12.3 Mangroves As Antidiabetic Plants
Plants have been used by human beings since time immemorial. Plants are significant and perennial sources of food and medicines that are used for the treatment of various human diseases. Traditional drugs derived from herbal plants are used by about 60% of the world’s population, especially in Asia and Africa. The present review focuses on herbal drugs and antidiabetic plants as traditional practice of Indian people in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes mellitus is a major health problem especially in the rural and urban population not only of India but throughout the world. There are several remedies for the treatment of diabetes and its associated secondary complications. Herbal drug formulations are correctly preferred due to low toxicity and no side effects. A list of medicinal plants with proven antidiabetic activity and related beneficial effects has been compiled in this review with their botanical names, common name, family, plant/parts used for the diabetic treatment. We hope that this review would initiate an action plan that would lead to the discovery/development of indigenous antidiabetic plant drugs.
Plants are the basis of life on earth, central to people’s livelihoods, important sources of therapeutic drugs and play a significant role in the survival of human including the tribal/ethnic communities and animals. A number of medicinal plants have been used as important source of traditional medicine for thousands of years. In fact, many of the current drugs either mimic naturally occurring molecules or share structures that are fully or in part derived from natural motifs (Baby and Raj, 2010). The World Health Organization (WHO) has listed 21,000 plants, which are used for medicinal purposes around the world. Among these, 2500 species that occur in India, several hundred species are used commercially on a fairly large scale by Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha systems of medicine. India is rich in cultural and floristic diversity and cradle of ancient ethnobotanical knowledge. The present review focuses on medicinal plants and various herbal drugs commonly used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus called as Sweet urine disease. With growing demands of natural products with antidiabetic activity, investigations on hypoglycemic agents derived from medicinal plants have gained popularity during the last few decades (Pullaiah and Naidu, 2003; Elavarasi et al., 2013). Diabetes mellitus (DM) is the most common metabolic, multifactorial genetic disorder due to a defect in insulin secretion, insulin action gene, or both. Insulin deficiency in turn leads to chronic hyperglycemia with disturbances of carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism (Lindberg et al., 2004). Diabetes leads to several wide range of heterogeneous complications such as retinopathy (Hove et al., 2004), neuropathy (Moran et al., 2004), nephropathy (Shukla et al., 2003), cardiovascular complications (Saely, 2004) and ulceration (Wallace, 2002). According to World Health Organization (WHO) over 346 million people worldwide suffer with DM which is likely to double by 2030 without any intervention.
Sulphonylureas and few biguanides are valuable treatment for Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM), but they are unable to lower blood glucose level within normal range and reinstate a normal pattern of glucose homeostasis permanently and accompanied side effects. Uses of these therapies are restricted by their pharmacokinetic properties, secondary failure rates and accompanying side effects (Bailey et al., 1989). Even insulin therapy does not reinstate a permanent normal pattern of glucose homeostasis and carries an increased risk of atherogenesis and hypoglycemia (Shukla et al., 2000). Based on the recent advances and involvement of oxidative stress in complicating diabetes mellitus, efforts are on to find suitable antidiabetic and antioxidant therapies. Medicinal plants are being tapped as sure cure for the treatment of diabetes. History reveals that medicinal plants have been used in traditional healing around the world over for a long time to treat diabetes; this is because such herbal plants have hypoglycemic properties and other beneficial properties, as reported in the literature (Donga et al., 2011; Elavarasi et al., 2013). Number of review on antidiabetic/hyperglycemic plants have been written in the past (Kaczmar, 1998; Jung et al., 2006; Bhushan et al., 2010; Rao et al., 2010; Manikandan et al., 2011; Elavarasi et al., 2013; Gireesha and Raju, 2013; Sucharitha and Mamidala, 2013). According to Marles and Farnsworth (1994, 1995) more than 1200 species of plants are reported to have been used to treat diabetes and/or investigated for antidiabetic activity, Ayurveda and other systems of medicines have described over 800 traditional plant treatments for diabetes in the Indian sub-continent alone, although only a small number of these have received scientific/medical evaluation for their efficacy. The World Health Organization Expert Committee on diabetes has recommended that the traditional medicinal herbs be intensively investigated. Thus, this review is a timely reminder to identify such plants traditionally used effectively for the treatment of diabetes and for carrying out further studies.
The review deals with the various tribes and other ethnic people of India who have been using several dozen plant species belonging to many families for the treatment of diabetes. A study by Devi et al. (2011) revealed that 73 plant species were used by local practitioners in Manipur for the treatment of diabetes. Devi (2011) recorded 51 plant species used by Meitei community of Manipur for the treatment of Diabetes.
The medicinal plants used by the herbalists, tribals and various ethnic people of India for the treatment of diabetes mellitus and their scientific validation are given below.
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas stem bark and leaf decoction (1020 ml) taken one time each alternate day in empty stomach for 4-6 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Leaf of this plant is mixed with the leaves of Andrographis paniculata, Gymnema sylvestre and seeds of Syzygium cumini. The mixture is shade dried and ground into powder and given orally along with cow milk for diabetic treatment. About 50 ml of mixture is given twice a day before food for about 120 days (Ayyanar et al., 2008). Tender leaf paste mixed with the seed powder of Pithecellobium dulce is given orally in empty stomach to cure diabetes (Manikandan et al., 2006). A. precatorius seed has potent antidiabetic property in the diabetic rabbit model (Monago and Alumanah, 2005).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of stem bark (25-50 ml) given two times daily (after principal meals) for 3-4 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
The powder of bark, gum, pods, leaves and seeds are used to treat diabetes mellitus (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Two teaspoonful of stem bark decoction in water is given twice a day for maintaining normal blood glucose level (Vidyasagar and Murthy, 2013). Over 94% seed diet of A. arabica showed hypoglycemic effect in rats by initiating the release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells (Singh, 2011).
In Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh, ash of this plant (about 10 g) with equal quantity of sugar and milk is practiced after meal for 7 days to cure of diabetes (Yadav et al., 2012). Further, A. aspera serves as a good adjuvant in the present armamentarium of antidiabetic drug (Sivanesan and Anand, 2014).
Root decoction (10-15 ml) taken with a cup of milk one time daily (after lunch) for 7-10 days (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Leaves, flowers and root are used for treatment of diabetes by Meitei community of Manipur (Devi, 2011).
Leaves of A. zeylanica are used as the main ingredient in the polyherbal antidiabetic drug formulation. The herbal healers of Kolli hills prepare a polyherbal drug formulation by mixing equal combination of six plants viz., A. zeylanica leaves, Syzygium cumini bark, Terminalia arjuna bark, leaves of Andrographis paniculata, flower of Cassia auriculata and leaves of Aegle marmelos for the effective treatment of diabetes (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). The leafjuice viz. vasaka is often taken with ginger or honey at a dose of15 to 30 ml to reduce blood glucose level (Kumar et al., 2010). Chloroform and ethanol extracts of leaves of this plant favorably reduced the blood glucose level in the alloxan induced diabetic rats (Ilango et al., 2009).
Dried leaf powder of A. marmelos, Azadirachta indica and Ocimum sanctum is given thrice a day for 15 days to cure diabetes (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). Leaves of A.marmelos are used as an important ingredient in the polyherbal drug formulations to treat diabetes (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Regular eating of few leaves of A. marmelos daily at morning half an hour before breakfast would reduce blood glucose level (Vidyasagar and Murthy, 2013). Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
The fruit juice is used to treat diabetes (Raghavendra et al., 2015). The root powder is given orally in tablet form for 1 month to treat diabetes (Rekka et al., 2014). Vineet et al. (2010) reported that methanolic extract of A. salvifolium decreased serum glucose, triglyceride and total cholesterol concentrations and increased serum insulin level in dexamethasoneadministered rats. A. salvifolium leaves were found to contain flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids and steroids which are known to be bioactive antidiabetic principles and its antioxidant properties.
Bulb is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Rhizome is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas fresh leaf pulp (40-50 g) taken once a day in empty stomach for 10-12 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005). In Thirumoorthi hills of Western Ghats, the fresh leaf pulp (40 to 50 g) given once a day on empty stomach for 12 weeks to the diabetic patients to reduce the blood glucose level (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). Treatment of exudates of A. barbadensis leaves gel showed hypoglycemic effect in alloxanized diabetic rats. Bitter principle of Aloe vera is through stimulation of synthesis and/or release of insulin from pancreatic beta cells (Ajabnoor, 1990).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
The leaves of A. paniculata in combination with Polygala elongata and Gymnema sylvestre leaves is given in powder form before food for one week to the patients which effectively controls the blood glucose level (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Decoction of the leaves (50 ml) is prescribed thrice a day after food or fresh raw leaves eaten every day for diabetic treatment (Rajendren and Manian, 2011). Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
A. paniculata or its active compound andrographolide is known to show hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects in high-fat-fructose-fed rat (Nugroho et al., 2012).
In Assam, the Dimasa villagers use this plant for various medicinal purposes especially diabetes. Plant bark decoction is given orally once a day on empty stomach to cure the diabetes (Naui et al., 2011). In Bodoland, in Northeast India, raw bark or/and leaf were ground and the extracts were obtained by squishing, the extract is then filtered and used 2 to 3 teaspoon full of extract every morning (Swargiary et al., 2013).
Leaves and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Nut is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Rewa district of Madhya Pradesh, the Baiga tribes use the seeds of this plant mixed with black pepper and made into a paste and taken orally thrice a day for about 15 days to cure diabetes (Yadav et al., 2012).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Bark and fruit are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of tender shoots (25 ml) taken once a day for 6-8 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005). Root powder of A. racemosus made into pills and one pill is prescribed to take twice a day for 21 days to complete cure of diabetes (Malek et al., 2012). The ethanolic extract of A. racemosus showed significant antidiabetic activity, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant properties against STZ induced diabetic rats (Vadivelan et al., 2011).
Palliyar tribe of Sirumalai hills use raw leaf juice mixed with honey, cow milk, butter and ghee and taken twice a day for 45 days to treat diabetes (Ayyanar, 2008; Maruthapandian et al., 2011; Dey and Dey, 2013). 30 ml ofjuice prepared from the tender leaves with an unripe fruit of Terminalia chebula is taken along with a teaspoon of castor oil (oil obtained from the seeds of Ricinus communis) to treat diabetes (Maruthupandiyan et al., 2011). In Bodoaland raw leaf extracts mixed with little water is taken at a dose of 2-3 teaspoons daily in empty stomach (Swargiary et al., 2013). Leaves and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Hydroalcoholic extracts of A. indica showed antihyperglycemic activity in streptozotocin treated rats and this effect is because of increase in glucose uptake and glycogen deposition in isolated rat hemidiaphragm (Chattopadhyay et al., 1987).
In coastal district of Odisha, the fruit juice (20 ml) with seed powder (1 g) of Syzygium cumini is given twice a day for one month for controlling diabetes (Sahu, 2015). Fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011). Mishra and Barik (2009) have reported that B. hispida produced better hypoglycemic action in animal model.
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas root bark extract (5-10 ml) taken twice daily (after breakfast and dinner) for 1-2 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Leafjuice is taken early morning on empty stomach to treat diabetes (Basha et al., 2011). The leaves are diuretic and relieve strangury and commonly known as “Nagbeli,” a folk medicine against “Madhumeha” (Diabetes mellitus), particularly in Eastern Nepal (Pant and Joshi, 1993; Puri et al., 1997). The ethanol and ethylacetate extract of the whole plant has significant hypoglycemic effect, which is possibly due to pancreatic beta-cell stimulating action of the fractions of plant extracts (Renuka, 2012).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas the whole plant is crushed without water and the juice (5-10 ml) taken one to two times daily for 3-4 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Bark, flower and fruit are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Seed decoction is given daily to cure diabetes (Thirumalai et al., 2012). It is a traditional medicinal plant and its seed extract possess hypoglycemic activity (Arumugam et al., 2013). Oral feeding of B. juncea diet (10% w/w) for 60 days to normal rats led to significant hypoglycemic effect. This effect was attributed to stimulation of glycogen synthetase (leading to increase in hepatic glycogen content) and suppression of glycogen phosphorylase and other gluconeogenic enzymes (Mukesh and Namita, 2013).
Fruits and seeds are used for treatment of diabetes by the Meitei tribe of Manipur (Davi, 2011).
Leafjuice (10 ml) of this plant is administered once a day for 5 to 10 days on empty stomach by villagers in coastal districts of Odisha. It helps in reducing blood sugar favorably (Sahu, 2015). Whole plant is useful for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Roasted seed powder (20 g) is orally given twice a day for diabetic patients (Pushpakarani and Natarajan, 2014). Oral administration of the seed extract (300 mg/kg) of C. bonducella produced significant antihyperglycemic action as well as it lowered the Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) levels significantly. The antihyperglycemic action of the extract may be due to the blocking of glucose absorption. The drug has the potential to act as antidiabetic as well as antihyperlipidemic (Kannur et al., 2006).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas raw fruit (1-2) taken as masticatory two times daily (after breakfast and lunch) for 6-8 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
The latex of this plant is used to treat diabetes (Saravanan and Karuppannan, 2013). C. procera dried leaves extract (300 and 600 mg/kg) significantly reduced the blood glucose level in the STZ induced diabetic rats and improved metabolic status of the animals and ameliorate the oral tolerance glucose test (Neto et al., 2013).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas flowers are made into curry and taken with staple food two times per week for 4-6 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Leaves and aerial parts are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Leaves, flower and resins are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas leaf extract (5-10 ml) taken two times daily for 3-4 weeks (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Shade dried leaf powder is mixed with cup of water or goat or cow milk or boiled rice are taken orally. One or two teaspoon is taken regularly in the early morning until cure (Ayyanar et al., 2008).
Fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Leaf and flower are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Flowers of C. auriculata are used as an important ingredient in the polyherbal drug formulations. It is widely used in Indian folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Flowers, stem, bark and seeds are used to treat diabetes by the Meitei community of Manipur (Devi, 2011). 30 ml of the boiled water extract of the roots is taken twice a day for a period of one month to treat diabetes (Maruthupandian et al., 2011). Methanol extract of C. auriculata bark has been found to have potent antidiabetic activity that reduces blood sugar level in streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats (Daisy et al., 2012).
Tender shoot is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
About 20 ml of the boiled water extract of the flowers is taken regularly twice a day by diabetic patients to reduce the blood glucose level (Maruthupandian et al., 2011). One teaspoon powder of seeds is given once in the morning for about 15 days or more for diabetic treatment (Yadav et al., 2012; Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). Bark and seeds are used to treat diabetes by the Meitei community of Manipur (Devi, 2011).
A thick extract is made from 250 g crushed root or leaf in 2.5 liters or even more water. It is strained and evaporated on gentle heat. When the volume is reduced to about 4 liter, 1-2 teaspoonful is administered orally twice a day or whole plant is powdered and mixed with cow’s milk and given orally to the diabetic patients (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014; Maruthapandian et al., 2011). In Bodoland in North-East India fresh leaf extracts or fresh leaf may be chewed in empty stomach (Swargiary et al., 2013). Tender leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas raw leaf (1-2) chewed daily for 2 weeks for curing diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Methanol extract of leaves at a dose 500 mg/kg given orally for 15 days showed 57.6% hypoglycemic activity in the STZ induced diabetic rats (Singh et al., 2001) and increased plasma insulin level (Elavarasi et al., 2013).
Tender shoots are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
The whole plant (5 ml of expressed juice) is taken daily once for 21 days for effective treatment of diabetes by villagers of Bhatiya district of Madhya Pradesh (Ahirwar, 2014). In Bodoland, in North-east India fresh leaf extracts 2-3 teaspoon in empty stomach nearly 21 days in the early diabetic conditions (Swargiary et al., 2013).
Bark, stem, root and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of stem bark taken three times daily for 3-4 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 29005).
In Thirumoorthy hills, local people used (3 times/day) decoction of the stem bark for the treatment of diabetes (Elavarasi et al., 2013). About 5 g of stem bark powder is taken with water daily once for 2-3 weeks for reducing blood glucose (Vidyasagar and Murthy, 2013). Bark, flower, fruit and root are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas Root bark extract (5-10 ml) taken one to two times daily for 2-3 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Bodoland, North-East India the bark of the red ripened fruit is dried and powdered. Powder is taken 5-10 g with water in empty stomach (Swargiary et al., 2013).
Fruits are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Meitei community of Manipur treat diabetes with fruits of Citrus aurantifolia (Devi, 2011).
Stem and fruit are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Peels of three fruits are boiled in 1 liter of water for 10 minutes and filtered and the decoction is cooled and taken daily for permanent cure of diabetes (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). Seeds of C. medica are potent antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic agent (Archana et al., 2011).
Root and fruit are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Tender leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas fresh root extract (5-10 ml) taken two times daily (before principal meals) for 3-4 weeks for curing diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005). Leaf juice and mucilage from immature fruits (2 teaspoon) are given twice or thrice a day after food (Rajendren and Manian, 2013). Two fresh fruits are taken regularly to prevent diabetes (Maruthapandian et al., 2011). The leaves in the form of curry or as decoction are taken orally to cure diabetes (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). Oral administration of dried (powder) extract for 6-8 weeks significantly increases insulin concentration in a clinical study. The plant extract exert beneficial hypoglycemic effect in experimental animals as well as human diabetic subject possibly through an insulin secreting effect or through influence of enzymes involved in glucose metabolism (Singh, 2011).
Flower, fruit and root are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
C. sativum has been documented as a traditional treatment of diabetes. Coriander seeds (5 g) are boiled, filtered and given orally for a month to treat diabetes. Gray and Flatt (1999) demonstrated the presence of antihyperglycaemic, insulin-releasing and insulin-like activity in C. sativum.
Consumption of 2 to 3 fresh leaves per day is found to lower blood glucose levels (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012; Kumudhavalli and Jayakar, 2012). Oral administration of ethanolic extract of C. igneus leaves significantly increased the body weight and decreased blood glucose level in diabetic rats (Vishnu et al., 2010).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of rhizome (10-20 ml) taken two to three times daily for 2-4 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005). About 20 to 25 g of fresh rhizome is ground into a paste and given orally after food thrice a day for 2 months to treat diabetes (Ayyanar et al., 2008). The powdered leaves are taken internally with cow milk (Ignacimuthu et al., 2006; Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014).
In coastal district of Odisha, the decoction of bark (5 g) of this plant and juice of the leaves (19 g) of Gymnema sylvestre is mixed and given to the diabetic patients for permanent cure (Sahu, 2015). The major constituents present in this herbal mixture are alkaloids, minor flavonoids, sterols, triterpines and the isothiocyanate glucosides which are responsible for various medicinal activities. Crateva magna is beneficial in lowering the blood sugar concentration and in management of other diabetic complications without any doubt (Das et al., 2010).
Seeds of the plant used for the treatment of diabetes by the local people of Javathu Hills, Tamilnadu (Thirumalai et al., 2012). The Leaves consumed as decoction, juice or infusion to treat diabetics (Kadhirvel et al., 2010).
Fresh juice (15 ml) of the rhizome with equal amount of fresh juice of Phyllanthus emblica leaves given (3 times/day) to reduce glucose level in urine (Dixit and Sudurshan, 2011; Thirumalai et al., 2012). In Bodoland, Northeast India about 8 g of raw turmeric grind with water and V spoon of honey and given for 1 month after meal to cure diabetes (Swargiary et al., 2013). The aqueous extract of C. longa rhizome possesses antidiabetic activity and used for the management of diabetes and associated metabolic alterations (Olatunde et al., 2014).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
The pith of the plant is given to diabetic patients and it also given with milk of Pterocarpus marsupium for 3 months (Saravanan and Karuppannan, 2013; Elavarasi, 2015).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Fruit and root are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Roots are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Tubers are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Boiled ragi rice (chodi kangi) with buttermilk in the morning is a good diet for diabetes to maintain normal blood glucose level (Singh and Panda, 2005). The grains are used for the various medical treatments especially to diabetic patients for reducing the blood glucose level (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Phenolic compounds from the millet seed coat showed strong inhibition towards α-glucosidase and pancreatic amylase and the IC50 values were 16.9 and 23.5 pg of phenolics, respectively. It indicated the therapeutic potentiality of millet phenolics in the management of postprandial hyperglycemia (Shobana et al., 2009).
About 10 ml of fresh fruit juice is taken twice daily to control diabetes. Fivegram powder of fruit and seed is taken daily with luke warm water controls blood sugar (Mall and Sahani, 2013). In Bodoland, North-east India, about 10 numbers of fruits were grounded and juice was mixed with honey and taken every day (Swargiary et al., 2013). Oral administration of ethanolic extract of seed powder of E. officinalis decreased the blood glucose level and serum cholesterol level in alloxan induced diabetic rats (Saravanan, 2008).
Rhizomes are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Bodoland, North-east India, fresh roots were grounded for obtaining juice. 25 ml ofjuice were taken for one week without water (Swargiay et al., 2013).
In Kolli hills, the leaf juice of this plant is given to diabetic patients to manage blood glucose level (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Ethanolic extract of E. neriifolia (400 mg/kg) exhibited anti diabetic potential along with antihyperlipidemic activity after repeated oral administration in the STZ induced diabetic rat model (Mansuri and Patel, 2013).
Raw fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Stem bark of F. benghalensis and root bark of F religiosa are mixed with equal proportions and crushed into a paste. Five gram of the preparation is eaten with honey or milk at every morning and evening to cure diabetes (Devi et al., 2011; Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). The alcoholic extract of fruits of F. benghalensis was found to exert a more pronounced antidiabetic activity than the other parts of the tree (Sharma et al., 2007).
Root and fruits are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas fruit juice (20-25 ml) taken two times daily (before meals) for 4-8 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005). In Kolli hills, the Malayali tribes practiced the bark of this plant as main ingredient in the polyherbal antidiabetic drug formulation. This drug is given to the diabetic patients as one teaspoon before food in the morning and after food in the evening for the effective treatment of diabetes (Saravanan and Karuppannan, 2013; Elavarasi, 2015). The methanol extract of the bark of F racemosa acted in a similar fashion to glibenclamide (standard drug) and it can be suggested that these results provide pharmacological evidence for its folklore claim as an antidiabetic agent (Rao et al., 2002).
Raw fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur ( Devi et al, 2011)
A handful of fresh stem bark boiled in 100 ml of water with few dried leaves of Gymnema sylvestre. The decoction so obtained is taken twice a day for seven weeks to treat diabetes (Maruthapandian et al., 2011).
In Darjeeling Himalayas root decoction (25-50 ml) taken two times daily for 4-8 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Fruits are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Before meal, two leaves are given to the diabetic patients for 48 days for complete cure of diabetes. This is the most common practice of the local herbal healers of Kolli hills (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). The Powdered leaves are mixed with cow milk and boiled rice, kept over night and taken internally twice a day (Ignacimuthu et al., 2006). The fasting blood glucose, cholesterol and serum triglyceride content were found to be reduced in aqueous leaf extract of G. sylvestre treated diabetic rats and the extract also showed the potent elevation in the level of serum HDL-cholesterol (Mall et al., 2009).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas fruit juice (10-15 ml) taken one time daily for 2 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Decoction or juice of root bark given in diabetes to reduce of glucose level in the blood (Kapoor, 2000). The butanol extracts the root of Helicteres isora at 250 mg/kg, possess antihyperglyceic activity in glucose loaded rats acts through insulin-sensitizing activity (Ayodhya et al., 2010).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
The root infusion is taken twice a day for a period of six weeks to treat diabetes (Manikandan et al., 2006). Four weeks treatment of diabetic rats with H. indicus root extract (40 mg/g body weight/day) showed significant hypoglycemic effect (Sowmia and Kokilavani, 2007).
Two teaspoonful of root paste is given twice a day to treat diabetes (Vidyasagar and Murthy, 2013). The flower powder is used for the control of blood glucose level (Elavarasi et al., 2013). Ethanolic extract of H. rosa-sinensis flowers showed a maximal diminution in blood glucose (41-46%) and an increased insulin level (14%) in STZ induced diabetic rats. Further, the extract lowered the total cholesterol and serum triglycerides by 22 and 30%, respectively (Sachdewa and Khemani, 2003).
In Bodoland, Northeast India, fresh or dry extracts of the fruit juice is taken 2-3 teaspoons in empty stomach (Swargiary et al., 2013).
20 ml juice of the whole plant is taken with cow milk for a period of four to five months to treat diabetes (Manikandan et al., 2006). The whole plant mixtures along with cow milk two times a day for 60 days also a good ailment for the disease (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). Aqueous extract of H. enneaspermus reduce blood glucose level in STZ-induced diabetic model. The drug also shows significant hypoglycemic activity but the effect is dose independent (Patel et al., 2011).
Rhizome is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
The pericarp of fruit is obtained and dried for 4 to 5 days. Then they are ground to make a paste. From the paste, about half teaspoon is mixed in a glass of water and taken at every morning for one month to cure diabetes (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). I. batatas can be recommended to be used as an antidiabetic agent for patients living with diabetes due to the fact that it is cheap and also a natural agent (Ijaola et al., 2014). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas the juice of the aerial part of the plant (25-30 ml) taken two times daily for 3-4 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
The leaf powder of the J. tranquebarienis is given orally to the diabetic patients to control the blood sugar level (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012). Pre-treatment with aqueous leaf extract of J. tranquebariensis reduced the enhanced level of SGOT and SGPT, ACP, ALP which seems to offer the protection and maintain the functional integrity of hepatic cells (Shabanan Begum et al., 2011).
Rhizome is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Bodoland, North-east India 1 g of raw leaves grinded with 100 ml of water. Leaf extract, 2-3 teaspoons early in the morning (Swargiary et al., 2013).
Fruit and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In rural/local people all over India particularly south India practiced decoction of flowers and seeds taken once in a day for 10 to 15 days for reducing blood glucose level (Yadav et al., 2012). An ethanolic extract of L. inermis leaves showed a significant fall in fasting blood glucose (Chikkareddy et al., 2012).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas one raw fruit chewed as masticatory two times daily for 4-6 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Two to three seeds are powdered with same number of seeds of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels and given thrice a day (Vidyasagar and Murthy, 2013). Fruit and tender leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Shade dried leaf powder is mixed with cup of water and boiled rice and kept overnight and taken orally. One teaspoon is taken early in the morning for 45 days or until cure (Ayyanar et al., 2008). The administration of methanolic extract of the plant resulted in significant reduction of blood glucose level, urea, creatinine, SGOT and SGPT (p<0.001) in diabetic rats (Puttaswamy et al., 2013).
About 5 g of fruit powder is mixed with equal quantity of seed powder of Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels and this mixture is prescribed for the treatment of diabetes. One teaspoon of this powder is taken with a cup of butter milk twice a day for curing diabetes (Vidyasagar and Murthy, 2013). Further, the Palliyar tribals in Sirumali hills, Western Ghats, Tamilnadu used 30 ml of fresh juice of unripe fruit and few fresh leaves with pieces of stem bark of Syzygium cumini once in a day to treat diabetes (Maruthupandian et al., 2011). In Bodoland, Northeast India, fresh extracts of fruit juice one ounce to be taken in empty stomach (Swargiary et al., 2013). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas fruit extract (25 ml) taken two times daily for 12-14 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005). Administration of ethanolic extract of Momordica charantia suppressed gluconeogenesis in normal and streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic rats by depressing the hepatic gluconeogenic enzymes fructose-1, 6-bisphosphatase and glucose6-phosphatse (Chowdhury et al., 2012).
In Hamirpur district of Himachal Pradesh the local people use fruit as vegetable and 20 ml of fruit juice is taken once a day to control diabetes (Kumar et al., 2014). This is commonly used as vegetable in many parts of India.
The fruit juice (15-20 ml) along with little old jaggery is given once daily for 15 days (Pavani et al., 2012). The leaves extract of Moringa oleífera revealed anti-hyperglycemic activity in diabetic mice and improved the glucose tolerance impairment in mildly diabetic mice. Thus, Moringa oleifera Lam. may be introduced as an antidiabetic herb (Luangpiom et al., 2013).
About 2 to 3 teaspoon of fresh leaves extract is taken in the early morning results reduced blood glucose (Swargiary et al., 2013). In Bodoland, Northeast India leaf extract, 2-3 teaspoon early in the morning (Swargiary et al., 2013). M. koenigii leaf extract showed hypoglycemic activity and may also reverse dyslipidemia associated with diabetes, and prevent the cardio vascular complications which are very prevalent in diabetic patients (Kesari et al., 2007).
Leaves, flowers and unripe fruits are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of rootstock (30-50 ml) taken once daily for 2-3 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Flowers are made into juice and taken orally for about 15 days to cure diabetes mellitus (Yadav et al., 2012). Extract of flowers at a dosage of 250 mg/kg is a good choice for controlling the blood glucose level in diabetic rats (Sakuljaitrong et al., 2013).
One spoon of the powdered seeds is taken orally before meal for curing diabetes (Andaloussi et al., 2008). Significant decreases in blood glucose level, and increase in serum insulin level were observed on treatment with N. sativa oil for 4 weeks. Immunohistochemical staining of pancreas from N. sativa oil-treated group showed large areas with positive immunoreactivity for the presence of insulin (Fararh et al., 2002; Meddah et al., 2009).
Flowers and leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Leaves are dried under shade and ground to make powder. 21 g of powdered leaves is taken twice a day to cure diabetes (Vijayalakshmi et al., 2014). The consumption of fresh leaves is also used to reduce the blood glucose level (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012; Gireesha and Raju, 2013). Ethanolic extract of O. sanctum has significant and sustained oral hypoglycemic activity, comparable with the hypoglycemic effect of glibenclamide, a sulfonylurea (Rao et al., 2013).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas stem bark decoction (15-20 ml) or juice (5-10 ml) taken two to three times daily to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Fruits and leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas leaf infusion (50-60 ml) taken one time in the morning for 2-3 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas dried rhizome powder (0.5-1 g) taken one time daily with warm milk to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Inflorescence and bark are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Bodoland, North-east India, fresh extract of the leaf, 2-3 teaspoons early in the morning (Swargiary et al., 2013).
Whole plant is used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
Fruits and leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas dry rhizome powder (0.5 g) taken with two tablespoon of curd and a pinch of pepper power one time daily for 1-2 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Stem is used for the treatment of diabetes by the Meitei tribe of Manipur (Devi, 2011).
The flowers are fried in ghee/butter and taken with honey thrice a day to treat diabetes (Maruthupandian et al., 2011). Ethanolic and aqueous extract of P. pinnata leaves showed significant antidiabetic activity in alloxan induced diabetic rats (Sikarwar and Patil, 2010).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of root (20-25 ml) taken two times daily for 4-8 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Hot water extract of dried leaves or the fresh juice of leaves (2 teaspoon) and fruits are taken orally thrice a day to reduce blood glucose level of diabetic patients (Elavarasi and Saravanan, 2012; Gireesha and Raju, 2013).
The extract showed significant hypolipidemic activity in addition to its hypoglycemic and antidiabetic activity. In view of its relative non-toxic nature P. guajava raw fruit peel may be a potential antidiabetic agent (Rai et al., 2010).
In Sirumalai of Western Ghats, hot water extract of the stem bark (20 ml in twice a day) is used by the Palliyar tribes as household remedy to treat diabetes (Marudhapandian, 2011). It is scientifically proved by the study of Mishra et al. (2013) in which, the ethanolic extract and hexane and n-butanol fractions of heartwood of this plant administered in diabetic model and results showed marked decline in blood glucose level and significant increase in insulin level.
Seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of stem bark (20-25 ml) taken one or two times daily for 2-3 week to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Bodoland, Northeast India, dried barks of the plant is soaked into water for 12 hours and filtered; the filtrate (approximately 30 ml) is taken every day in empty stomach for 1 month (Swargiary et al., 2013).
About 50 g leaves are mixed with sufficient amount of ghritkumari (Aloe vera) gel and tablets are formed. One tablet is taken twice daily with honey, which cure diabetes (Mall and Sahani, 2013).
Consumption of fresh leaves on an empty stomach control the blood sugar level (Manikandan et al., 2006). The 5. officinalis extract revealed significant hypoglycemic activity in STZ-induced diabetic rats (Khattab et al., 2012).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas infusion of the dry flower (50100 ml) taken two times daily (before principal meals) for 4-5 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Bark and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
Fruit and leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Bodoland, North-east India the juice extract of the fresh fruits (1-3 no.) is taken as a remedy to the high blood glucose in the body (Swargiary et al., 2013).
In Bodoland, North-east India, about 200 g of 5. oleracea mixed with a most equal amount of fresh carrot and grounded to obtain juice which is taken every day in empty stomach (Swargiary et al., 2013).
Bark and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
In Bodoland, North-East India aqueous extracts of the whole plant at a dose of 2-3 teaspoon in empty stomach is believed to help reduce the glucose concentration in blood (Swargiary et al., 2013).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas root decoction (20-25 ml) taken with milk two to three times daily for 1-2 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas infusion of whole plant (40-50 ml) taken two times daily (before principal meals for 3-4 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas infusion of the whole plant (5060 ml) taken one time daily in empty stomach for 2 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of shoot (20-25 ml) taken two times daily (before meals) for 4-6 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
The decoction of stem bark (50 ml) is taken orally twice a day till cure and the mature fruits are eaten as raw (Rajendren and Manian, 2011). The seed powder reduces the blood glucose level and reported to possess hypoglycemic effect (Elavarasi et al., 2013). Fruits, bark and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of stem bark (25-30 ml) taken three times daily for 2-3 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi et al., 2011).
The seeds of T. indica are made into pills. One pill is taken twice daily for 21 days to cure diabetes (Malek et al., 2012). Leaf decoction is given to diabetic patients (Dey and Dey, 2013). Aqueous extract of seed of T. indica has potent antidiabetogenic activity that reduces blood sugar level in streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetic male rat (Maiti et al., 2004).
Bark of Arjuna tree is used as an important ingredient in the poly herbal antidiabetic drug formulation (Kumar and Prabhakar, 1987). Oral administration of ethanolic extract of T. arjuna bark (250 and 500 mg/kg body weight) in alloxan induced diabetic rats resulted in significant decrease of blood glucose and decrease in the activities of glucose-6-phosphatase, fructose-1,6-disphosphatase, aldolase and an increase in the activity of phosphoglucoisomerase and hexokinase in tissues (Ragavan and Krishnakumari, 2006).
Whole plant, stem, bark and leaves are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
An infusion of the stem is to treat diabetes mellitus. T. crispa extract possesses an antihyperglycaemic effect which is probably due to the stimulation of insulin release via modulation of beta-cell Ca2+ concentration (Noor et al., 1998).
Fruit and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the Meitei community of Manipur (Devi, 2011).
It is a common antidiabetic plant used all over India. The seeds are commonly used to treat diabetes as powder, roasted seeds or seeds soaked in water overnight and the decoction is taken in the morning. About 5 to 10 gram of powdered seed is taken daily with cold water is an easy remedy for diabetes (Renuka et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2014). About 25 g seeds are given daily for 21 days with water. The inhabitants claimed that it is one of the effective treatments to reduce blood glucose in diabetic patients (Ahmad et al., 2009). The administration of seed extract of fenugreek reduced the glucose level of not only blood but also other tissue like liver and pancreas (Sarasa et al., 2012). The leaves both dried and fresh are also used as powder or made into curries, commonly called as Methi. Leaves and seeds are used for the treatment of diabetes by the Meitei community of Manipur (Davi, 2011). In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas sprouted seeds mixed with chilly, salt and garlic and ground into a paste. 5-10 g of the paste taken with two principal meals daily to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of young leaves and shoots (50-100 ml) taken as curry one or two times daily with meals for 4-8 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
In Bodoland, North-east India about 50 g of raw seeds grounded and soaked in 1 cup of milk overnight and taken for 20 days (Swargiary et al., 2013).
About 50 to 75 ml of leaf powder is taken orally along with cow milk twice a day after food for 90 days (Ayyanar et al., 2008) to complete cure of diabetes.
Withania somnífera (L.) Dunal: Winter cherry (Solanaceae)
Leaf powder in one cup of water is taken once a day for the treatment of diabetes and its allied complications (Thirumalai et al., 2012). It decreases blood glucose level, prevents hyperinsulinemia and improved glucose tolerance in NIDDM rats and it can improve insulin sensitivity (Anwer et al., 2008).
Leaves and roots are used for the treatment of diabetes by the ethnic tribes of Manipur (Devi, 2011; Devi et al., 2011).
In Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas decoction of rhizome (25-50 ml) taken as herbal tea with a pinch of salt two to three times daily for 8-12 weeks to cure diabetes (Chhetri et al., 2005).
Walters et al. (2008) in their review mention the wide range medicinal properties of several mangroves for teeth problems and diabetes. According to Govindasamy and Kannan (2012) several mangroves species are used to treat range of ailments including diabetes. Prabhakaran and Kavitha (2012) stated that Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. (Rhizophoraceae) bark is a powerful astringent is useful in diabetes. Its bark used to treat diabetes, leprosy hemorrhage and dysentery (Sathe et al., 2014).
To conclude many different Indian plants described above have been traditionally used individually or in various formulations for treatment of diabetes and its complications. This review hopefully will help to find out the safe drug for the treatment of diabetes. However, the active ingredients in the herbal formulations are not well defined. It is therefore important to know the active component and their molecular interactions, which will help to analyze the therapeutic efficacy of the product and also to standardize the product. In this regard the observations of Marles and Farnsworth (1995) are relevant. A scientific investigation of traditional herbal remedies for diabetes may provide valuable leads for the development of alternative drugs and therapeutic strategies. Alternatives are clearly needed because of the inability of current therapies to control all of the pathological aspects of diabetes, and the high cost and poor availability of current therapies for many rural populations. Considering the rich cultural ethnotraditions of plant use and the high prevalence of diabetes mellitus in India, more in vivo investigations should be encouraged in order to validate the antidiabetic activity of the identified plants as claimed by the traditional healers.
The authors (GR, SE & KS) thank the University Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial assistance and also thank the management, Principal and Head of the Department of Zoology, Nehru Memorial College (Autonomous) Puthanampatti for encouragement and financial assistance.
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