CHAPTER 5
ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NORTH-EAST INDIA
CONTENTS
5.2 Ethnomedicinal Plants of NE India and their Uses
ABSTRACT
The North Eastern (NE) states of India harbors immense floral diversity and lies among the biodiversity hot spot regions of the world. The region houses considerable ethnic multiplicity, which largely differ in their traditions, customs and language. Majority of these tribes are rich in the utilization of plants for medicinal purposes. Several studies pertaining to the documentation of rich ethnomedicinal diversity of North East India have been conducted and the reports indicate vast diversity of plants that are used for treatment of diverse diseases and ailments. In this chapter, we emphasize on some selected ethnomedicinal plants and their uses in treatment of various ailments among tribes of NE India.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Human use of plants as a source of medicine dates back to the paleolithic age, about 60,000 years ago (Solecki and Shanider, 1975). There are several evidences where plants and plant products have been used as the primary source of medicine to cure wide range of ailments. Plant parts/products constitute large variety of natural products like steroids, terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, etc. that contribute to their healing ability and serves as a irreplaceable source of pharmaceuticals today. Our understanding and knowledge on medicinal use of plants is far from complete. Traditional systems of medicine have provided mankind with large variety of drugs and food products, which till today are used as a potential source of medicine. Majority of drugs that are being used in traditional system of medicine are crude, mostly in their natural states/crude preparations. They are complex potpourri of natural compounds, some of which are beneficial, while some may be harmful, some may be vitamins or some may be highly toxic if taken alone. When these crude components are mixed in a formulation or crude preparation, they act like a single chemical agent and exert tremendous curative property. It is possible that one component counter balances the negative impact of the other and when mixed together they exert synergistic effect to cure the ailment. It is the main reason why natural medicine has very little or no side effects. It is estimated that out of 4,22,000 flowering plants in the world, almost 50,000 are being used for medicinal purpose and India represent 43% of it (Pushpangadan, 1995; Schipmann et al., 2002).
In India, the utilization of plants for medicinal purposes have been documented in several ancient literature, however, organized studies began during mid 1950’s and off late such studies gained significant popularity amongst plant biologists. The documentation of ethnic knowledge resulted in discovery of many new drugs or lead compounds and today almost 80% of the global population have direct dependency on plants as primary source of medicine (Farnsworth et al., 1985; Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001).
According to the estimates of the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 65% of the world populations are dependent on plants as primary source of medicine (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). There have been a considerable development in the field of ethnobotany and medicinal plant research, as such several publications in terms of volumes, flora, research articles and reviews have come up. In North Eastern region of India, several researchers were engaged in this field and consequently many important publications have emerged.
The decade at the beginning of the year 1995 was observed as the International Decade for World ‘s Indigenous and Ethnic People. A complex link has always existed between ethnic culture and botanical conservation. In almost all the parts of the world, the ethnic/tribal people have sincerely co-existed with nature and its resources. The agenda 21 of the Rio Earth Summit, 1992 states that indigenous people have a vital role in environmental management vis-à-vis sustainable development due to their knowledge about traditional practices and such practices enable them to have an effective participation in the achievement of sustainable development. The documentation of ethnic knowledge is not a new practice. It possibly existed with the advent of human civilization. Archeological records suggest that documentation of ethnic and traditional knowledge existed in ancient Greek, Egyptian, Chinese, Indian and perhaps other civilizations of the world. Ancient literature that exist today on the use of plants for medicinal purposes reflect a clear dependency of human on plants for their day-to-day needs. Plants like Rawolfia serpentina, Papaver somniferum and Cinchona officinalis were widely used and are being used till today as an excellent source of crude medicine. The time-tested traditional knowledge on the use of plants for medicinal and therapeutic purpose has opened a wider scope under different scientific themes, where traditional and indigenous knowledge can be explored and utilized in a sustainable manner. Traditional knowledge has a strong impact on modern day drug discovery pipeline. Many revolutionary drugs that we see now have their origin from plants that have traditional or folkloristic significance. Today, the ethnic ideas coupled with scientific inputs have revolutionized the drug discovery process.
It is estimated that there are approximately 4,22,000 higher (flowering) plants on this planet (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001), out of which only 6% have been screened for biological activity and 15% phytochemically (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). It is, therefore, obvious that with such a huge diversity of plants existing on this planet, the proximity of finding new drugs and lead molecules is extremely high and traditional knowledge can strongly support such findings. Further, the use of plants based on traditional knowledge has got some major advantages. The medicinal property of plants used in ethnic culture is claimed on the basis of its long-term use, often hundreds and thousands of years and one can expect diverse chemical constituents present in that plant extract or formulation (Fabricant and Farnsworth, 2001). Thus, documentation and conservation of ethnic and traditional knowledge has immense significance on present day heath care system. Rapid industrialization and loss of ethnic culture has resulted in significant loss of such important knowledge and it is quite possible that in due course of time such knowledge will disappear. Till today, collection of ethnobotanical information remained as an academic endeavor, with very little or no interest on industrial/commercial aspects. Ancient civilizations of the world were dependent mainly on plants as their source of healthcare system. The Chinese, Egyptian, Greeks and Indian civilization have provided significant information on medicinal properties of plants, which are well reflected in their ancient writings and inscriptions. The extraordinary property of garlic is known for hundreds of years. In ancient China, Artemisia annua L. was used for treatment of fever and malaria and as such in 1972 antimalarial drug ‘artemisinin’ was isolated from it. The medicinal property of ginseng (Panax ginseng) was also recognized by the ancient Chinese culture and today ginsenodies and associated flavonoids are well known for their potential curative properties. Ginkgo biloba, is used in traditional Chinese medicine to improve mental alertness and later ginkgolides and flavonoids were isolated from it. These are several examples of plants that have immense significance in our health care system and have roots from traditional knowledge. The medicinal property of a plant is unique, some are taken raw, some in the form of crude extracts or as formulation, while other are eaten either as vegetable or fruit. Their activity is dependent mainly on the characteristic chemical compound hidden inside or as a result of synergistic effect of the secondary metabolites present.
5.2 ETHNOMEDICINAL PLANTS OF NE INDIA AND THEIR USES
The North-Eastern region of India is one of the biodiversity hot spots, which harbors immense diversity of flora and fauna. The vast geographical area of North-East India is inhabited by large number of ethnic tribal groups, which largely differ in their traditional, lingual and cultural practices. The inhabitants are mostly aware of their surrounding and acquainted in utilizing their surrounding resources in their day-to-day life. The traditional knowledge of each of the tribes are unique and developed by trial and error method, which is further passed onto the next generation as a guarded secret and remains limited within the tribes. Efforts have been made by several investigators to document the ethnic knowledge on the use of plants for medicinal purpose and as results many significant publications have come up. The region is physiographically divided into distinct regions of Eastern Himalayas, Patkai Naga Hills, Lushai Hills, Brahmaputra Valley and plains of Bark Valley. Out of 450 tribes of India, about 225 are found in North East (Lokho, 2012). The regions harbor almost 50% of the total biodiversity of India and being recognized as one of the major biomes of the world (Mao et al., 2009). The tribal communities of North East India are mainly concentrated in the hilly terrains and certain parts of the fertile alluvial plains of Brahmaputra and Barak valley, practicing agriculture, animal rearing and handloom as their primary occupation. North East India being a storehouse immense biological diversity and rich in ethnic culture has attracted several researchers to carry out comprehensive work on ethnobotanical aspects of several tribes. The emphasis on the ethnobotanical studies of North East India emerged in late 1970’s and as such several major publications have emerged. Pioneering work on lesser-known medicinal plants among the Mikir tribes of North East India was done by Borthakur (1976). Hajra (1977) reported large number of traditionally used medicinal plants from Kamang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Several other important works that emerged on ethnomedicine of North East India include inclusive documentation of medicinal plants used by various tribes of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland (Mazumder et al., 1978; Tiwary et al., 1978, 1979; Jain and Dam, 1979; Bhattacheijee et al., 1980). Beside these pioneering work, major work on ethnobotany of North East India included those reported by Kumar et al. (1980) on medicinal plants of Balphakrah Wildlife Sanctuary in Meghalaya, ethnomedicinal plants of Khasi and Jaintia Hills (Joshep and Kharkongor, 1980), ethnomedicinal aspects of Mikirs of North East India (Jain and Borthakur, 1980), ethnomedicinal plants of Nagaland (Rao and Jamir, 1982 a,b), medicinal plants used by Boros of Assam (Baruah and Sharma, 1984), anti-jaundice plants of Assam (Gogoi and Boissya, 1984), ethnomedicinal aspects of Reangs of Assam (Choudhury, 1999; Choudhury and Choudhury, 2002), ethnomedicinal aspects of Rongmai Naga of Southern Assam (Choudhury et al., 2005), ethnomedicinal aspects of Choreis of Southern Assam (Choudhury, 2007; Choudhury et al., 2012). Some folklore claims of Brahmaputra valley in Assam were recorded by Boissya and Majumdar (1980). Changkija and Kumar (1996) reported ethnobotanical folk practices of Ao-Naga and documented diverse uses of plants and formulations used in the treatment of various ailments. Neogi et al. (1989) investigated ethnobotany of some weeds of Khasi and Garo Hills of Meghalaya and reported 65 taxa. Changkija (1999) documented an account of 109 plant species that have medicinal uses among the tribes of Nagaland. Singh et al. (2001) gave the ethnobotanical uses of 14 species of Pteridophytes used by the ethnic tribes of Manipur. Gogoi and Borthakur (2001) reported 69 herbal recipes for 27 ailments involving 68 plant species prevalent among the Bodo tribe inhabiting Goreswar, Rangia and Jajikona Development blocks of Kamrup district of Assam. Tripathi and Goel (2001) gave an account of ethnobotanical diversity of Zingiberaceous plants in North-Eastern India and reported ethnobotanical uses of 43 taxa of Zingibers. Indigenous practice of treating human liver disorders in Assam was dealt by Das and Saikia (2001) and gave details of methods of treatment. Singh et al. (2002) reported 64 species of plants used as medicine among ethnic groups in Sikkim. Important ailments purportedly cured by these plants are epilepsy leprosy, paralysis, asthma, typhoid, diabetes, hemorrhages during child birth, cholera as well as other. Das and Saikia (2002) investigated the folk belief on plants used as abortifacient and antifertility. Bharadwaj and Gakhar (2003) carried out ethnobotanical studies in Mizoram and reported 25 plant species used by the native people for the cure of dysentery.
Ethnomedicinal uses of 33 plant species belonging to 22 families for various ailments among the Zeme Nagas, one of the prominent ethnic tribes of North Cachar Hills district of Assam was reported by Tamuli and Saikia (2004). Pfoze and Chhetry (2004) reported that 72 medicinal plants are being used by Shephoumaramth Nagas as folk medicines including rare species Taxus baccata and Panax pseudoginseng. Thirty nine hepatoprotective herbal recipes prevalent among different ethnic groups of Assam were reported by Borthakur et al. (2004) along with local names of the plant species, method of preparation and the dose-regime.
Ahmed and Borthakur (2005) gave an account of botanical wisdom of Khasis (Hynnew Treps) of Meghalaya. The usage of 17 wild plants by the native people for curing cuts and wounds was described by Bharadwaj and Gakhar (2005). Ethnobotanical studies carried out by Khmbongmayum et al. (2005) in the four sacred groves of Manipur revealed therapeutic applications of 120 plant species. Kala (2005) reported 158 medicinal plants belonging to 73 families and 124 genera used by Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. These studies laid one of the major foundations of ethnobotanical aspects of North East India by revealing huge datasets ofplants and their medicinal properties. Some major notable studies on ethnomedicinal use of Pinanga mannii and cane among the Adi and Mishing were also reported from Arunachal Pradesh. An attempt has been made by Kalita et al. (2005) to study the plant and animal based folk medicine used by people of Dibrugarh district, Assam for treatment of eleven different diseases. Kayang et al. (2005) provided a list of the most frequently used medicinal plants in the tribal areas of Eastern and Western Khasi hills of Meghalaya, India and the diseases against which these plants are used.
Saikia (2006) described the traditional knowledge related to ethnomedicine of different communities (Assamese, Bodo, Mishing, Napali and Santhal) of Gohpur of Sonitpur district of Assam. All together 22 prescriptions were recorded from 20 plant species. Kalita and Deb (2006) listed 22 plant species used in folk medicine by the Bejas and Bejins in Lakhimpur district of Brahmaputra valley in Assam. The paper by Majumdar et al. (2006) deals with 33 medicinal plants along with their local name, parts and ethnomedicinal uses prescribed by tribal and non-tribal medicine men of Tripura state. Plants used by Garo, Khasi and Jaintia of Meghalaya was reported by Nath et al. (2007) which documented 65 weeds belonging to 26 families of angiosperms. Lafakzuala et al. (2007) enumerated and discussed the ethnobotanical aspect of the plants used by the tribal of Mizoram.
Pradhan and Badola (2008) recorded ethnomedicinal plant use by Lepcha tribe of Dzongu valley bordering Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, in North Sikkim. This paper reports 118 species, belonging to 71 families and 108 genera, under ethnomedicinal utility by the Lepchas for curing approximately 66 ailments, which could be grouped under 14 broad categories. Zingiberaceae appeared as the most used family (8 species and 5 genera). A. K. Das et al. (2008) carried out a survey in different parts of Cachar district of Assam to gather information regarding the uses of medicinal plants by the different tribes/communities and reported 107 plant species. An ethnobotanical survey of East Khasi hills, West Khasi hills and Ri Bhoi districts of Meghalaya was conducted by Hynniewta and Kumar (2008) and reported 54 ethnomedicinal plants.
The major ethnic tribal groups inhabiting the North East regions of India have evolved several ways to utilize the plant resources (Das and Tag, 2005; Nima et al., 2009; Rethy et al., 2010). The uses of plants vary diversely among the tribes and recent studies have shown that mode of uses of the plants are considerably different (Tangjang et al., 2011). Influence of modern civilization has resulted in loss of traditional knowledge and younger generations have very little or no interest to preserve this rich folk culture. Namsa et al. (2009) reported 34 species of plants having anti-inflammatory properties. The study focused exclusively on use of plants in the management of inflammation related ailments by the Khampti tribe of Arunachal Pradesh (Namsa et al., 2009). The 34 plants species were distributed among 22 families and 32 genera, and similar uses were mentioned even in ancient system of medicine like the Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha (Namsa et al., 2009). With majority of the plants previously reported for similar uses, 13 species were reported for the first time with anti-inflammatory properties (Namsa et al., 2009). Bantawa and Rai (2009) discussed the traditional practices among Jhankri, Bijuwa and Phedangma on locally available plants material to cure various ailments and disorders. The study by Shil and Choudhury (2009) mainly focused on the ethnomedicinal importance of Pteridophytic flora used by the Reang tribes of Tripura state and presented 16 Pteridophyte species. Medhi and Chakrabarti (2009) described the information on the traditional knowledge of people of Northeastern region on wild orchids including ethnomedicinal uses. Mao et al. (2009) gave an account of plant wealth of Northeast India with special reference to ethnobotany. This included ethnomedicinal plants and threatened medicinal plants.
An ethno-medico-botanical survey was carried out by Kagyung et al. (2010) in Adi dominated areas of Dehang-Debang Biosphere reserve of Arunachal Pradesh. They recorded a total of 44 plant species belonging to 31 families. The tribes of North East India have utilized the plant/floral diversity of the region and preserved their traditional knowledge. Herbal medicine is considered as an integral part of traditional culture of North East India and traditional healers are given utmost respect. It is estimated that 2,416 plants have been documented in India for ethno-medicinal purposes out of which almost 1,953 plants were used by tribes of North East India (Sajem and Gosai, 2006; Tushar et al., 2010). Tushar et al. (2010) reported 37 species of plants belonging to Zingiberaceae that are used by tribes of North East India for treatment of multiple ailments. Almost 88% of Zingiberaceous plants are distributed in Arunachal Pradesh and majority of the crude preparations are obtained from rhizomes (Tushar et al., 2010). Rout et al. (2010), had revealed that the Zeme Naga from Assam are using 8 species of medicinal plants for the treatment of diarrhea. Saikia et al. (2010) carried out ethnobotanical survey work near the border area of Arunachal Pradesh. Totally, 20 plant species were collected and recorded for their use in various ailments. Jamir et al. (2010) dealt with first hand information on 55 plants used by the Lotha-Naga tribes in Wokha district, Nagaland for the treatment of various diseases and ailments. Rai and Lalramnghnglova (2010a) provided first-hand information of 57 ethnomedicinal plants from Mizoram. They also reported 159 ethnomedicinal plant species from tropical forests, home gardens, roadsides and University campus of Mizoram (Rai and Lalramnghnglova, 2010b). In another report Rai and Lalramnghnglova (2010c) gave an account of 54 ethnomedicinal plants from Agroforestry systems and home gardens of Mizoram.
The indigenous or traditional healers are solely dependent on plants for their medicinal preparations. They either use a single plant or mixture of plant parts to prepare the crude formulation. Ethnomedicinal practices among the Tai-Khamyangs of Sivassagar district of Assam were given by Sonowal and Barua (2011). Laloo and Hemalatha (2011) enlisted information regarding the traditional method of utilization of plant species that are used to treat and cure diarrhea and dysentery. A study by Devi et al. (2011) revealed that 73 plant species were used by local practitioners in Manipur for the treatment of diabetes. Tangjang et al. (2011) studied ethnomedicinal plants of Eastern Himalaya zone of Arunachal Pradesh and documented major differences in mode of use of plants among Nocte, Nishi and Adi tribes. They documented 74 plant species belonging to 41 families and 61 genera that are being used to treat 25 different diseases (Tanganj et al., 2011). An ethnobotanical study focused on medicinal utility of plants was carried out by Buragohain (2011) among the ethnic communities of Tinsukia district of Upper Assam. A total of 175 plant species were described which have been used in the treatment of about 56 diseases. Studies on the medicinal plants used by Tangkhul Nagas of Nagaland reveled 36 different species of plants used by the tribe for treatment of diverse ailments (Salam et al., 2011). Namsa et al. (2011) documented 50 plants species used for treating 22 human ailments by Monpa ethnic group at Arunachal Pradesh. They also documented plants used for dietary supplements, religious purpose, local beverage and plants used to poison fish and wild animals. Deb et al. (2011) reported the ethnomedicinal uses of the following plants: Zingiber officinale as anticough, antifever, antidiabetic, anticancer, Zingiber cassumunar as anticough, antidiabetic, Zingiber zerumbet as anticough, antifever, Clerodendrum colebrookianum as hypertensive, Oroxylum indicum as antipiles, Eupatorium nodiflorum as anti-diarrheal, Annesia fragrans for treatment of kidney stone and Prunus persica as antihypertensive. Rai and Lalramnghinglova (2011b) studied threatened and less known medicinal plants and their ethnomedicinal importance from Indo-Burma hotspot region. They reported 40 plant species out of which 17 belong to the threatened category (Rai and Lalramnghinglova, 2011b). The ethnomedicinal aspects of different tribes of North East India have been reported by various workers. It is now well known that the diverse plant species have potential curative properties against several human diseases. Being ethnically diverse, the North East India harbors the storehouse of immense ethnobotanical information on the therapeutic uses of plants against large number of diseases. The immense biological diversity also contributes significantly to the knowledge of ethnic people about plants and their medicinal properties. Choudhury et al. (2011) documented traditional knowledge of 22 medicinal plant species that are used in the treatment of different reproductive health related disorders and diseases by the rural people of Rungia subdivision of Kamrup district, Assam.
Studies conducted by Tag et al. (2012) in Lohit district of Arunachal Pradesh documented 46 plant species used for management and treatment of diabetes. They reported 11 species that are new in treatment of diabetes, which include Begonia roxburghii, Calamus tenuis, Callicarpa arbórea, Cuscuta reflexa, Dillenia indica, Diplazium esculentum, Lactuca gracilis, Millingtonia hortensis, Oxalis griffithii, Saccharum spontaneum, and Solanum viarum and few of these plants also showed efficacy or antidiabetic activity in rodent models (Tag et al., 2012). Das et al. (2012) reported a large number of plants, plant extracts, and decoctions used by ethnic and rural people of Eastern Sikkim Himalayan region in treatment of various ailments. The variety of plants used for treatment of diabetes in Arunachal Pradesh clearly indicated the significance of plants in primary health care system and dependency of tribal people on plants as source of medicine. Such studies clearly indicated the importance of ethnobotanical studies and traditional knowledge. Sharma et al. (2012) reported medico-religious plants used by Hajong community of Assam. Hajongs uses various plants species for medicinal purpose and different rituals. The study documented 36 plant species that are used for treatment of 51 different diseases with 63 formulations (Sharma et al., 2012). The study clearly reflected that social, economic and religious significance of plants within the Hajong community (Sharma et al., 2012). However, with immense influence of urban life, traditional knowledge among the Hajong youth is very limited and conservation of cultural diversity needs urgent attention (Sharma et al., 2012). An ethnobotanical survey was conduced in river island Majuli aimed at identifying the plants used in the treatment of Jaundice in the Satra culture people in Assam. Yumnam et al. (2012) investigated the ethnomedicinal uses of plants used by people of Manipur. A total of 41 plant species have been mentioned as folkloric treatment with herbal material that are being used by the people of Manipur. Shankar et al. (2012) surveyed folk medicinal plants used by folk healers of Mishing tribe in few places of Lakhimpur and Dhemaji district of Assam and East Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh for the malaria, jaundice and female menstruation problems which are the prominent diseases in the community. The rural populations among the Monpa ethnic group in Arunachal Pradesh have a rich knowledge of forest-based natural resources and consumption of wild edible plants as an integral part of selecting socio-cultural life. Rout et al. (2012) surveyed and collected information on traditional uses of plants by the Dimasa tribe of Assam for curing and treating different diseases like urinary disorder, diarrhea, malaria, etc. Among the plant types, like herbs were the most frequently used, ferns and Cycads also find usage in their traditional healing. Panda (2012), found that the traditional healers act as health care actors for treating arthritis, fracture, jaundice, diarrhea and respiratory diseases of children with other persistence, long lasting chronic health conditions with the use of medicinal plants. 52 species of medicinal herbs being used in a wide range by various Naga tribes have been recorded by Jamir et al. (2012).
Traditional medicines are used in the form of diverse preparations. Some are chewed directly, some are taken in the form aqueous extracts while others are taken in the form of dry powder, formulation, etc. Ningthoujam et al. (2013) reported the use of vapor-based medicine among the Meithei Manipuris of North East India. They reported 13 distinctive route of administration of both mono and multi-ingredient composition for treatment of 41 diseases (Ningthoujam et al., 2013). Lalmuanpuii et al. (2013) documented the traditional practice and knowledge of medicines/naturopathy among the Mizo ethnic group of Lunglei district. A total of 82 medicinal plant species belonging to 42 families and 76 genera were documented along with their parts used, methods of preparation and types of ailments treated. It was revealed that there is a positive relationship between age and traditional knowledge and practice; while a negative relationship between educational level and traditional knowledge and practice was observed. Sharma (2013) carried out an ethnobotanical study in Darjeeling Himalayas to document plants used against skin diseases. During the field survey, ethnomedicinal information of 91 species of medicinal plants belonging to 53 families was compiled from different habitats of the study area. Application of plants against skin diseases included various forms of preparation. Shankar and Rawat (2013) recorded 37 folklore claims of traditional healing herbs used by Mizo tribe in the treatment of several ailments. Mao et al. (2013) discussed ethnobotany of Rhodoedron species in North-East India and gave ethnomedicinal uses of Rhododendron species. 50 ethnomedicinal plant species used for traditional herbal formulation by different tribes in Tripura were given by Majumdar and Datta (2013) with scientific name, vernacular name(s), part(s) used, availability status, ailments and mode of administration.
The diversity of traditional used of plants in North East India is massive, which makes this region an important hot-spot of ethnobotanical information. It is, therefore, essential to gather and document unique information on the use of plants. Deb et al. (2012) reported customary usage of 39 plant species by the Darlong tribes in Tripura. Bhuyan et al. (2014) reported that an extensive study on Traditional practice of medicinal plants by four major tribes of Nagaland was conducted in different localities from districts of the state. The tribes undertaken for study were Ao, Angami, Lotha, Sema, residing in Nagaland. The study comprises 257 species of ethnomedicinal plants belonging to 85 families. Shil et al. (2014) reported 125 different species of plans belonging to 59 families comprising 116 genera used by the Reang tribe of Tripura for the treatment of 42 different ailments. They reported that the traditional remedies are generally taken orally and the leaves are the major component of plant part used to prepare the crude drugs (Shil et al., 2014). The use of plant species by the Reang people is strictly based on the flora available locally and their knowledge is passed on to the next generation through oral traditions without any written documentation (Shil et al., 2014). Chettri et al. (2014) documented the use of thirty medicinal plants, nineteen food and fodder plants by the workers of the tea gardens comprising of different traditional communities like Tamang, Limboo, Dupka and Lepchas. Singh et al. (2014) documented pharmaceutically important plant resources used in primary health care of ethnic Garo tribes from Eastern Himalayas (Nokrek Biosphere Reserve [NBR], India) in order to document information on medicinal plants and to maximize the collection of indigenous knowledge of Garo tribes. A total of 157 plant species representing 134 genera and 81 families were found to be commonly used in the treatment of 67 health-problems. Pandey and Mavinkurve (2014) prepared an inventory of ethnomedicinal plants used by the Chakma tribe of Tripura state, India. Chakma people are mostly residing in deep forest and depend on their own traditional health care system. The survey was conducted during 2012 in Agartala, Tripura by interviewing the local health practitioners of the different villages of the state, a total of 19 angiosperms and one pteridophyte have been documented for folklore medicinal plants used by Chakma tribes of Tripura. A field survey was performed by Debnath et al. (2014) over Mog and Reang communities of Sabroom and Santirbazal subdivision of Tripura to find out ethnomedicinal knowledge and plant parts utilized in their various ailments and identified 51 species.
In Unakoti district, Tarafdar et al. (2015) reported 39 species of plants belonging to 28 families and 37 genera that are used by tribes against diabetes. The study revealed commonness in use of the plants among different tribes groups of North East India and other parts of the world (Tarafdar et al., 2015). The mode of use Syzygium cumini L. by Reangs for treatment of diabetes is common with some major tribes of Southern Assam and Manipur (Banik et al., 2010; Devi, 2011; Tarafdar et al., 2015). Many of the plants documented in the study also possess hepatoprotective, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancerous, hypotensive and nematicidal activities that were previously reported (Tarafdar et al., 2015). In North Tripura district of Tripura, 75 different plants species belonging to 43 families have been reported to be used by various ethnic communities as an effective crude drug against 15 disease categories (Choudhury et al., 2015). Most of these plants were administered orally in the form of crude extracts against gastrointestinal and respiratory disorders (Choudhury et al., 2015). Kichu et al. (2015) reported 135 plant species belonging to 69 families and 123 genera from Chungtia village of Nagaland used by the Ao Naga tribes. As per the ethnic classification, the plants are used to treat 13 categorized ailments with most frequent use against gastrointestinal ailments and dermatological disorders (Kichu et al., 2015). The study revealed that the Ao Naga tribes have strongly preserved their ethnic traditions of use of plants and vis-à-vis conserved the floral biodiversity in the vicinity. Choudhury et al. (2012) reported 53 different plants used by Chorei tribe of Southern Assam for 9 disease categories. Most of the plants species were used against skin or related infections, followed by jaundice, constipation, dysentery, cough-cold and diabetes (Choudhury et al., 2012). Jamir (2012) discussed traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by Ao-Naga tribes of Mokokchung district, Nagaland and reported 38 species of medicinal plants for treatment of various diseases and ailments.
Lokho and Narasimhan (2013) gave ethnobotanical descriptions of 63 taxa, citing their local names, medicinal uses, culinary and ritualistic uses. The paper also sheds light on indicator plants which are used y the tribe for jhum cultivation and other agricultural practices. In another study, survey was done by Singh and Huidrom (2013) in Central Valley of Manipur. It was found that Meitei community in the study area extensively used Justicia adhatoda L., as ethno-medicine as well as food plant. Parkash et al. (2013) documented the hidden traditional medicinal usage of 35 wild plants by Khasi tribe of Nonghkyllem Reserve Forest, Nongpoh, Meghalaya.
Basumatary et al. (2014) documented the indigenous knowledge pertaining to the utilization of 44 medicinal plant species used by the BodoKachari tribes of Karbi Anglong district of Assam. Das et al. (2014) documented a total of 55 ethnomedicinal plants belonging to 42 families and 49 genera having antifertility property. Gurumayum and Soram (2014) recorded 45 plant species used by Mao Naga tribe community of Mao, Senapati district, Manipur for treating diarrheas and dysentery. Leishingthem and Sharma (2014) recorded 50 ethnomedicinal plants for the treatment of different diseases, viz., asthma, arthritis, cough, fever, diabetes, dysentery, gastric and indigestion, jaundice, toothache, skin diseases, etc. Details of 52 plant species used by Hmar, Manipuri and Barman community of Hailakandi district of Assam (India) for the treatment of diabete were given by Khan et al. (2014). An investigation by Ningombam et al. (2014) on 41 local Maiba and Maibi of Meetei community of Manipur is carried out to find reliability of their knowledge and tested if these were related to significantly to age, literacy, hesitation, results of their treatment, doses and to document such knowledges based on a total of 205 locally available medicinal plant species used for treating 18 major diseases classes. Mir et al. (2014) listed 131 medicinal plant species used by ethnic tribes in Meghalaya used for curing different ailments.
Jamir et al. (2015) carried out study on ethnomedicinal plants in Zumheboto district, Nagaland and documented 59 medicinal plants and their uses. A study was carried out by Zhasa et al. (2015) to explore indigenous knowledge on utilization of available plant biodiversity which have been utilized for treatment and cure of human ailments by eight Naga tribes, i.e., Angami, Zeliang, Ao, Lotha, Sangtam, Konyak, Chakhesang, Rengma and Khaimniungam in Nagaland. About 241 plant species were recorded for traditional medicine used by the eight Naga tribes. Gohain et al. (2015) conducted an ethnobotanical survey of potent antimalarial plants used by different tribes and communities of highly malaria affected seven districts of Assam. A total of 22 plant species have been recorded. These include Ageratum conyzoides, Alpinia nigra, Asparagus racemosus, Caesalpinia bonduc, Cedrus deodora, Clerodendrum infortunatum, Coptis teeta, Cucumis sativus, Curanga amara, Dillenia indica, Flemingea strobilifera, Ichnocarpus frutescens, Impatiens balsamina, Ocimum gratissimum, Phlogacanthus thyrsiformis, Piperr longum, Rubus rugossus, Solanum myriacanthum, Spilanthes acmella, Stemona tuberosa, Swertia chirata and Vitex negudo. Bhuyan (2015) listed 20 ethnomedicinal plants used by the ethnic tribes of North East India. Several PhD theses have been submitted by different research scholars working on ethnobotany of Northeast India and these include Choudhury (1999) and Dutta (2000).
Other publications on Ethnomedicobotany of North East India include Baruah and Sarma (1987), Bora (1999), Borthakur (1976, 1981, 1992), Borthakur and Goswami (1995), Chhetri (1994), Choudhury et al. (2005), Choudhury and Neogi (2003), Dam and Hajra (1997), Das et al. (2007), Das and Sharma (2003), Hajra and Baishya (1981), Idrisi et al. (2012), Islam (1996), Jamir (1990, 1991, 1999, 2006), Kharkongor and Joseph (1981), Kumar et al. (1987), Lalrammghinglova (2003), Lunusnep and Jamir (2010), Maiti et al. (2003), Majumdar (2007a,b), Mao (1993), Megoneitso and Rao (1983), Moktan and Das (2013), Rai et al. (1998), Rao (1981, 1997), Rao et al. (1989), Rawat and Choudhury (1998), Sanjem et al. (2008), Schipman et al. (2002), Singh et al. (1996), Singh et al. (2015), Sinha (1987), Sumitra and Jamir (2009), and Tiwari et al. (2009).
A list of ethnomedicinal plants used by various tribes of North-East India is given in Table 5.1.
TABLE 5.1 Ethnomédicinal Plants Used By Tribes of North East India
PLATE 1 : (Photo Courtesy: Dr. Debjyoti Bhattacharyya, Assam University, Silchar).
KEYWORDS
- Ethnomédicinal plants
- North East India
- Tribal medicine
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