deconstructing the Placebo Effect and Finding the Meaning Response.” Annals of Internal Medicine, 136 (2002): 471–47.

60 Branthwaite, A., and Cooper, P. “Analgesic effects of branding in treatment of headaches.” British Medical Journal, 282 (1981): 1576–8.

61 Moerman, D. E., and Harrington, A. “Making space for the placebo effect in pain medicine.” Seminars in Pain Medicine, 3 (2005): 2–6.

62 Anton de Craen, J. M. et al. “Effect of Color of Drugs: systematic review of perceived effect of drugs and of their effectiveness.” British Medical Journal, 313 (1996): 21–28.

63 See: Adam Curtis’s BBC documentary The Century of the Self (2002).

64 Moncrieff, J. The Myth of the Chemical Cure: a critique of psychiatric drug treatment. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009, 14.

65 Recent research has shown that the most commonly reported drug-induced psychoactive effects of the antidepressants fluoxetine and venlafaxine were sedation, impaired cognition, reduced libido, emotional blunting, activation (feelings of arousal, insomnia and agitation) and emotional instability. see: Goldsmith, J., and Moncrieff, J. “The Psychoactive Effects of Antidepressants and their Association with Suicidality.” Current Drug Safety, 6 (2) (2011): 115–21.

Also see: Healy, D. Let Them Eat Prozac. New York: New York University Press, 2006, chapter 7.

66 Sobo’s article makes this point—that drugs don’t heal us but alter us. see: http://simonsobo.com/a-reevaluation-of-the-relationship-between-psychiatric-diagnosis-and-chemical-imbalances

67 Price, J., Cole, V., & Goodwin, G. M. “The Emotional Side-Effects of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors: qualitative study.” The British Journal of Psychiatry, 195 (2009): 211–217.

68 See: Sobo, S. “A Reevaluation of the Relationship between Psychiatric Diagnosis and Chemical Imbalance.” Website: http://simonsobo.com/a-reevaluation-of-the-relationship-between-psychiatric-diagnosis-and-chemical-imbalances

69 I am also grateful to David Davis’s article in the LA Times Magazine for filling in some factual gaps, some of which I paraphrase below. See: Davis, D. “Losing the Mind,” LA Times Magazine, October 26, 2003.

70 Quotations from MindFreedom website. See: http://www.mindfreedom.org/kb/act/2003/mf-hunger-strike/hunger-strike-debate/scientific-panel-1st-reply-to-apa

71 See: APA Statement on “Diagnosis and Treatment of Mental Disorders” Website: http://www.mindfreedom.org/kb/act/2003/mf-hunger-strike/hunger-strike-debate/apa-2nd-reply-to-mfi

72 Schildkraut, J. J. “The Catecholamine Hypothesis of Affective Disorders: a review of supporting evidence.” American Journal of Psychiatry, 122 (1965): 509–522.

73 Healy, D. The Antidepressant Era. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999.

74 Coppen, A. “The Biochemistry of Affective Disorders.” The British Journal of Psychiatry, 113 (1967): 1237–1264.

75 Monicreff, J. The Myth of the Chemical Cure: a critique of psychiatric drug treatment, 132.

76 Ruhé, H. S., Mason, N. S., and Schene, A. H. “Mood Is Indirectly Related to Serotonin, Norepinephrine and Dopamine Levels in Humans: a meta-analysis of monoamine depletion studies.” Molecular Psychiatry, 12 (2007): 331–359.

77 Booij, L., Van der Does, A.J., and Riedel, W. J. “Monoamine Depletion in Psychiatric and Healthy Populations: review.” Molecular Psychiatry, 8 (12) (2003): 951–73.

78 Carlat, D. Unhinged, 79–80.

79 Belmaker, R.H., Agam, G. et al. “Major Depressive Disorder.” New England Journal of Medicine, 358 (2008): 55–68.

80 Tsankova, N., Renthal, W., Kumar, A., and Nestler, E. J. “Epigenetic Regulation in Psychiatric Disorders.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, May 8(5) (2007): 355–67.

81 Kaffman, A., and Meaney, M. J. “Neurodevelopmental Sequelae of Postnatal Maternal Care in Rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights.” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(3–4) (2007): 224–44.

A really good journalistic account of this study can be found here: Zimmer, C. “The Brain: The Switches That Can Turn Mental Illness On and Off.” Discover Magazine, published online June 16, 2010.

82 McGowan, P. O. et al. “Epigenetic Regulation of the Glucocorticoid Receptor in Human Brain Associates with Childhood Abuse.” Nature Neuroscience, 12(3) (2009): 342–348.

83 Peedicayil, J. “The Role of Epigenetics on Mental Disorders.” Indian Journal of Medical Research, 126 (2007): 105–111.

Tsankova, T., Renthal, W., Kumar, A., and Nestler, E. J. Epigenetic Regulation in Psychiatric Disorders, 355–367.

84 Olopade, O.I. et al. “Advances in Breast Cancer: Pathways to Personalized Medicine.” Clinical Cancer Research, 14 (December 15, 2008): 7988–7999.

85 ASCO website: http://www.cancer.net/patient/All+About+Cancer/Genetics/Genetic+Testing [accessed May 2012].

86 See: Joseph, J., and Ratner, C. website: http://www.councilforresponsiblegenetics.org/pageDocuments/1NX6VC0254.pdf

87 Caspi, A. et al. “Influence of Life Stress on Depression: Moderation by a Polymorphism in the 5-HTT.” Gene Science, 301 (5631) (2003): 386–389.

88 Quoted in: Carlat, D. Unhinged: The Trouble with Psychiatry—a doctor’s revelations about a profession in crisis, 80.

89 World Health Organization, Mental Health and Substance Abuse, Facts and Figures Conquering Depression. (accessed online Aug. 2010) website: http://www.searo.who.int/en/Section1174/Section1199/Section1567/Section1826_8101.htm

90 What follows is a summary of that story, aspects of which I paraphrase. I have also chosen to use Sue Reid’s quotations acquired through her interviews. I have done this because I was reluctant to interview Harry’s family myself. Interviews ask people to revisit episodes a family may prefer to no longer publically discuss. As in this case Reid’s quotations are more than adequate for my purposes, it seemed unnecessary to approach the family directly.

91 Reid, S. “Child Victims of the Chemical Cosh,” Daily Mail, (updated June 2011).

92 See: http://www.metro.co.uk/news/859706-mick-hucknalls-cousin-harry-was-a-victim-of-prescribed-drugs

93 Healy, D., and Whitaker, C. “Antidepressants and suicide: risk–benefit conundrums.” Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 28(5) (2003): 331–337.

94 See: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cumbria-17348819

95 Khan, A., Warner, H. A., and Brown, W. A. “Symptom Reduction and Suicide Risk in Patients Treated with Placebo in Antidepressant Clinical Trials: an analysis of the Food and Drug Administration database.” Archives of General Psychiatry, 57 (2000): 311–317. Kirsch, I. (2009) The Emperor’s New Drugs. Khan, A., Redding, N., & Brown, W. A. (2008). The Persistence of the Placebo Response in Antidepressant Clinical Trials. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 791–796.

96 I quote the following examples in my recent article for Therapy Today, from which I paraphrase. see: Davies, J. “The Deceptions of the Pharmaceutical Industry.” Therapy Today, 23 (8) (2012).

97 Kondro, W., and Sibbald, B. “Drug company experts advised to withhold data about SSRI use in children.” Canadian Medical Association Journal, 170 (2004): 783.

98 Reported in: http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/26/business/26drug.html?_r=2&ref=business

99 Eyding, D. et al. “Reboxetine for Acute Treatment of Major Depression: systematic review and meta-analysis of published and unpublished placebo and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor controlled trials.” British Medical Journal, 341 (2010): 4737.

100 Turner, E. H. et al. “Selective Publication of Antidepressant Trials and Its Influence on Apparent Efficacy.” The New England Journal of Medicine, January 17, 2008: 252–60.

101 Ibid.

102 Spielmans, G. I., and Parry, P. I. “From Evidence-based Medicine to Marketing-based Medicine: evidence from internal industry documents,” 13–29.

103 See: House of Commons Health Committee Report (2004–5) The Influence of the Pharmaceutical Industry. Website: http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmhealth/42/42.pdf [accessed December 2011]

104 Quoted in: Spielmans, G. I., and Parry, P. I. “From Evidence-based Medicine to Marketing-based Medicine: evidence from internal industry documents,” Bioethical Inquiry, 7 (2010): 13–29.

105 Smith, R. “Medical Journals Are an Extension of the Marketing Arm of Pharmaceutical Companies.” PLoS Med 2(5) (2005): e138.

106 Ibid.

107 Quoted in: Spielmans, G. I., and Parry, P. I. “From Evidence-based Medicine to Marketing-based Medicine: evidence from internal industry documents,” 13–29.

108 Paula Caplan argues in her article “The Pills That Make Us Fat” (New Scientist) that it is not the weight gain that necessarily causes the diabetes, although in some cases it may, but that taking the pills can directly cause diabetes even in patients who do not gain weight, which is even scarier.

109 Quoted in: Spielmans, G. I., and Parry, P. I. “From Evidence-based Medicine to Marketing-based Medicine: evidence from internal industry documents,” 13–29.

110 Goldacre, B. “Drug Firms Hiding Negative Data are Unfit to Experiment on People,” The Guardian, August 14, 2008. Website: http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/aug/14/drug-companies-bury-negative-research [accessed Dec. 2011]

111 The authors did, however, declare that while their study only focused on one drug for depression, it did not therefore support general statements that pooled analyses containing redundant data are widely spread. It was clear that in this instance, however, as the authors said, “salami-slicing appeared to have taken place with substantial frequency via pooled analyses.”

112 Spielmans, G. I., Biehn, T. l., and Sawrey, D. L. “A Case Study of Salami Slicing: pooled analyses of duloxetine for depression.” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 79 (2010): 97–106.

113 See: Fournier, J. C. et al. “Antidepressant Drug Effects and Depression Severity: a patient-level meta-analysis.” The Journal of the American Medical Association, 303(1) (2010): 47–53.

Please also see: Jackson, G. Rethinking Psychiatric Drugs. London: AuthorHouse, 2005.

114 Lexchin, J., Bero, L. A., Djulbegovic, B., and Clark, O. “Pharmaceutical Industry sponsorship and research outcome and quality.” British Medical Journal, 326 (2003): 1167–1170.

115 Smith, R. “Medical Journals Are an Extension of the Marketing Arm of Pharmaceutical Companies,” e138.

116 Angell, M. “Industry-Sponsored Clinical Research: A Broken System.” The Journal of the American Medical Association, 300 (9) (2008): 1069–71.

117 Campbell, E. G. et al. “Institutional Academic-Industry Relationships.” The Journal of the American Medical Association, 298(15) (2007): 1779–178.

118 See: House of Commons Health Committee Report, The Influence of the Pharmaceutical Industry, 2004–5. Website: http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmhealth/42/42.pdf.

119 The money they received was for research (42 percent), for consultancies (22 percent), and for talks and presentations (16 percent). See: Cosgrove, L., Krimsky, S., Vijayaraghavan, M., and Schneider, L. “Financial Ties between DSM-IV Panel Members and the Pharmaceutical Industry.” Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 75 (2006): 154–160.

120 See: DSM-5 website: http://www.dsm5.org/MeetUs/Pages/TaskForceMembers.aspx

121 Please see Carlat’s account in: Carlat, D. Unhinged, 135.

122 For full breakdown and coverage of all these exposures, see Senator Grassley’s government website: http://www.grassley.senate.gov/about/Disclosure-of-Drug-Company-Payments-to-Doctors.cfm

123 Healy refers to Lilly’s involvement in pulling funding from the Hastings Centre Reports following an article that picked up on issues regarding Prozac. See: http://www.pharmapolitics.com/goldbloom.html

124 See: http://www.pharmapolitics.com/birgenau.html

125 Timimi, S. “Child Psychiatry and its Relationship with the Pharmaceutical Industry: theoretical and practical issues.” Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 14 (2008): 3–9.

126 Harris, G., Carey, B., and Roberts, J. “Psychiatrists, Children and Drug Industry’s Role,” New York Times: May 10, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/10/health/10psyche.html [accessed June 2011].

127 See: http://www.amsascorecard.org/

128 Such services include “speaking at and chairing meetings, involvement in medical/scientific studies, clinical trials or training services, participation at advisory board meetings, and participation in market research where such participation involves remuneration and/or travel.”

129 See: http://www.pmcpa.org.uk/files/sitecontent/ABPI_Code_2012.pdf

130 A similar response was given by UCL when I asked: “Please provide all figures regarding monies received from the pharmaceutical industry by any individual faculty member (records going back three years).” They responded: “This information is not held. While individuals are required to declare any interest, they are not specifically required to declare the payments received.”

131 Davies, J. The Making of Psychotherapists: an anthropological analysis. London: Karnac, 2009.

132 I started working voluntarily as a trainee, but continued to do so after my training had been completed. So while I can’t guarantee I will always work voluntarily, if I ever took fees my paid hours would be few and my fees affordable for the average person. I have the luxury of taking this position because I earn my living from my university post in social anthropology.

133 See: House of Commons Health Committee Report (2004: 58).

134 I here re-create Daniel Carlat’s story from a combination of his reported experiences in his article “Dr. Drug Rep” published in the New York Times (August 25, 2007) and the information I gathered from my interview with him. In parts of my account I paraphrase from his NYT article.

135 Paraphased from Carlat’s New York Times article, “Dr. Drug Rep.”

136 Carlat continued: “This is why companies hire physicians. Over the years, companies have found by trial that a physician pitching a drug is much more effective to the bottom line than the drug being pitched by a rep. The reasons for that are obvious. When you listen to a drug rep, you know you are listening to a salesperson whose incentive is to make a bonus based on your prescribing. But when you listen to a colleague physician, even though you know that he or she is being paid by the company, there is a tendency to trust that person, to believe that it would be somehow uncouth for a fellow physician colleague to have the same kind of financial motivation the drug reps have.” [interview, August 2012]

137 Kimberly Elliott quoted in: Carlat, D. Unhinged, 125.

138 In fact, in 2007 nearly three-quarters of antidepressants in the United States were prescribed by non-psychiatrists. see: Mojtabai, R., and Olfson, M. “Proportion of Antidepressants Prescribed Without A Psychiatric Diagnosis Is Growing.” Health Affairs, August 30, 2011 vol. 30 no. 8: 1434–1442.

139 See: Grant, B. “Merck Published Fake Journal,” The Scientist, April 30, 2009.

140 Timimi, S. “Child Psychiatry and its Relationship with the Pharmaceutical Industry: theoretical and practical issues,” 3–9. doi: 10.1192/apt.bp.105.000901

141 NHS Report “Prescriptions Dispensed in the Community: England, Statistics for 2001 to 2011, 2012.” Published by The Health and Social Care Information Centre. website:

http://www.ic.nhs.uk/webfiles/publications/007_Primary_Care/Prescribing/Prescriptions%202001%20to%202011/Prescriptions_Dispensed_2001_2011.pdf [accessed Aug. 2012].

142 This approximate figure is based upon taking relative population sizes into account: there were 46.7 million prescriptions of antidepressants dispensed in 2011 in Britain (UK population is 62.6 million), and 254 million prescriptions of antidepressants dispensed in 2011 in the United States (US population is 311.6 million). The US figure was sourced from:

Antidepressants: a complicated picture. Published online by the National Institute of Mental Health. website: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/director/2011/antidepressants-a-complicated-picture.shtml [accessed July 2012].

143 By the late 1990s, pharmaceutical companies were spending about $700 million on direct-to-consumer advertising each year. But by 2005, they were spending more than $4.2 billion a year, according to the United States GAO (Government Accountability Office, 2006). See: Sufrin, C. B., and Ross, J. S. “Pharmaceutical industry marketing: understanding its impact on women’s health.” Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey, 63(9) (2008): 585–96.

144 Quoted in: Lacasse, J. R., and Leo, J. “Questionable Advertising of Psychotropic Medications and Disease Mongering.” PLoS Med, 3(7) (2006): e321. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030321 http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pmed.0030321

145 Lacasse, J. R., and Leo, J. “Serotonin and depression: A disconnect between the advertisements and the scientific literature.” PLoS Med, 2(12) (2005): e392.

146 Kirsch, I. The Emperor’s New Drugs: exploding the antidepressant myth. London: Bodley Head, 2009, 81.

147 Promotional video, American Psychiatric Association website: http://www.healthyminds.org/ [accessed Feb. 2011].

148 Foster, J. L. “Perpetuating Stigma?: Differences between advertisements for psychiatric and non-psychiatric medication in two professional journals.” Journal of Mental Health, 19(1) (2010): 26–33. http://cambridge.academia.edu/JulietFoster/Papers/441956/Perpetuating_Stigma_Differences_between_advertisements_for_psychiatric_and_non-psychiatric_medication_in_two_professional_journals

149 Quoted in: Glibody, S., Wilson, P., and Watt, I. “Direct-to-Consumer Adverting of Psychotropics: an emerging and evolving form of pharmaceutical company influence.” The British Journal of Psychiatry, 189 (2004): 1–2.

150 Lacasse, J. R., and Leo, J. “Serotonin and Depression: A Disconnect between the Advertisements and the Scientific Literature,” e392.

151 Donohue, J., and Berndt, E. “Effects of direct-to-consumer advertising on medication choice: The case of antidepressants.” Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 23 (2004): 115–127.

Also see: Rosenthal, M. B. et al. “Demand Effects of Recent Changes in Prescription Drug Promotion.” Frontiers in Health Policy Research, Vol. 6, D.M. Cutler and A.M. Garber, eds. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003, 1–26.

152 Kravitz, R. L. et al. “Influence of patients’ requests for direct-to-consumer advertised antidepressants: A randomized controlled trial.” JAMA, 293 (2005): 1995–2002.

153 Gilbody, S., Wilson, P., and Watt, I. “Direct-to-Consumer Adverting of Psychotropics: an emerging and evolving for of pharmaceutical company influence.” The British Journal of Psychiatry, 189 (2004): 1–2.

154 Gray, R. “When Taking Pills can be Better than Talking,” 2011. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12716742 [accessed Aug. 2011].

155 This chapter brings together and articulates some arguments made in my previous book. see: Davies, J. The Importance of Suffering: the value and meaning of emotional discontent. London: Routledge, 2012.

156 see: Porter, R. A Social History of Madhouses, Mad Doctors and Lunatics. London: NPI, 1996.

157 Moncrieff, J. The Myth of the Chemical Cure, 32.

158 Ibid.

159 Ibid.

160 Ibid.

161 See: Squire, L. R., and Slater, P. C. “Electroconvulsive therapy and complaints of memory dysfunction: a prospective three-year follow-up study.” British Journal of Psychiatry, 142 (2007): 1–8.

See also: Breggin, P. “ECT Damages the Brain: Disturbing News for Patients and Shock Doctors Alike.” Ethical Human Psychology and Psychiatry, 9 (2) (2007): 83–86.

Finally see: Andre, L. Doctors of Deception: What They Don’t Want You to Know About Shock Treatment. Rutgers University Press, 2009.

162 Bracken, P. et al. “Psychiatry Beyond the Current Paradigm,” submitted to the British Journal of Psychiatry (due publication date: December 2012).

163 I have slightly altered this quotation. see: Davies, The Importance of Suffering.

164 This discussion of different cultural repsonses to voice hearing is paraphrased from my earlier book. Davies, The Importance of Suffering.

165 See: Bentall, R. P. Doctoring the Mind: Why psychiatric treatments fail. London: Penguin, 2010, 106.

166 For an excellent article that critiques this position, see: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/magazine/10psyche-t.html?pagewanted=all

167 Angermeyer, M., and Matschinger, H. “Causal beliefs and attitudes to people with schizophrenia: trend analysis based on data from two population surveys in Germany.” British Journal of Psychiatry, 186 (2005): 331–334.

168 Mehta, S. “Is being “sick” really better? Effects of disease view of mental disorder on stigma.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 16(4) (1997): 405–419.

169 See: Timimi, S. “Campaign to Abolish Psychiatric Diagnostic Systems such as ICD and DSM,” 2011. http://www.criticalpsychiatry.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=233:campaign-to-abolish-psychiatric-diagnostic-systems-such-as-icd-and-dsm-timimi-s&catid=34:members-publications&Itemid=56

For further summary of studies, see: Watters, E. “The Americanisation of Mental Illness,” The New York Times, January 8, 2010.

170 See argument by Ethan Watters in ‘The Americanization of Mental Illness’.New York Times, January 8, 2010.

171 See: Burton, N. L. Psychiatry. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.

172 Dowrick, C. Beyond Depression: A New Approach to Understanding and Management. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, 69.

173 Sharfstein, S. S. “Big Pharma and American Psychiatry: the good, the bad, and the ugly.” Psychiatric News, 40 (16) (2005): 3.

174 Davies, J. The Importance of Suffering.

175 Ibid.

176 For a full account of Watters’s exploration of anorexia in Hong Kong, the account from which I draw here, see his excellent study: Watters, E. Crazy Like Us: the globalization of the Western mind. London: Robinson Publishing, 2011.

177 Ibid., 52.

178 These facts are from Janis Whitlock et al. unpublished paper: “Media & the Internet and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury.” For a similar published version, see: Whitlock, J. L., Purington, A., and Gershkovich, M. “Influence of the media on self-injurious behavior.” In Understanding Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Current Science and Practice, M. Nock (ed). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Press, 2009, 139–156.

179 See: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3580365.stm

180 See: http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/10059733

181 See: http://news.bbc.co.uk/newsbeat/hi/health/newsid_8563000/8563670.stm

182 Blanchflower, D. G., and Oswald, A. J. “Well-Being Over Time in Britain and the USA,” 2000. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~blnchflr/papers/Wellbeingnew.pdf

183 “The Well-being of Children in the UK,” University of York, 2004. http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/spru/wellbeingsummary.pdf

184 These facts are from Janis Whitlock et al. unpublished paper: “Media & the Internet and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury.” For a similar published version, see: Whitlock, J. L., Purington, A., and Gershkovich, M. “Influence of the media on self injurious behavior.” In Understanding Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Current Science and Practice, M. Nock (ed), 139–156.

185 Ibid.

186 See: Watters, E. Crazy Like Us, 33.

187 Ibid.

188 Harrington, A. “Being Human: individual + society & morals + culture,” 2012. See presentation: http://fora.tv/2012/03/24/Being_Human_Individual_ Society_Morals_Culture

189 See: Watters, E. Crazy Like Us, 65.

190 Lakoff, A. “The Anxieties of Globalization: antidepressant sales and economic crisis in Argentina.” Social Studies of Science, April 2004, 34: 247–269.

191 For a full account of these events, which I paraphrase here, please see Watters, Crazy Like Us.

192 Ibid.

193 Paraphrased from ibid., 211.

194 See the following article on Japan and depression in The New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/22/magazine/did-antidepressants-depress-japan.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm

195 Ibid.

196 Ibid.

197 Ibid.

198 Skultans, V. “From Damaged Nerves to Masked Depression: inevitability and hope in Latvian psychiatric narratives,” Social Science and Medicine, 56 (12) (2003): 2421–2431.

199 For 2009 figures, see: http://www.imshealth.com/ims/Global/Content/Corporate/Press%20Room/Top-line%20Market%20Data/2009%20Top-line%20Market%20Data/Top%2015%20Global%20Therapeutic%20Classes_2009.pdf

For 2010 figures, see: http://www.imshealth.com/ims/Global/Content/Corporate/Press%20Room/Top-Line%20Market%20Data%20&%20Trends/2011%20Top-line%20Market%20Data/Top_20_Global_Therapeutic_Classes.pdf

200 See: http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/04/22/lundbeck-
japan-idUSLDE73L03X20110422)

201 See: http://www.pharmatimes.com/article/10-12-16/Lundbeck_sees_China
_as_land_of_opportunity_for_Lexapro.aspx

202 See: http://www.woncaeurope.org/content/p05263-use-anti
depressants-primary-health-care-brazil

203 Ecks, S. “Pharmaceutical Citizenship: antidepressant marketing and the promise of demarginalization of India.” Anthropology and Medicine, 12 (3) (2005): 239–254.

204 Jablensky, A. et al. “Schizophrenia: manifestations, incidence and course in different cultures. A World Health Organization ten-country study.” Psychological Medicine Monograph Supplement 20. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

205 Bhugra, D. “Severe Mental Illness Across Cultures.” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 113, 429 (2006): 17–23.

206 Middleton, H. et al. “The Dodo Bird Verdict and the Elephant in the Room: A service user-led investigation of crisis resolution and home treatment.” Health Sociology Review, 20(2): 147–156.

207 Mosher, L. R. “Soteria and Other Alternatives to Acute Psychiatric Hospitalization: A personal and professional review.” Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 187 (1999): 142–149.

208 Watters, E. “The Americanization of Mental Illness,” New York Times, January 8, 2010.

209 Jimmy Savile was a well-known British children’s entertainer who had just been exposed in the UK for perpetrating widespread sexual abuse among children.

210 Integrating critical psychiatry into psychiatric training. In: Newnes, C., Holmes, G., and Dunn, C. (eds) This Is Madness Too. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, 2001.

211 Whitaker, R. The Anatomy of an Epidemic. New York: Broadway, 2010.

212 Moncrieff, J. The Myth of the Chemical Cure, 115.

213 Ibid.

214 Whitaker, The Anatomy of an Epidemic, 101–2.

215 Harrow, M. and Jobe, T. H. “Outcome and Recovery in Schizophrenia Patients.” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, (2007) Volume 195, Number 5.

216 Whitaker, The Anatomy of an Epidemic, 105–6.

217 Dorph-Petersen, K.A et al. “The influence of chronic exposure to antipsychotic medications on brain size before and after tissue fixation: a comparison of haloperidol and olanzapine in macaque monkeys.” Neuropsychopharmacology, 30 (9) (2005): 1649–61.

218 Vita, A., and De Peri, L. “The Effects of Antipsychotic Treatment on Cerebral Structure and Function in Schizophrenia.” International Review of Psychiatry, 19 (4) (2007): 429–36.

219 Robert Whitaker http://www.huffingtonpost.com/robert-whitaker/anatomy-of-an-epidemic-co_b_555572.html