Developing the Design: Focusing on the Ground Plane
With the research and preparation phase completed, you are now ready to start designing. In this chapter you will prepare a preliminary garden layout plan based on the conclusions you reached through the site survey, site inventory and site appraisal, and your initial planning ideas in the concept diagrams.
The graphic language (the ability to put your ideas on paper) is central to the garden design process. It is used to communicate ideas and solutions and to record information. You may have had no experience with drawing and be daunted by the idea of expressing yourself graphically, but the objective is not to produce beautiful pieces of artwork but simply to communicate your ideas. The basic drawing skills that are needed for working plans (covered in Chapter 1) are developed in this chapter to cover those that are needed to create a garden layout plan.
When thinking of how to start designing a new garden, it is easy to think in terms of playing with the existing features (for example, enlarging the terrace or widening borders). However, this approach does not properly consider the available space and tends to produce predictable results, which do not really constitute a thorough redesign of the garden.
Approaching things in a different way and starting by creating abstract patterns on paper will inspire a variety of alternative designs for your garden, many of which you may not originally have thought of (just as abstract art is open to different interpretations). Once you have experimented and established how to create patterns of different character, you are ready to redesign your site. The patterns can then be combined with a grid structure, which will lead you to create different design themes based on circles, diagonals or rectangles. These themes can then be translated into gardens by imagining each design as three-dimensional and allocating elements, such as a terrace or paths, to the spaces created by the themes. The three-dimensional implications of your proposals can then be considered, and the way the mood of a space is affected by the quality of light.
Scale and proportion are examined so that you can relate the scale of the human figure to the much greater scale of the outside world. For instance, the dimensions of garden features such as steps need to be more generous than those usually found inside a house. Surfaces and suitable rigid and loose materials for your hard landscaping are also chosen at this stage. As a general guide, the proportions of one-third or two-thirds of hard landscaping to two-thirds or one-third of soft landscaping (lawn, water and planting) are a comfortable ratio to work to.
The presence or absence of water in the garden must be addressed early in the design stage. In areas where water is scarce, your garden layout plan should reflect your concern in both hard landscaping and planting. For practical purposes, the location of the various features should be governed by the type of soil, climate and accessibility. To be aesthetically acceptable, the scale and type of water feature should appear to be a natural part of the design.
Having considered all these factors, you will be ready to examine your previous ideas and refine them, focusing on the horizontal plane of the design (perhaps allowing ample space for a terrace and paths) and enhancing the scheme with some vertical interest, to produce a preliminary garden layout plan.
The four kinds of plans described in Chapter 1—the site survey, the site inventory, the site appraisal and the concept diagram—are unlikely to be seen by anyone but you, as they are working drawings. However, the next stage—the garden layout plan—should be drawn up on a sheet of tracing paper. This drawing should be neat, clear and well organized so that it can be presented to a client, used by a contractor or simply kept for your own use. This plan will then be reproduced by copying for you to work from at the next stage, and for all subsequent work, giving continuity of the design and the layout of the plan sheet. (Remember that A2 paper is a convenient size to work with, as it is easier to have reproduced as a photocopy, dyeline or blueprint than a larger size.)
Although preprinted architect’s plan sheets are available, for a professional finish it is better to design your own master plan sheet. It should contain the following:
– A “title block”, containing the name of the garden owner, your name (as the designer), the title of the drawing and the scale to which it is drawn
– An information panel in which to write additional information to supplement the plan
– A north point to denote orientation
– A scale
– The plan
– A border
The title block, north point and scale should always be located in the bottom right-hand corner of your plan so that this information can be seen at a glance when the plan is folded. (It might be difficult to open out the plan outdoors in a high wind!) The plan itself should be positioned centrally in the remaining space, allowing sufficient space around it for any labelling or notes.
When possible, position your plan so that it reflects your main viewing point of the garden.
The dimensions of the title block will be determined by the organization of the information, the size and style of the lettering and the typeface used. The title block should be in proportion to the sheet size but should not exceed a width of 150 mm (6 in.). The following information should be included:
– Printed details giving your name (or company name) as the designer and your logo if you have one, your address, telephone, fax, mobile number and email address (the design can be printed separately and double up as a visiting card)
– The name and/or address of the client or garden owner
– The title of the drawing (for example, garden layout plan, planting plan, visual)
– The scale or scales used
– The date
– A drawing number (any later revisions should have subsequent numbers)
– Any alterations or revisions, numbered accordingly
– “Drawn by [initials only]” (occasionally different people work on the same drawing)
– A disclaimer
– A statement of copyright
The statement of copyright (for example, © RA) protects you as a designer so that your work cannot be used or copied without your permission. If you are designing a garden for a client it is particularly important to include a disclaimer stating that “all dimensions must be checked on site and not scaled from this drawing”. This puts the responsibility for checking dimensions for tendering purposes or beginning construction on the contractor. This was necessary before modern drawing reproduction methods, when drawings were executed on linen, which could stretch and result in inaccurate measurements, but it is still in use as a safeguard.
An example of a title block
The title block should have your own logo or style. Choice of lettering or typeface is a personal matter, but simple, clear styles are usually the most effective. The title block can be designed as a separate piece of artwork before being applied to the sheet together with the information panel and border.
The lettering on a title block (and for the labelling of the plan) can be produced by hand, with stencils or dry-transfer lettering, (although this is seldom used nowadays) or by computer. Handwriting is the quickest method for labelling, but it is only suitable if your writing is neat and legible, since lettering is part of the overall visual presentation. Styles of writing vary enormously, and many different styles are acceptable.
The important thing is to aim for consistency of letterform, spacing (between letters, words and lines of lettering) and style. If you are lettering by hand or with stencils, it will help if you use lined paper or lay graph paper under your drawing. Keep the pencil line weight consistent, and work down from the top of the page to avoid smudging. A “rolling ruler”, available from most graphic equipment stores, also helps to improve handwriting.
It is useful to develop a style of lettering that is comfortable for you. Aim to be clear, consistent and legible. Try different techniques, particularly when designing your title block. Practise using stencils, aiming for even letter and word spacing, holding the stencil firmly with one hand against the T-square or parallel motion. It is easier to keep the letters close together than to space them widely at even intervals.
If you have a computer or typewriter, you may wish to generate text using this equipment. Where possible, try out different sizes and typefaces. Remember that the originals will be copied and that some typefaces will reproduce better than others. This is a suitable technique to use for designing a title block, but for labelling, the text will need to be printed, cut out and stuck onto your drawing, and this is a time-consuming process.
If you are not using graph paper under the tracing paper sheet, use pencil guidelines to ensure that the letters are all the same height.
You can maintain verticals by using a small set square against your parallel rule.
Oblong proportions result in the most stable lettering.
Computer-generated lettering offers a huge range of styles and sizes.
This area is usually designed as a vertical extension of the title block. It will eventually contain notes (on design intention and hard landscaping or plant numbers, for example) to supplement your drawings.
Your drawings—the garden layout, planting plans and visuals—will look more professional if a border surrounds the sheet on which they are displayed. This will draw attention to the work in the same way as a frame sets off a painting or a photograph.
A border should be drawn in ink with a technical drawing pen in a fairly thick nib size (0.5 mm or 0.7 mm) around the perimeter of the sheet, approximately 10 mm (0.4 in.) from the outside edge.
Borders may consist of a single straight line, a double line (perhaps with the outer line thicker than the inner one) or a pattern. A small detail can be used to emphasize each corner. Borders may be drawn by hand or on a computer. Experiment with different effects, remembering that you are aiming for a border design that will enhance, rather than distract from, a plan. A simple, clear design is often the most successful and tends to suit the majority of garden styles.
Simple borders are usually the most effective. Fancy or elaborate designs should be used with great care. They may make your design look dated.
Symbols are used on all plan drawings to represent the objects and elements that occur within the site or are intended to feature in the new design. The symbols should be to scale and can be more or less realistic, depending on the time and budget available to complete the plan. The following pages will review some that you have already encountered in Chapter 1 and introduce you to other graphic symbols that are commonly used in garden design.
Look at garden plans from books and magazines to see how other designers have evolved different symbols to indicate features such as hard-landscaping materials and plants.
House walls: when drawing house walls it is important to position doors and windows accurately as these provide key links between the house and garden. House walls have a thickness—usually of around 300 mm (1 ft.)—which should be shown on plan drawings. At a scale of 1:100 or smaller, you can emphasize the house walls by thickening the lines or by filling them in.
Drawing surveys: When drawing a survey, emphasize the house and boundary lines so that these elements are well-defined when the survey is later placed under tracing paper overlays.
When drawing boundaries such as walls, fences and hedges, always draw the thickness of the boundary to scale.
Drawing free-standing walls: The simplest way of drawing a wall is by using a double line and labelling it to indicate the material. If you wish to show more detail, the wall coping for instance, it is only necessary to detail a small section of the wall.
Paving and ground surfaces: When drawing an area of paving it is neither necessary nor possible to show every brick and stone. Provide a separate details sheet (at a larger scale) rather than confuse your plan with too much information. Always label each area to clarify the material used and the layout. You may also distinguish between different surfaces by applying colour.
Still water
Water with fountain
Vertical surfaces: You can give your plan depth—and therefore help the reading of it—if you emphasize all lines representing vertical surfaces, such as those representing tree canopies, free-standing walls, seats, posts, pillars, pergolas and arches (as in the diagram) etc.
A plan drawing of the same part of the garden shows how heavier lines are used to represent all elements with a vertical surface and so clarify the plan. Note how only the outer edge of the retaining wall is emphasized.
An overview of part of a garden indicating, with crosses, all the vertical surfaces.
Trees and shrubs: Indicate areas of planting by showing a stylized outline. Plants normally spread out from borders, often overhanging the edge of beds. If you show this overhang (partly concealing the edge of the bed) you will make your plans look more realistic. In Chapter 4, when developing planting plans, you will be shown how to indicate individual plants.
Gardens are essentially made up of hard landscaping and plants, but taken at their most abstract they are composed of lines and shapes that make up a pattern. Before getting into too much detail, you must first become aware of shape, line and pattern and how to use them to create gardens of different character and style.
In garden design the two most commonly used geometric shapes are the square and the circle, or parts of these two. When we describe a design theme as circular, what we mean is that the circles, or circular shapes, predominate. Circular themes are rarely composed entirely of circles. Similarly, in a rectilinear theme the rectangles, or parts of a rectangle, predominate. These rectangles may originate from using multiples of a square grid. The diagonal theme also employs mainly squares and rectangles, but these are set at an angle to the house or existing terrace to introduce a strong directional element.
Learning how to use and combine shapes to create patterns is the key to producing positive, strong designs. It is worth looking carefully at different shapes and themes to identify the components that are important in their design use.
To create strong relationships and avoid awkward angles, lines that meet the circle’s circumference should meet it at right angles or tangentially.
The circle: For designers, the most important parts of a circular shape are its centre, the diameter, the radii, the circumference and the tangent. Each of these is capable of generating different forms.
The centre can generate concentric circles
Forms evolved from extended radii
Forms evolved from using tangents
The square: The most important components of a square are the sides, the axes, the diagonals and their extensions.
Examples of shapes arising from the square
Combining shapes: When combining shapes, try to align the components of one form with those of another (such as a circle combined with a square) to create a strong relationship.
When overlapping circles of different size, try to place the centre points of the smaller circles on the circumference of the larger. If this is not possible, try to ensure that each circle bites substantially into another.
Curvilinear patterns evolve from the outlines of adjoining circles. Often the curved outline of part of one circle will turn, as a reversed curve, into the next circle. Curves should always be generous and appear to flow naturally.
A grid is a good starting point for creating patterns. The grid helps to ensure that the shapes created on it relate to one another both in size and through continuity of line. Study the patterns shown here and notice how they differ: some patterns are static, while others are flowing and dynamic. Think about these patterns in relation to a garden—static patterns give a feeling of calm and peacefulness, while dynamic patterns give a sense of drama and excitement. Notice how different shapes have different qualities and how they can be used to give the space a feeling of order, informality or boldness.
Note also how shapes can be directional and used to create optical illusions. For example, lines that run away from the viewer will make an area appear longer, while lines running horizontally will appear to give added breadth.
Lines running away from the viewer exaggerate the length of a site.
Lines running across a site exaggerate the width.
A grid is a useful starting point for creating patterns.
Shading some areas divides the pattern into positive and negative space, or mass and void. It automatically gives depth to a pattern and should help you to visualize the composition as the ground plan of a garden. Both mass and void are equally important in a design, and it is the interplay between these two that gives a garden its character. Using the informal pattern illustrated here, try to imagine the shaded areas as plantings, for instance, and the areas without shading as grass or paving. Now try reversing the process.
Shading selected areas of a pattern divides it into mass (the shaded part) and void (the unshaded). Experiment with shading different areas of a pattern, then reversing the shading, as shown.
Try to picture the shaded areas as solid objects—planting, benches, raised beds, and so on—and the unshaded areas as representing the garden floor—lawn, paving, or pools, for example.
Using a grid helps to bring order to a design. The chosen grid for a site is developed from the major architectural features such as doors, windows and corners of the house.
A visual of the finished garden shows how the pattern has evolved into a strong, effective framework for the garden.
When designing a garden, you are trying to create interesting patterns within the space or site boundary. The shapes created by the pattern will become the framework of the garden. When the garden has matured, the planting may spill over onto the paths and paving, blurring the lines of the pattern, but the underlying framework will still be there, and its presence, even when obscured, will bring a sense of order to the design. Usually, the framework consists mainly of hard landscaping, such as paths, paving, steps and walls. These elements tend to be both more permanent and more expensive than the soft landscaping, or plantings, so the pattern in which the garden is laid out must be effective.
A pattern is drawn up on the grid and developed into a plan
Exploring Patterns and Designs |
1. Lay a sheet of tracing paper on top of a sheet of graph paper and stick it down with masking tape. 2. Using the bold graph-paper squares as a guide, draw the outline of six squares—use six major graph-paper squares horizontally and vertically for each outline. 3. Consider the examples shown on page 80 and make up your own patterns, using the information about shapes (on pages 78–79) to give you ideas. Shade in some areas. 4. Try reversing the shaded and plain areas. 5. Try to assess the character of each pattern, and decide which you prefer. Decide whether it is static or dynamic, formal or informal, historic or contemporary. 6. Consider these patterns in terms of gardens by thinking of the lighter areas as hard landscaping and the shaded areas as plantings. 7. Take a further sheet of tracing paper, lay it over the first and stick it down. 8. Using coloured pencils or felt-tips, try to translate your patterns into gardens. Show paving, pools, lawns, plantings, beds and so on. Repeat with all six patterns. 9. Try to analyze why you like each of them. What does the pattern do? Do you like the ratio of hard landscaping to soft landscaping, or could it be improved? |
All of the patterns given in this chapter have been developed for an isolated abstract space, but gardens are rarely isolated—they are usually connected to houses or other structures which they should relate to and be developed from. The most effective way of relating house to garden is by using a grid that springs from the dominant house lines or major lines of force. By designing the garden on the grid you will automatically link the spaces in the garden to those of the house, providing a connection which will help the garden sit comfortably in its relationship with the house. The most successful garden layout plans are often those in which the designer has used the proportions of the house—the spaces between doors and windows, for instance—to determine a grid for their design. The garden will then appear to have sprung from the property itself, rather than being superimposed upon it.
The first step in developing a grid is to look closely at the façade of the house, using your site survey and any photographs you may have taken on site. Look at prominent outside walls and corners and any protruding bays or indentations, such as extensions or wall buttresses. Which are the most obvious points? Usually the house corners will be the most dominant lines, and an extension of these across the site will form the starting point for the grid. There may also be regularly spaced windows and doors or an existing terrace whose proportions and materials are perfectly acceptable and which you will want to retain. All of these things may influence your grid.
Now look at the dimensions between the dominant site lines to see if they fall into some sort of module. You may find, for instance, that the distance between the house corner and an extension is 2 m (6.6 ft.), the distance from the extension to the next corner is 4 m (13.12 ft.) and the projection of the extension is 2 m (6.6 ft.). In this case a 2-m (6.6-ft.) grid would fit within all three dimensions.
In deciding where to place the horizontal lines of your grid, re-examine the boundary fences, walls, gates or doorways. You may find that there are some prominent points, such as regularly spaced piers on garden walls, or posts on fences, that could be the starting points for your horizontal grid lines. If the boundary demarcation is totally featureless, you can simply subdivide the overall length of the garden.
Although existing features in your garden may suggest a grid made up of differently sized and shaped rectangles, you are advised to stick to a square grid. When developing design themes later, the square grid will allow you to use circular shapes that could not be superimposed so easily onto a rectangular grid. Do not worry if the house and boundaries do not coincide precisely with your grid lines—the grid is a design tool, not a straitjacket.
In this example, the developed grid fits perfectly with the dimensions of the house and the position of its doors and windows. If your grid proves difficult to fit, try experimenting with moving it up and down or from side to side across the site. You may then find a stronger relationship between all the different elements.
Your grid can be as large or small as you like, but the golden rule is that the scale of the grid should derive from the mass of the property, which means that if the house is large, the grid must also be large, and vice versa. Too small a grid often results in a fussy and overdesigned garden. Initially, it is usually better to create a larger grid and then subdivide it.
If the front of the house and garden are large, it may be helpful to use a smaller grid in the vicinity of the house—to unite building and terrace, for instance, or for a more formal area immediately adjacent to the house. The small grid unit can then be enlarged (doubled or even quadrupled) and used to encompass the larger and more distant part of the garden, where using a small grid would result in a fussy, cluttered effect. Any island beds, woodland trees or even areas of rough grass could be accommodated on this enlarged grid, allowing more generous dimensions while still relating back to the house and the smaller grid.
The 2-m (6.6-ft.) grid used here springs from the prominent northwest corner of the building and also fits across the main kitchen window. Although it does not sit perfectly with the lounge window, this could be adjusted when developing the plan on the ground.
The examples on pages 88–90 show three different designs for a large country site. In two of them the grid size has been tripled in size; in one, the grid has been doubled.
Both the dining room and the lounge extension are strong features here. A 1.5 m (5 ft.) grid springing from part of the lounge has been used, as it fits neatly with the open summerhouse.
A 2 m (6.6 ft.) grid, corresponding with the French window dimensions of both the conservatory and the family room, sits comfortably on this plan.
For this large country site a small grid, surrounding the house, has been tripled in size further from the house. Note how the lines of both the small and large grid squares spring from the dimensions of the house.
In this example, the grid has been doubled, rather than tripled, in size, further from the house. This solution is less satisfactory because the doubled grid squares do not relate to the dimensions of the house, nor to the scale of existing trees.
When dividing a garden into different areas, aim for one dominant area on the ground plane, rather than several areas of approximately the same size. By turning the grid, in this diagonal solution, the lawn predominates.
When you are drawing up the grid, extend the lines substantially beyond the site itself so that you can experiment with shifting the grid around and turning it at an angle. You may find that you can create an interesting diagonal effect or a more obvious link between different features.
Once you have become accustomed to designing with this grid system, you will find it easy to work out the grid, and it should prevent such design faults as paths, pergolas or even garden seats not being properly aligned with windows or doorways. When your eye has been trained to observe these alignments, anything out of line or wrongly placed will be a constant source of irritation.
Devising Grids for the Site |
1. Stick down a sheet of tracing paper over the site survey. You will draw your grid onto this. A graph-paper backing sheet may be useful as a guide for ruling lines, but do not use this as your grid. The size of the grid will vary with each plan and should stem from the size or proportions of the house and garden. 2. Using the main lines of either house, buildings, doors or windows as a starting point, draw, with your set square and T-square or parallel motion, one vertical and one horizontal line to extend beyond the entire width or length of the site. Try to choose the most prominent points of the building, such as the corners of the house or a protruding bay window. 3. Then, using your scale rule, on the line that offers the most obvious divisions (determined by the features of the house), mark off equal divisions across and beyond the site. Draw these with the T-square, or parallel motion, and set square. Extending the lines beyond the boundaries of the site itself will allow you to move the grid around later. 4. Again using the scale rule and your drawing equipment, draw equally spaced lines, perpendicular to the first lines, across the site to create your grid. 5. Try turning the grid and translating it into areas of hard and soft landscaping by experimenting with moving the grid around first at an angle of, say, forty-five degrees to the house, then at about thirty-three degrees. Try to line up the turned grid lines with something such as the edge of a window or door, or the corner of the house. Does this work better for this particular site? 6. Stick down another sheet of tracing paper, with masking tape, as an overlay on top of the first. 7. Trace over the new grid, drawn at an angle. 8. Now try to work up each plan into areas of hard landscaping (man-made structures) and soft landscaping (plants). 9. Evaluate what you have done. Have you created a formal or informal pattern? Is the pattern balanced and ordered? Is it directional? What illusions, if any, have your lines created? If you crouch down and put your eyes at the same level as your plan, you may see this more easily. You may now have the basis of an exciting new layout. |
There is usually one particular way in which the grid works best and one angle that will work better than others. To help you decide, try experimenting with a design on a rectilinear theme, a circular theme, and a diagonal theme for your garden site. All of these relate back to the shapes and patterns considered earlier in this chapter. Developing these themes will help you break down any preconceived ideas for the space that you are redesigning and should give rise to completely original concepts for what may previously have been a boring and predictable layout.
Theme Plan 1: A small-scale grid has been used near the house in this model garden plan. Further from the house the grid has been quadrupled in size. In this rectilinear theme plan, the areas have been divided up into rectangles (rather than squares), which give direction to the plan, leading people around a site, as well as directing views through it to the parkland beyond.
Theme Plan 2: In this circular theme, the angular shape of the site has been completely disguised by dense planting around most of the perimeter. Note how the centre point of the pool is shared by larger circles, parts of which delineate other features in the garden. This gives the pool a particularly strong focus.
Theme Plan 3 (Model Plan)
In this diagonal theme, the grid has been set at a 45° angle from the dominant southern corners of the house, resulting in a series of varied interlocking garden areas. Wide planting areas enclose the spaces.
It is important to stress that this stage of designing is experimental, and you should allow yourself numerous sheets of tracing paper, stuck down over your survey and grid, to test out different ideas. Do make sure that you have indicated any major existing trees as circles on your survey. Trees may well influence your design, as they cannot be moved, but this also should have shown up on your site inventory and appraisal.
The examples on the previous pages show three different design solutions for the large suburban garden that is the model site for this book. All of the plans suit the outline shape of the site and the style and mass of the house. Each of the design solutions was developed from the same grid. The grid was turned at forty-five degrees for the diagonal design (opposite), and it was this theme that was chosen to be developed into the garden layout plan.
By using the grid to direct your lines, the garden design should work as a balanced whole, mass balancing void, with no leftover corners or weak, wiggly lines. To avoid sharp corners, lines should ideally meet at right angles.
Drawing up Experimental Theme Plans |
1. On your drawing board stick down the site survey plan with masking tape and then place the tracing-paper grid sheet over the plan. 2. Experiment with turning the grid at different angles. 3. Use a further sheet of tracing paper and, with a pencil, trace off any grids that you think may be suitable. (You will probably need to use several sheets of tracing paper until you have achieved setting the grid at an angle that you like.) 4. Now develop your design by using tracing-paper overlays with your chosen grid, and work up (in pencil) the various themes—circular, diagonal and rectilinear. 5. Keep these rough pencil theme plans carefully. You will need to refer to them when you draw up the preliminary garden layout plan (see page 143). |
Perhaps the theme you choose might spring from the house itself—a circular theme taken from a curved window, for instance. In general, circles require more space than rectangles, and if the house is obviously rectangular, with straight walls giving a boxed-in effect, it may be overambitious (and alien to the site) to superimpose a circular theme. Examples of successful and unsuccessful designs based on circular and curvilinear shapes for a small rectangular site are shown on the next page.
Avoid awkward angles or leftover spaces by ensuring that lines meet at right angles.
Unsuccessful theme plans: In this circular design (right), there is insufficient space to make the transition between the rectangular house and the circles. Each shape seems to collide with the next rather than leading naturally into it. Although the intention is to disguise the rectangular shape of the plot with planting, there is insufficient space around the larger circle to achieve this. In this small space, the free form curvilinear design (far right) is at odds with the parallel surrounding walls.
Successful theme plans: In this example (right) a geometry of squares is used. The circle fits into square 1 and although the square disappears, it is strongly implied. Square 2 provides a link between the two main garden rooms, like an ante-room or vestibule.
The strong curve of this design (far right) will be softened as the planting matures, and the sense of space will increase as the walls become obscured. Note how the position of the trees emphasizes the design.
To increase the apparent length of a site, slant the plan using the angle formed by the longest diagonal.
Before making your decision on which theme to adopt, do try turning the grid through forty-five degrees or slanting the plan, perhaps from one corner to the distant opposite corner. This is a very effective method of exploiting the maximum length of the site, as shown in the example on this page, and it was the chosen solution for the model plan (see page 94).
If you find the concept of outdoor space hard to envisage, it may be helpful to think of it as an outdoor room. Just as an indoor room is enclosed by the floor, walls and ceiling, so are outdoor rooms defined by the ground plane (the garden floor), the vertical plane (walls, fences and so on) and the overhead plane (tree canopies, pergolas or anything that interrupts the view of the sky). Within this context, perhaps it is easier to develop an awareness of the three-dimensional aspects of mass and void and to consider the effects of light and water in the garden.
It is wrong to think of space, or void, as nothingness: space has character and mood. An enclosed space, for instance, may afford a garden privacy or intimacy, in contrast to an open space, which is essentially outward-looking and may feel insecure.
A garden dominated by mass is enclosed and secluded.
The interplay between mass and void creates the structure of the garden. When void predominates, a garden feels more open and exposed.
Using bricks or children’s wooden blocks, vary the width between them, as shown, to see how the space is affected when viewed at eye level.
The movement of space is conditioned by the placing of the masses.
Space is not necessarily static but can be made to flow like water. The speed at which it flows can be altered, too. It can move slowly (down a broad drive or around shrub beds to fill a void of lawn) or swiftly (forced down through a narrow path). This apparent movement of space, created by the placing of the masses between which it flows, creates far more excitement and stimulus in the garden than any number of rare plants or bright colours.
The mood of a space is affected by light, and the amount and quality of light entering a garden is affected by the elements placed within or existing close to it. For example, in the growing season a mature tree may completely block sunlight from entering a small garden.
We are so used to the presence of daylight that we take it for granted, quite forgetting that its quality and quantity totally control the way in which everything is seen and, therefore, how it should be designed.
The quality of the light varies with latitude. In Britain, even on a bright day, the near distance is tinged with blue and the shadows have no clear definition, while on a sunless day the whole scene lacks clarity, as though it were a slightly smudged pencil sketch. In hotter countries, stronger sunlight makes shadows appear more defined. Temperate gardens tend to need a larger proportion of void to mass, so that enough light can enter the composition. If your garden is in a country where the light is hard and clear, the ratio can be reversed so that there is more dark mass to offset small, brightly lit voids.
In temperate climates, the sun is relatively weak and casts soft, hazy shadows. The low angle of the sun results in long shadows for much of the year.
Lower planting around the perimeter allows more light into the garden.
In tropical climates, on or near to the equator, the sun is strong and bright, casting dense, well-defined shadows. The sun is high in the sky all the year round, producing relatively short shadows.
To increase the amount of shade in the garden, the relative mass is increased by introducing a tall hedge on one boundary and planting umbrella-shaped trees within the garden.
Objects with a well-defined shape or form look most effective when silhouetted by being lit from behind.
When designing a garden it is important to consider the effects that you want to create with light by arranging the masses in a suitable way. The shape of an object (the detail of a wrought-iron gate, for instance) can be emphasized by being silhouetted against a light background. If, on the other hand, the texture of something (such as smooth rocks or gnarled tree trunks) needs emphasizing, the object should be lit from the front, or it should be in sun as opposed to shade.
Looking from dark to light—or, even better, from light through dark to light beyond—adds drama and depth to the view. In temperate climates, where the light conditions may be rather diffuse, it is still possible to create striking effects. The rays of low-level afternoon sun playing through sparsely foliaged trees can cast moving dappled shadows, for instance, and shafts of light can be used to highlight a carefully sited statue.
The direction from which an object is lit affects how it is perceived.
Reducing the amount of light before a vista accentuates the scene.
Interior and exterior scales differ. External proportions need to be more generous. Indoors, the height of this door looks fine—it is in scale with the interior. Outdoors, the height and the width will be inadequate and out of scale. Note how cramped the door and pergola have become. You need to “scale up” when outdoors.
Scale and proportion are also important factors to bear in mind when thinking about spaces, as without them there can be no harmony of design. Within a built environment, architects create interior living and working spaces that are in scale with the human figure. However, outside, where the sky is the limit, these interior proportions feel meagre and uncomfortable. Outside, the garden designer has to relate the scale of the human figure to the limitless expanse of horizon and sky, requiring the tall verticals of trees or buildings to help balance the horizon. Also, gardens are places for leisure, and they need more ample proportions.
To relate to external scale, steps, paths and openings must be more generous than those found within a building. A useful exercise is to take your flexible tape and measure the steps of your own interior staircase, and then go out to a nearby garden or park and compare these interior measurements with a comfortable flight of outdoor steps. You should find that the stairs indoors—even though they look and feel perfectly comfortable in their more intimate indoor setting—are narrower and steeper than the garden steps.
However, gardens must also relate to the human scale, keeping the human frame and the space it may take up as an integral part of the design. Paths, steps, arbours and sitting areas should be sufficiently generous to be comfortable and intimate, not overgenerous, daunting and empty. Good proportions are the real foundation of the garden.
Doorways indoors can be relatively narrow. Outdoors, openings need to be wider. Where possible, they should be wide enough to allow two people to walk through side by side.
Indoors, people adjust to the space they are in and can feel perfectly comfortable sitting very close to one another. Outdoors, if space allows, you may need to double the size of an area used for a similar function to prevent people feeling restricted.
Designing steps for exterior use: Steps based on typical domestic indoor dimensions are inappropriate for outdoor use. Not only will they feel cramped in scale, but they could also be dangerous.
Always scale up steps outdoors by creating wider and deeper treads and reducing the riser height.
Staircases should have plenty of room and frequent generous landings. Above all else, design for safety.
For all sorts of reasons, consider using ramps as an alternative or substitute for steps.
If water is available and you would like a water feature in your garden, begin by considering the different options before deciding on the form it will take. Water has a seductive, elusive quality that can greatly enhance any setting and, when used effectively, it can command more attention than any other garden feature. It has the attribute of reflecting light and makes a strong impact on the garden layout.
If well designed and integrated, a water feature can be a great asset to a garden, but, if used badly, it can be a depressing mistake. Water should be used with discretion, becoming part of the structure of your design. In small gardens, water is best used formally, either in conjunction with a building or as a sculptural feature or fountain. Using water informally, in free-form shapes imitating natural ponds, requires more space. Once you have determined which type of water feature you want, decide whether it should flow or be static. The safety aspect, particularly for children, is of prime concern—being caged in as a precaution does not enhance any water feature.
Once you have decided on your concept, it may be advisable to call in a water specialist who should be able to foresee any potential problems.
Water has been prized in the design of gardens since ancient times. It was used as an integral part of many early Mogul, Persian and Islamic gardens, cooling down the atmosphere, soothing the spirits and giving an additional dimension to a flat landscape.
In Europe during the Renaissance a renewed interest in hydraulics led to a proliferation of water devices, particularly in Italian and French gardens. Fountains had huge jets of water that soared into the air; grottoes had trick water features, which, to the amusement of the host, soaked unsuspecting visitors; cascades tumbled down water staircases; and a series of spouts and rills emitted sounds that imitated music. It was the height of fashion to include an unusual water feature in a garden setting, and wealthy landowners who took pride in their gardens engaged designers with knowledge of modern hydraulics to turn their fantasies into reality.
Although today we accept hydraulic systems, such as pumps, as part of everyday life, there is still huge scope for the imagination when it comes to using water in a garden.
Water awakens the senses. Its movement and reflection provide a feast for the eyes; the range of sounds it produces, from gentle dripping to loud crashing, has the ability to calm or invigorate; and its tactile quality, whether liquid or in the form of ice, is fascinating. When used in a garden it can provide a home for plants and wildlife, colourful swirls of fish and water plants adding to its visual appeal. Water can also enhance the quality of other materials, deepening the colours of mosaic tiles, for instance, or highlighting the smooth surface of river pebbles.
The most striking attribute of still water is its power to reflect, thereby doubling the value of any image that falls on its surface. This can be used to great effect in a garden. It can unify a design by bringing together the ground plane, the vertical plane and the overhead plane, and it can create a feeling of space by bringing light into the garden.
A sheet of water used to bring light into a garden.
To bring out the best of water’s reflective quality, it is important to contain the water in a material that is as dark as possible. The reflections on the surface of a swimming pool are usually poor or nonexistent during the day, because the floor and walls are generally pale in colour and can be clearly seen. If, on the other hand, the pool were painted black, the reflected images would be clear, even in cloudy weather, and the interior would be invisible. Of course, this would only apply to ornamental pools—a black swimming pool would be most uninviting.
Being unable to judge the depth of a pool or pond adds a sense of mystery to the feature and has practical advantages as well. Not only does the darkness obscure functional items, such as plant containers and supports for stepping stones, but it also allows the designer to construct a relatively shallow pool, thereby saving on construction expenses.
When thinking about reflections, consider the importance of the water level. As the side of the pool will be reflected in the water, the water level will appear to be lower than it is, reducing the apparent surface area. To maximize the reflective area, you will need to raise the water level as high as possible. In formal pools it should be kept just below the level of the coping stones or edging. You can experiment with the effect of reflections by placing small objects on a hand mirror.
Fold some stiff paper or card and stand it up against the edge of a mirror. Try a variety of different shapes.
Place a match box against the edge of the mirror and note how its height is doubled.
A salt cellar placed on the mirror becomes a long cylinder.
Use an ordinary bristle brush to understand how rushes or reeds will reflect in still water.
If the sun does not fall directly on the surface of the water, the reflected sky appears a more intense blue. This fact can be used to advantage in small town courtyards, where the enhanced colour and light reflected back from the surface of the water can turn a gloomy, dull space into one with vibrant interest.
To increase the darkness or depth of colour of the water, dramatize the effect by using dark large-leaved evergreens in the background.
Water as the main feature of a small courtyard enhances the feeling of light and colour.
Moving water shimmers and sparkles in the light and adds a refreshing quality of sound which is much appreciated in hot countries. Because of the way light dances on moving water, it works best when it is positioned in full sun. Fountains, for instance, are particularly effective when positioned in full sun with a shady background, preferably of dark green plants.
One way in which moving water differs from still water is by the sounds it creates. A small amount—trickling onto rocks in a pool, for instance—can be delicate and musical, whereas a large volume, forced up through the jet of a powerful fountain or cascading over rocks into a pool far below, can produce loud hissing or burbling sounds that bring a sense of excitement to a garden. In an urban setting these sounds can help to reduce outside noise, particularly the distant sounds of traffic or people.
Fountains look most effective when situated in full sun, against a dark background.
Catalogues may show you perfect spray effects produced by different nozzles but in reality, the tiny holes are easily clogged and the wind can also spoil the effect.
Simple jets are often more effective—the height of the fountain can be easily adjusted at the pump.
Remember that if you decide to include water in your garden, it is essential that the particular water feature be properly integrated into the design as a whole, complementing existing features as well as proposed hard landscaping and plantings. This applies whether you are creating a new feature or adapting an existing water source, such as a stream or pond.
The need for water and the way it should or should not be used varies considerably by region. Stylistically, some water features would be more in keeping with the natural surroundings than others. In Maine, for example, much of the coastal landscape is broken up by the natural effects of rocks and trees, and as a result coastal waters lap gently against the shore. Reflecting this, the design of the Asticou Azalea Garden in Northeast Harbor uses large pieces of granite as stepping stones to continue a path across a stream. In Arizona, mirror-like reflecting pools complement the bold shapes and textures of desert plantings.
Reflections of illuminated foliage near a pool add interest at night.
In several areas of the United Kingdom, such as Cornwall and the south and west coast of Scotland, where the sea is less threatening, the natural landscape is also used to enhance and soften humankind’s intervention. Stone from local quarries is often used for stepping stones used to cross water, giving children the enjoyment of the potential danger of getting wet.
Water in the landscape can also become something of a cultural phenomenon. In the certain parts of the United States, because of high summer temperatures, it is common to have a swimming pool; current trends also include hot tubs as well as lap pools (long, narrow pools for serious swimmers) naturalized by adding waterfalls or streams. In cooler areas, however, pools are often considered a luxury that few people can afford. Pools often take up large portions of the garden and can pose many design challenges.
Climate should be considered when designing any garden water feature. In very hot areas, small amounts of water may be impractical because frequent refilling is required owing to rapid evaporation. Similarly, in very cold winter areas, features should be designed either to accommodate freezing water or to be easy to drain down annually.
National and local water restrictions should also be considered. Pools and water features use a great deal of water, and although they may benefit wildlife, they can also use up precious supplies. Investigate filling pools with harvested rainwater and, ideally, use solar-powered features.
Solar-Powered Water Features |
To maintain the oxygen levels of the water in a pool or a pond, a “greener” option is to use an oxygenation system that is powered by the sun’s rays. A solar-powered oxygenator generally includes a panel made of a photovoltaic material that converts solar energy into electricity without using the mains supply. |
These days, there are many solar-powered options from which to choose. While some panels must be kept close to the water feature, some units include panels that can be moved around the garden as long as they are facing the sun. If your area is generally overcast, it is possible to find units with inbuilt batteries that will allow operation in variable weather or at night, while others can be programmed with a time switch to work at set intervals. Some solar-powered oxygenators are supplied with “airstones” that diffuse oxygen into the water, keeping the pool or pond water clear. |
This solar-powered oxygenator diffuses air into the pond water without using mains electricity.
Boreholes |
For some properties the most effective and reliable water source can come from sinking a borehole which will provide fresh water for pools, the garden and even drinking. This involves drilling down through the subsoil into the aquifers below, lining the hole, installing a submersible pump to draw the water, and finally capping the hole to leave only a small inspection cover visible. Drilling depths can vary enormously, from 20 m to 150 m (6 to 46 ft.) which will have an impact on costs and viability. In Britain, the extraction of up to twenty thousand litres per day is allowed without requiring a licence from Defra (the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) but it is important to check local restrictions before drilling. |
The uncomplicated drilling process typically takes one to two weeks, and is usually best done when the garden is being constructed. Given the uncertainty of future water supplies, sinking a borehole may be viewed as a long-term asset. |
Sinking a borehole involves drilling through subsoil to extract fresh water from below your property.
Broadly speaking, water features can be divided into those that are formal (and obviously artificial) and those that are informal (either natural or naturalistic and imitating nature). Generally, formal features look better in small urban gardens or positioned close to the house in larger gardens; informal water features are more in keeping with natural landscapes and gardens in rural settings.
The size, shape and location of a formal water feature should be determined by existing features. The water feature will be part of the grid so that it relates strongly to all other elements and is an integral part of the design. Unlike informal water features, often elusive or partly concealed, water used in a formal setting tends to make a strong statement.
Formal pools, rills and canals are geometric in shape and do not pretend to look natural. They are constructed of rigid materials, such as concrete (used alone or with a flexible butyl liner) or premoulded resin. Resin pools, although widely available, are rarely satisfactory because you are unlikely to find the exact dimensions of pool that you need. In any case, most of these have overshaped, irregular outlines that emphasize artificiality and do not lend themselves well to formal situations.
Site survey: A new pool was an important feature for this garden design, and a way had to be found to integrate it successfully on this rectilinear grid. The clients required:
• a pool for reflection and tranquillity
• the garden to look wider
• no steps—they have elderly parents
• space for shrubs
• an existing tree to be retained
• outdoor seating areas.
The garden layout plan (right) shows the solution that was reached, and a visual (opposite page) illustrates the simple, placid oriental mood of the proposed pool.
In this example, note how the pool has been made deliberately long and set almost flush with the paving to reduce the foreshortening effect of perspective. Although the pool appears considerably shorter when seen from indoors, the surface of the water will be visible enough to allow a view of the reflection of the statue. The carefully placed water lilies do not obscure the reflection.
Garden layout plan: The pool runs almost across the width of the garden and separates the terrace from the garden emphatically. It creates a sense of “here”—the terrace—and “there”—the garden beyond.
Linking the two areas is a flat bridge set level and without any steps. It is built of standard “off-the-shelf” precast concrete window lintels. These are thin, inexpensive, and robust. Such lintels are available in a variety of standard lengths. For safety, a handrail with two posts at each end is added.
This formal pool is plain, but large enough to support planting in the still areas at each end. It has a rim on all four sides, including the wall sides, to simplify detailing and construction.
A galvanized steel tank, usually available from builders’ merchants, can become a pool in the “Roman” style.
A raised pool may be built using ready-made semi-rigid pond liners.
Preformed pool liners
If left to its own devices, water will form single-celled algae, quickly followed by blanket weed. Counteracting this involves either establishing a delicately balanced ecosystem, or resorting to regular doses of a chemical to prevent algae or any other plant from growing. The chemical is normally supplied as a slow-dissolving tablet administered by hand or through a simple dosing unit installed in a small service chamber.
If you already have a natural water feature in your garden, you may want to emphasize it and include it in your design. This may involve designing a bridge to cross from one side of a stream to another, changing the direction and movement of the water or providing some waterside plantings. However, a natural water source can also be used to feed a formal water feature, if this style is more appropriate.
When creating a new naturalistic pond, it is essential that you study ponds and lakes in their natural setting. What you are trying to achieve is a pond that looks as if it has always been there. Examine how natural water features have occurred and their effect on the surrounding land, particularly during flooding or drought. A natural source of water may not remain constant. Normally water occupies the lowest part of any site, its surface creating a datum level to which everything else relates. The effect is seldom convincing if ponds are deliberately placed high up or on sloping ground, unless in a natural hollow.
A naturalistic water feature can be modelled on a flat site by excavating the soil and mounding it up on each side of a “valley” (above). Planting on the mounds can emphasize height. Edge planting and detailing need care for a convincing natural effect (below). A water course may broaden into a pool. Here the pool sits in a shallow hollow which is formed in the way described above.
Generally, pools on hills, unless in convincing hollows, can look most unnatural.
A water course may broaden into a pool. Here the pool sits in a shallow hollow which is formed in the way described above.
Obscure the liner at the edge of a naturalistic water feature with turf and pebbles. To secure the plants, place them in plastic perforated baskets lined with soil and upturned turves, then sink these into position.
It is essential that any pool or water feature should hold water, and the romantic idea of using puddled clay, to a minimum depth of 450 mm (1.5 ft.), is ill-advised as it is not totally impermeable, may shrink and crack in dry weather and can be damaged by plant roots or burrowing animals. Flexible sheet liners are more reliable; they should be guaranteed against water loss, are supplied in roll form, are usually viable for up to twenty years and are less expensive to install. To be convincing, the waterproof membrane needs to be hidden beneath the edging material which can be stone, brick, timber or soil.
The surrounding contours, too, must be carefully considered, since the edge of the water is in itself a contour line, and if this (or the reflection of the adjoining landform) looks unnatural, the whole feature will be exposed as a fraud. Pay particular attention to the shapes formed by the water, how it flows around or over obstacles and exactly what happens at the water’s edge.
With an artificial pond it is generally the point where land meets water that is most difficult to resolve, resulting in unconvincing shorelines of concrete or butyl liner. Generally, the material from which the pond is made should be carried up well beyond the visible edge of the water, at a shallow angle that will allow a marshy zone merging into a shingle beach. The shingle will only be revealed when the water level drops.
Moving water can add excitement and drama, or it can be subtle and subdued. Either way, it should mimic the natural landscape as it streams and cascades, falling naturally over stone rather than machined slabs. In addition to a pipe to transport the water, a pump will be needed to carry water around, and this pump may either be submerged in the water feature’s lowest pool, or kept in a ventilated dry housing below the level of the lowest pool.
Using Grey Water |
Reusing cleaned “grey” water, or waste water from any household source excluding the toilet, is an eco-friendly option for providing irrigation in the garden, and it may be used in certain water features as well. |
If you have enough space and the inclination to really “go green”, a specially constructed reed bed can do the hard work of cleaning the water with the help of bacteria, removing harmful chemicals and pollutants that can otherwise build up over time if untreated grey water is used in the garden. The reed bed may form a feature in itself, formal or informal depending on the outline shape. The bed consists of an excavated waterproof pit measuring about 600–750 mm (2–2.5 ft.) deep, backfilled with layers of loose stone, gravel or pea shingle and sand. The top layer is usually fine, washed sand into which the reeds, such as Phragmites communis or P. australis, are planted at a density of about four per square metre. The reed bed should cover at least one square metre for every occupant in the house. |
A harvesting system must be installed to collect and store the water that is filtered before use. The filtration system can be installed in a garage or garden shed, but space for clean water storage will also be needed (see page 193). Storage tanks should not be installed within 5 m (16.4 ft.) of a house or other property. Most systems use energy for pumps and filters, and the set-up and running costs can be expensive, but this may be redeemed over the long term. |
Siting of different pumps for cascading water features
If ornamental water is beyond your budget, unavailable or considered unsafe, a dry stream- or river-like effect can be created by arranging small stones or broken pieces of slate or crushed glass to “flow” through part of the garden. In areas that are prone to flash flooding, similar stones can be arranged in specially constructed “rills” that will conduct surplus water away from vulnerable terraces or seating areas, but will still look attractive when dry.
You can simulate the effect of moving water in the garden by arranging small pebbles or slate pieces in a stream- or river-like pattern.
Water features should be treated in a similar way to other features in a garden with respect to size. If the garden is very large, the water feature should also be generous. If small, the feature will need to be smaller, reflecting the proportions of the site. However, a pool needs space in which to express itself, and anything under about 2.5 m (8.2 ft.) in length or width may look more like a conspicuous puddle!
From a practical point of view, a small pool is subject to more temperature variation, particularly if shallow, and is more ecologically unstable than a larger body of water, affecting the water clarity and the balance of plant and animal life. The depth of a pool should be proportionate to its surface area—the greater the surface area, the greater the depth required to produce stability. Generally, the minimum depth is about 1 m (3.3 ft.), sufficient to hide the planting baskets of both aquatic and marginal plants placed below the surface, and to allow fish to survive.
An important point to consider when determining the size of a pool is that planting either in or close to the pool will tend to encroach upon the water area and may reduce it considerably if you are using invasive marginal plants.
If space will not allow for a large pool, there are other options. Where ground space is limited, you can use a wall-mounted fountain. Elaborate lions, dolphin heads or simple metal spouts spill water to into a pool or, if the feature is required to double as a birdbath, first into a shallow bowl. Circular millstones can have a spout that allows water to run over and around them, and lush effects can be achieved by planting moisture-loving plants in deep, damp soil nearby.
The success of a water feature may depend on where it is sited. The position of trees and the aspect and orientation of the site have a bearing on this.
Vigorous water plants may need to be kept in check to prevent them obscuring the surface of the water, reducing reflections.
A small water feature can double as a bird bath.
Generally it is advisable to site water features away from overhanging trees. In a formal setting, leaves can make the pool look unkempt, and if the pool is not very deep, vegetation collecting at the bottom may turn the water black and result in a proliferation of duck weed over the surface. If a formal pool is to be surrounded by plantings, and particularly if the area is windswept, it is advisable to raise it above ground level to reduce the amount of vegetation blown into the water.
If you intend your pool to provide a home to plant and animal life, beware of siting it near trees with poisonous leaves, berries or seeds, such as yew, holly and laburnum.
Most plants and animals thrive better in pools that receive sun for at least half a day, preferably more in temperate regions. In hot countries, less would be acceptable. If you only have a shady site, you will not be able to grow water lilies, but mosses and ferns will thrive.
A few species of fish, such as golden orfe, are happy in cold water. However, fish will consume tadpoles and other water creatures, disrupting the fragile ecological balance.
Having dwelt on the aesthetic qualities of water, it is worth remembering that water can be used to direct the circulation of people through a garden. Unless stones or planks are used as crossing points, most people will walk around, rather than through, a stretch of water!
Still water can be used to bring light into a garden, but if water is to be used in this way, the pool must be sited so that it catches the available sunshine and reflects it back to an intended part of the garden or house. To achieve this, the level of the water may have to be lowered or raised.
If your intention in using still water is to reflect the surroundings of a garden, consider the angle of the sun. Ideally, as you view the water, the sun should be shining from behind you. If it is shining towards you, the glare it produces may prevent you from seeing any reflections.
Reflected light from this large raised pool brightens a downstairs room. As the surface of the water is blown by breezes, ripples are reflected onto the ceiling.
A badly designed water feature may detract from the enjoyment of a garden. Ponds constructed without an overflow pipe may flood and ruin large areas of lawn or plantings, and the entire structure of a pool can be damaged, if not suitably constructed, by harsh weather conditions, such as frost or ice.
In hot countries in particular, a shallow pool of water that is not circulated may attract breeding colonies of mosquitoes or other insects and become smelly and stagnant.
A 45° slope is extremely dangerous—from inside the water it is hard to reach the edge of the pool or to get a foothold from which to get out.
Sheer sides are safer than sloping ones, particularly if they contain a ledge. The ledge can also be used as a shelf for the planting baskets of marginal plants.
A gradually sloping “beach” is the safest construction for a pool.
Undoubtedly, one of the most important issues in designing a water feature is whether children are likely to use the garden. A young child can drown in as little as 2 cm (1 in.) of water, and all non-swimmers are at risk with deep pools. Ways of increasing safety include covering a formal pool with black-painted metal bars or a steel mesh that can support the weight of an adult, or fencing off a pond or stream. The fence need not be exposed but can be cleverly disguised with plantings. When designing pools, a sheer side is far safer than one with sloping sides at forty-five degrees. At this angle anyone in the water would find it hard to reach and grasp hold of the edge of the pool or to get a foothold from which to exit.
So, when children are young, it is advisable to avoid stretches of water. But if you or the garden owner would like a water feature in the future, do consider how an existing feature may later be adapted inexpensively. A large sandpit, for instance, may be sited and designed for easy conversion. There are many ways of introducing water into a garden without risk to children. You could, for example, create a jet of water that splashes over pebbles. The water would then trickle back through to an underground reservoir and be re-circulated with a pump.
A fountain over cobbles provides a child-friendly water feature.
When preparing the first stages of the garden layout plan you will be focusing on the ground plane and will need to consider how you will be combining hard landscaping (anything that is man-made, such as paving, paths, walls, arches or buildings) with soft landscaping (soil, grass, water or plant material). At this point it may be wise to refer back to your completed site appraisal and concept diagram (see Chapter 1) and reconsider the following:
– How do your proposals satisfy the recommendations of your appraisal?
– Have you allowed enough space for different activities?
– Are the spaces large enough for people to move about in?
– Have you sited them in appropriate places?
– Have you considered the environmental effect of your proposals?
You will probably need to readjust some of your earlier ideas before moving on to make decisions about the horizontal (and later some of the vertical) elements of your layout. The success of your design will depend on how you divide up the garden into these different hard and soft areas and how you link one area with another.
The fashion in twentieth-century gardens was the creation of garden rooms, dividing up the site into a series of interlocking spaces, each with an individual character or style of plantings. Division gives an opportunity for several different types of garden within the whole garden and can relate well to the interior proportions of modern houses. Current trends are influenced by television makeovers and the media, and materials such as acrylics, aluminium, glass, Perspex and galvanized steel have become fashionable. Hedging can also be used as an environmentally-friendly alternative to hard landscaping.
When refining your ideas for the preliminary garden layout plan, keep referring back to your site appraisal.
The garden floor is perhaps the most important single element in the design. It is the link between house and garden, can be divided up into the appropriate proportions for mass and void and is also usually the most expensive part of the garden to construct. There is a huge and often bewildering choice of materials available, but you must consider whether the material you use will be in keeping with the site and the surroundings. The material must also be suited to the purpose. For instance, heavy and thick stone paving would be inappropriate for the scale of a small circular paved area, and the cost of labour to cut each stone to fit the space would be prohibitive. Consider using permeable materials that allow water to pass through to the soil below; avoid covering the ground with too much unnecessary hard landscaping which will hinder absorption of rainfall and lead to runoff problems. To keep costs reasonable, and transport and labour charges down, the material you choose should be sourced locally and suited to the role it is to perform.
It is often easiest to begin with the paved areas, as this is usually the terrace adjacent to the house, although if the main rooms of the house face away from the direction of the sun it may be necessary to have the terrace, or sitting area, some distance from the house. Permeable surfaces are now an essential consideration in any design, especially where front gardens and driveways are concerned, and in Britain legislation now requires the issue of permeability to encompass private front gardens, with planning permission required for the use of non-permeable paving.
The terrace should relate in scale to the mass and bulk of the house and to the size of the garden.
For a single-storey house, the terrace width should be about the same as the house height to eaves level. Additional width may be needed for planting at the base of house walls.
For a two-storey house, a terrace two-thirds the height of the building to eaves level usually feels correctly proportioned.
The DPC is usually about 150 mm (6 in) above ground level.
The damp proof course is a horizontal layer of impervious material laid in a wall to prevent the damp from rising. Soil piled up above the DPC effectively bridges it, allowing damp to seep inside.
To create a terrace level with the floor indoors without bridging the DPC use a slatted timber deck supported on bricks, with an accessible and ventilated space beneath. This bridges the “trench” between window and terrace.
If a raised terrace is unavoidable, then ample transition space and careful design is essential.
Any transitional step down from a house should be wide to avoid accidents.
The terrace usually provides the major horizontal link between house and garden, the width being at a minimum two-thirds of the height of the house to the level of the eaves. With low buildings, the full height of the house will produce a better proportion. Narrow or small terraces often look meagre, as if there were insufficient paving stones available. They also restrict the amount of seating. Mixing local materials, such as brick and timber, gives a natural appearance and may help to blend in with the surroundings. Where possible, leave open joints between the paving material so that water can permeate. Try to leave some space for planting at the foot of the house wall, softening the hard right-angle junction between wall and terrace. Leave enough room for generous planting, rather than having a thin line of plants trying to survive in builders’ leftover rubble. Make sure that the soil remains clear of the damp-proof course (DPC).
The terrace should, if possible, be on the same level as the interior floor of the house, but this will depend on the height of the DPC or foundation. Usually the DPC or foundation is at least 150 mm (6 in.) above ground level and can be stepped with the fall of the ground. Ignoring this level (where moisture cannot permeate) by building or banking up soil can lead to problems such as rising damp or flooding. Bugs or termites can also cause premature deterioration of the house structure.
If the finished terrace level is below the interior floor level of the house, try to ensure that the transitional step (or steps) are wide enough to allow a person to stand and adjust to the change of level. If the terrace is above the interior floor level, the steps that lead up to it should be wide and shallow for easy going. There may even need to be a change of level in the terrace itself, and, if so, you should make this as obvious as possible to avoid accidents. Any terraces or areas of paving in other parts of the garden should be dealt with in the same way as the main terrace.
Most gardens require a space for car parking. The tyres of the car need hard standing beneath them, while the ground underneath the main body of the vehicle can be filled in with easily drained loose gravel or stone, low-growing plants or a combination of these materials.
A “porous” driveway consists of two strips of brick paving for car wheels with gravel and low planting between.
When designing to a grid, remember that this grid can be carried through in the paving pattern, albeit at a smaller scale. This can be particularly effective if your design is on the diagonal, the paving being laid at the same diagonal angle, following the lines of the grid.
Paths are the arteries of a garden and often lead off and out from the terrace, following grid lines that flow from gateways, doors or windows. Before considering a path, it is important to decide on its exact purpose, since paths leading nowhere (often in a roundabout fashion) always appear ridiculous. Path proportions should relate in scale to other garden features and to the adjoining house.
It is important to think carefully about who will be using the path. Main paths, perhaps designed to draw people through the garden and allow them to examine views or details of plantings, should, if there is room, be about 1.2–1.5 m (4–5 ft.) in width, to allow two people to stroll in comfort. Paths that lead up to the front door of a house should also be generous, as there will often be a group of people approaching or leaving a house together. Consider constructing an overhang or porch in the area immediately adjacent to the front door to protect people from rain or sun while waiting for the door to open.
Main paths should allow two people to stroll together in comfort.
When designing paths always consider who is going to use them.
Allow a generous width for entrance paths, where people tend to congregate.
Service paths need not be wide but they should avoid sharp bends and be designed for ease of use.
When designing a path it is vital that it clearly contributes to the overall layout of the garden. A path that appears to have been put in as an afterthought to save wear on the grass always looks out of place. As the main function of a path is to allow access from one point to another, most people will try to take the shortest route, called a “desire line”. Consider other options, such as gentle curves, which will appear more exaggerated in perspective than they do on plan. The maximum extent to which a path can be curved without corner-cutting is known as the “critical curve”. Raised edges, such as cobblestones set on edge, will act as a psychological deterrent to cutting corners. Planting can also act as a barrier, particularly if a prickly plant such as a low-growing berberis is used. Staggered edges, usually using large flagstones, can add interest to a straight path.
Subsidiary and service paths need be only 1 m (3.3 ft.) or less in width but must avoid sharp curves or right angles which would be inconvenient for wheelbarrows. A service path between a border and hedge needs to take the base of a stepladder safely and should only be about the width of the ladder.
All paths should be laid to a camber, or a slightly arched surface, to allow water to drain away quickly. Occasional gulleys at path edges may be needed to drain away excess water during flooding. Avoid using materials that may become slippery in wet or damp weather, especially in shady areas where moss and lichen may accumulate.
A curved path may tempt people to take the shortest route—known as a desire line—but strategic planting can stop this.
Setting the path on a slightly arched surface, using a cross fall or leaving gaps or gulleys at the lower edging can help to deflect excess rainwater.
As a general rule, these should be as wide as possible, for as plants mature, they tend to take up more space than originally envisaged. Climbers, shrubs, herbaceous plants and bulbs, and perhaps annuals, cannot be effectively combined in a narrow strip at the base of a wall, where the soil is generally dry and unproductive. An absolute minimum width is usually 1 m (3.3 ft.), but this will only allow space for the spread of one fairly small or upright shrub. A more generous dimension of 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft.) will allow you more scope in designing plant groupings.
If the planting area is backed by a hedge, extra space must be allowed not only for the hedge to grow outwards but also for clipping. An additional 1 m (3.3 ft.) may be needed and will allow for a service path along the rear of the border.
Avoid wiggly lines as an edge to your borders. If curves are an integral part of your design, ensure that they are generously shaped. Planting outlines, which are generally soft and irregular, are set off best by strong shapes—a straight line is usually the best foil.
Most wide borders—particularly mixed or herbaceous borders—need a service path at the back so that the plants at the rear can be easily reached. Where planting is backed by a hedge, leave space for clipping and for the hedge to grow wider.
The service path will not be visible when the plants mature.
When developing your preliminary garden layout plan you will need to state where your garden surfaces, structures, ornaments, furniture and so on are to be located. Now you need to be more specific, and for each element you will need to decide on the type of material required and how much space it will take up as well as considering the sustainability of the materials chosen, This means that the materials should not be produced or be able to degrade in a way that affects the environment. It must be able to be extracted, transported and used so that it does not cause environmental degradation, including the transport cost in terms of pollution. This may mean seeking out local products that are also more likely to be in keeping with the surroundings.
Cement and gravel are two widely used but dubious products. Cement (eventually to become concrete) begins with the mining of limestone and sand—a process that destroys local habitats and makes irreparable changes to the environment. Transport to the processing plant, the energy used in manufacture, the high levels of noxious material released into the atmosphere and the water used in washing out cement plants, mixers and tools, plus the corrosive and alkaline runoff that can cause serious pollution in watercourses, means that alternatives should be considered.
Although some gravel comes from land sources, most is dredged from the sea floor, changing it fundamentally and affecting already-depleted fish stocks. It may be difficult to plan a garden excluding cement and gravel completely, but before you decide, consider dry stone walls, turf banks or recycled materials such as bricks, glass, or broken pipes or tiles.
A “natural” wall of broken stone is a more sustainable alternative to cement.
Turves of heather cut and laid upside down on top of one another eventually knit together to form a strong heather wall or bank.
To help you choose materials, you may want to visit gardens and consult books by leading designers. Perhaps you have read about a garden and admired the detailed construction. Try to identify a style appropriate to your chosen garden and then follow that through with conviction—diluting the idea, to be safe, often shows a lack of confidence that may be apparent in your design. There is no sin in adapting someone else’s idea for your own purpose.
Spend some time walking around your locality, looking closely at the materials that have been used and assessing their effect. Notice whether the materials have been used imaginatively, if the workmanship is good and if successful combinations of materials have been used. For future reference, photograph details, make drawings or take measurements.
Visit as many local garden centres and builders’ merchants as possible to find out which materials are available in your area. There may be a quarry or timber yard nearby that could provide local or recycled material at reasonable cost. In order to compare quality, design and the long-term effect of these, make a note of the important points: the cost per unit or per square metre or yard, delivery time and distance, availability, and the dimensions and durability of the materials.
When choosing materials, compare characteristics of appearance, design use and suitability. Ideally the materials should be functional, easy to maintain, affordable and readily available while also being as sustainable as possible. They should complement the overall garden design in style and character and relate to the house and its setting.
Try to restrict yourself to using no more than three different types of hard landscaping material in a design. More than this tends to look like a sponsored demonstration garden at a flower show or garden festival, where the designer is required to use the manufacturer’s materials.
The structural materials used for garden surfaces have different characteristics in terms of wear, appearance and cost. All have their own merits and drawbacks. Some are “loose”, such as gravel and bark, some “fluid”, such as concrete, and some “rigid”, such as paving stones or bricks. The choice between permeable and impermeable surfacing is becoming more critical, and the legal restrictions will vary between different countries.
Although each category is considered separately here, different paving elements can be combined to produce interesting variations of colour, texture and pattern. When combining different materials, do ensure that they interlock properly and that any patterns created complement the design of the garden as a whole. From a practical point of view, mixing different materials can help to keep costs down, and from an aesthetic point of view a combination of, say, brick and stone or timber, can relieve an excess of either material.
Loose surfacing consists of aggregate materials such as gravel, shingle, small pebbles, glass chippings and bark that are consolidated but not fixed rigidly into place. They are suitable for areas of any shape. Used for garden surfaces they provide textural interest as well as a weed-suppressing base suitable for walking on. They are comparatively inexpensive and easy to lay, with maintenance consisting only of an occasional raking, weed killing, and replenishing of the top layer. One disadvantage of loose surfacing is that they tend to migrate into neighbouring areas. To prevent this they need to be properly contained, either with a brick-on-edge strip or by preservative-treated (“tanalized”) timber boards secured with wooden pegs. These are not necessary, however, where a gravelled or barked area adjoins a hard surface, such as a stone terrace.
Use timber edging to contain loose surfacing.
Unless very well consolidated, loose surfacing is not ideal for areas where garden furniture will be placed, or where buggies (strollers), wheelchairs and wheelbarrows will need access. In addition to being used for surfaces to walk on, loose materials can be used in conjunction with plantings. Plants grown in gravelled areas create an informal, self-seeded look. Gravel and bark can be applied as a mulch to planting beds. Dry stream beds, composed of light-reflecting gravel, are a good alternative to water streams where real water would be impractical or unsafe.
Design use or suitability
Gravel:
– drives and paths
– terraces, particularly when used in combination with other materials, such as brick, stone or timber
– dry stream beds
– traditional and modern settings
– urban and rural situations
Wood and bark chippings:
– paths in rural settings
– children’s play areas
– large areas of plantings where maintenance may be a problem
Gravel comes in many different colours and textures, depending on the parent rock that produces the chippings. Gravel sizes vary from 20 mm (0.8 in.) coarse-gauge chippings to 3 mm (0.1 in.) fine grit. It is completely permeable if laid on a compacted base that will allow water to soak through, although weeds can still grow through it. Once a suitably compacted base has been laid, a permeable landscape fabric can be applied before the gravel is put down; this will prevent any deep-rooted weeds from growing through and reduce the likelihood of seeds taking root within the gravel. Where heavier use by bicycles, prams or vehicles is expected, use cellular plastic-moulded honeycomb frames that will hold the gravel in place at an even depth to prevent sinking.
Resin bonded aggregate, available in a wide range of colours, is made by mixing the gravel with a resin during the laying process. When it is set the gravel is bonded together, forming a suitable surface for driveways and paths that appears like conventional gravel but is solid and does not move. If laid correctly, it allows water to drain through; use a qualified contractor to carry out the work.
Self-compacting gravel is a mixture of aggregate and a powdered clay-like dust that is spread and compacted with a vibrating plate, forming a hard surface but allowing water to permeate. The colour choice is at present restricted.
Pea shingle (pea gravel) is dredged from the sea and rivers. More rounded in shape than gravel chippings, it provides a softer surface more suited to decorative areas than those subject to hard wear.
When selecting gravel, always try to match any existing stonework, such as garden walls or the façade of a house.
Chippings can be made up of any type of wood or bark and are supplied in coarse or fine cuts.
Fluid paving materials are those that are initially fluid, or paste-like, but which then harden to form a very solid, durable but impermeable surface. These include in situ or poured concrete and asphalt. Because of their initial fluidity they can be used for areas of any shape.
Fluid paving materials can be used for areas of any shape.
Design use or suitability
In situ concrete:
– paths or drives
– terraces, particularly when combined with natural materials
Asphalt:
– service paths and drives only
In situ concrete consists of a mixture of cement, the aggregates sharp sand and stones (known together as ballast) and water. When the water is added, the mixture initially forms a fluid paste, which later sets hard. Concrete mixes can be bought in bags, ready for mixing with water, either by hand or in a motorized mixing machine. For large areas, however, it is more economical to mix the ingredients yourself.
In situ concrete is used extensively in gardens as a base for garden structures such as walls and sheds, but it can also be used as a surface in its own right and indeed is a most underestimated material. It has several benefits:
– It is relatively inexpensive to install.
– If properly exploited, it is capable of considerable variation, both in surface treatment and by the inclusion of different aggregates.
– Various forms and shapes can be imprinted or stamped onto the concrete while it is still wet, or the aggregate can be exposed by brushing with water and a stiff broom just before the concrete sets.
– Colours can be varied by adding special colouring powders or different sands to the mix.
Most of the drawbacks of in situ concrete arise from its mix and installation. If you require a textured or imprinted surface it is important to experiment first. Similarly, you should experiment with any colour dyes added to the mix. The final colour always looks different when the concrete has dried.
For large expanses of concrete, over 5 m (16.4 ft.) in any direction, expansion joints must be incorporated into the design to avoid the concrete cracking as it settles. These joints, although necessary, can be made to look attractive using materials such as bricks, setts or pressure-treated timber boards. The expansion joints, which can also allow water to permeate, will form an integral part of the paving design and should be carefully selected to complement the rest of the garden.
Bricks make the necessary expansion joints in in situ concrete.
Asphalt is sold prepacked for direct application to a firm surface, such as concrete or gravel. Preferable in black, it is also available in red and green, and can be textured by adding stone chippings to the surface and rolling them in.
To allow for runoff and to avoid puddles, all in situ concrete or asphalt surface should be laid with a cross fall to carry away excess water. The fall should always be away from the property unless a drainage gulley is installed to protect the property wall.
When placed up against a building, non-porous surfaces like tarmac or concrete must be efficiently drained into permeable material such as gravel or soil.
Small-scale rigid paving materials, such as bricks, pavers, setts and cobbles, are available in a wide range of styles, finishes and sizes. Because of their small size they can be laid out in a variety of attractive, interlocking patterns to complement the overall design of a garden.
When set in sand, small rigid materials allow free drainage of water through the joints. They are thus ideal to use around proposed or existing trees.
Bricks laid on loose sand allow water and air to reach the tree roots.
The small unit size of all these materials makes them very labour intensive to lay, and because of this, when used alone they tend to be more suitable for paths than for terraces in the garden. For a terrace, a large expanse of bricks or setts can look rather cold and severe. It is far better to combine these small-scale materials with other materials, such as large slabs, timber or areas of gravel or lawn.
Bricks can be used very effectively in combination with large slab surfaces.
All of these small-scale materials can be used to create patterns to break up areas of larger-scale materials.
Bricks and pavers:
– rectangular areas of paving or terrace
– to provide a visual link with other brick structures, such as the house
– as edging for lawns and gravelled areas
– as runners for drainage
Granite (or other stone) setts:
– rectangular and circular shapes
– paths and drives
– to create a natural look
Cobbles:
– ornamental areas, such as surrounding the base of an urn
– areas where walking is discouraged (cobbles are uncomfortable to walk on)
Bricks and pavers, small and usually rectangular in shape, are made from both clay and concrete. Generally, bricks are used for walling and pavers for paving, but certain bricks can also be used to pave areas, provided they are guaranteed to withstand frost in cold climates. Choose a style and colour of brick that complements your house and its surroundings.
Basket weave brick paving can be laid between a frame of railway sleepers.
Brick/Block Paving
Stretcher bond: This bond can help draw the eye across a space. It is an excellent bond for pathways. It can also be used for larger areas. When viewed “end on” its character changes. It can be useful used diagonally to “stretch” space.
Stack bond: A modern-looking pattern. The bricks or blocks do not bond by interlinking. Any settlement in the ground, or poor workmanship, will show. It can be used in small areas to give a spartan or austere mood.
Herringbone: This is a popular bond. It looks good from any angle.
Basket weave and stack bond combination: This has a larger scale. The eye can easily read the bonding. It can be used for paths, terraces and even steps. It requires good setting out.
Basket weave: This bond looks identical from either direction.
Basket weave variation
Facing or stock bricks are available in a variety of colours but are unable to withstand severe frost.
Engineering bricks, in a dark greyish blue colour, are very hard-wearing. They are most suitable for edging areas, as their smooth surface makes them rather slippery when wet. They tend to be more expensive than ordinary bricks.
Pavers (sometimes called paviours) are thinner than bricks, more hard-wearing and frost-resistant, and are ideal for paving. Clay pavers usually come in shades of red, concrete pavers in shades of beige, grey and blue-grey.
Block paving is often used for driveways because of its load-bearing capacity and low cost. It is now available in a wide range of colours and sizes, and it allows water to drain away because when laid the blocks are filled with a jointing sand. The unified appearance tends to look unnatural so they should be used with discretion.
Blocks laid dry on a sand bed with sand brushed into the joints will allow water to pass through.
Cellular paving is provided in a grid system, is made from either plastic or concrete and is laid on a prepared sub-base. With in the cells, grass can be sown in soil or aggregates can be laid. The systems were originally designed for heavily used areas where the wear on grass was a problem.
Cellular concrete or high-density plastic blocks with cells through which grass can grow make for a natural-looking, free-draining driveway surface.
Setts are small blocks, generally 100 ⌉ 100 ⌉ 100 mm (4 ⌉ 4 ⌉ 4 in.) of granite or other hard stone. They have roughened, uneven surfaces. There are now several concrete versions of setts that have a flat face and provide a smoother surface more suitable for walking on.
Use materials to direct circulation.
Granite setts mark out the private gravel drive from the public street, even without gates.
Setts take the wear at an otherwise vulnerable corner of a lawn.
Cobbles are natural waterworn pebbles about the size and shape of a somewhat flattened goose egg. They can be laid in mortar, either loosely or closely packed together, depending on the effect required.
All small-scale paving can be laid on a compacted sand base to allow water to percolate to the subsoil below.
Even without a fence, the cobbles clearly say “Keep off. Private forecourt”.
Cobbles easily fill in otherwise awkward shapes.
Cobbles or bricks in gravel form a directional pattern.
Large-unit paving materials include stone paving slabs and precast concrete slabs. Both are hard-wearing, easy to lay and are available in a huge variety of colours and surface textures. Generally, a smooth surface is suitable for areas containing furniture, and a rougher, more nonslip surface is suitable for steps or areas surrounding a swimming pool.
Natural stone, even secondhand, is heavy and expensive both to purchase and to install. Try to find a local source to avoid transport costs, and avoid too much cutting as this will drive up labour costs. Many natural stones become very slippery when damp and may be unsuitable for paved areas used by the elderly or children.
Large slabs can be laid out in a variety of patterns to complement the overall garden design. If using natural stone, a random rectangular or similar layout reduces the amount of cutting required. For an informal look, joints can be left open for planting pockets.
Occasionally, in an old or neglected garden, some paving slabs may be unearthed, perhaps even lurking beneath existing paths or lawns. Where possible, try to use these whole, as breaking them up into smaller sizes tends to spoil their effect. Crazy paving (a mix of paving randomly broken into irregular sizes) should be avoided as it tends to look unprofessional and unfinished and is notoriously difficult to lay effectively.
Design use or suitability
Stone and precast slabs:
– terraces, pathways and drives, either alone or combined with other materials
– as “stepping stones” through gravel, brick or lawn
– with plantings growing through joints for an informal look
Imitation paving
If you select imitation paving, it is important to consider the following:
– Does the colour go right through the material, or is it only applied to the surface? If superficial, the colour will fade with time and exposure, gradually revealing the pure grey concrete beneath.
– How does the material look after it has been laid down for several years? Some types improve with age, perhaps toning down or acquiring moss or lichen. Others are prone to chipping and cracking and remain looking rather crude.
– What does the material look like when wet?
– For paving slabs, is there a wide range of sizes available? Choosing an appropriate size can reduce labour costs considerably. If the slabs are to look natural, perhaps being laid in a random pattern, the more sizes there are, the easier it will be to achieve a convincing effect.
– How easy is it to cut?
Stone flags, possibly the most beautiful of paving materials, come in a wide range of colour tones. (In the United Kingdom, the best known is York stone, but many other types of stone are available, depending on your locality.) All stone takes its colour from the geological formation of the locality, which can vary enormously in different areas of a country. Most of it is heavy to transport, lift and lay.
Salvaged stone and brick takes time to lay out and time to design because the slabs are all different sizes.
Precast slabs are available in many shapes and sizes, but all are essentially made of concrete, which is coloured and given textures, sometimes to imitate natural materials, such as stone. Precast slabs are often used as a cheaper alternative to stone. If you want the slabs to look as much like real stone as possible, buy the slabs in a variety of sizes and lay them in a random rectangular pattern for a natural look. The slabs should be close together in a compacted sand base. For a permeable finish, all large-scale rigid paving should be laid with porous material between the joints.
The layout of the paving stones was determined by the sizes of the old slabs available.
Cross-section of permeable slab paving
Timber decking, or wooden planking, provides an attractive, hard surface. It is very adaptable and easily cut, either to fit a particular area or to be made up into panels. It is suited to both natural and urban designs. In Europe and other temperate countries, the damp climate tends to make it slippery. This can be countered by covering the surface in wire mesh netting, although this does spoil the appearance. However, it can be an alternative to stone or brick as a terrace material and is very comfortable on a warm sunny day. It can also provide an inexpensive change of level in a garden.
Timber decking is a useful and attractive material which can be used for a wide variety of constructions.
The timber available for outdoor use is cut from a large variety of trees, either hardwood or softwood. Hardwood is derived from broad-leaved trees, such as beech, teak and oak. It is much more expensive than softwood but does not need to be treated against rot as it has a natural resistance. Softwood comes from coniferous trees, such as pine and larch. With the exception of Western red cedar, which is tolerant to moisture and weathers well, all softwoods must be treated with a preservative to guard against rot and insect attack (such woods are “tanalized” or “pressure-impregnated”). Both hardwoods and softwoods can be stained or painted any colour. If left untreated, hardwoods will age naturally to a pleasant silver-grey colour.
Design use or suitability
Decking:
– terraces, particularly in warm, sunny areas or climates
– balconies
– suitable for a modern design
– useful for creating a unified look incorporating such features as a terrace, a pergola, built-in seating and barbecues
– looks good in conjunction with water
– is ecologically sound if locally sourced
Grass is a versatile element in the garden. While most people think of areas of grass as lawn, there are other options that do not require regular mowing, Longer grass, with the addition of bulbs and wildflowers, perhaps with a curved mown path running through it, needs less maintenance. This should either be straight or of smooth curves, and it is easiest if the width is the same as the cutting blade of the mower. While large areas of the lawn can be left unmown, a close-cut strip on either side of the driveway can give a neat appeareance.
Gently winding paths can be mown through areas of long grass.
While large grassy areas may be left unmown, a closely cut strip on either side of a driveway gives a neat appearance.
The area between trees can often be difficult to mow, so bulbs could be grown in long grass.
If you do wish to have a lawn in your garden, it can provide a unifying base for the surrounding planting. The shape should be kept simple, without being broken up by island beds which will only get in the way of the mower. When planning the lawn, think about the type of mowing machine that may be used for cutting it—will it need an electric cable to run it, or space for a turning circle at the end of each strip? Ideally, your lawn should be the width of multiples of the width of the mower to avoid an unnecessary run. Avoid using small or awkwardly shaped areas of grass as these will be a nuisance and time-consuming to cut or mow.
When planning the dimensions of a mown path, choose a width that corresponds to the width of the lawn mower—the same width or two or three times wider.
Often a lawn forms the largest single area in a design, complementing the rest of the garden by showing off the surrounding plants to their best effect. It can highlight a vista or draw the eye away from something that might be best hidden, and it can act as a “void” in the garden.
The maintenance of a lawn can be very demanding. Although generally inexpensive to install when compared with other surfaces, regular mowing maintenance and lawn treatments drive up costs. To keep a lawn in good condition requires a traditional care programme to include regular mowing, aerating to improve drainage, scarifying (which removes dead grass, moss and weeds known as “thatch”) and regular autumn and spring feeding. Some franchise companies offer a good regular lawn care service, providing fertilizers and nutrients at a competitive cost, thus relieving the owner of lawn care responsibility.
Design use or suitability
Mown grass:
– a soft surface to walk and play on
– a foil for flower borders, paved areas and water
– ideal to use for making curved areas
– cools the surrounding air in summer
– attracts bird and insect life
– provides a sustainable, tactile surface that helps reduce water runoff from what might otherwise have been a hard area
Rough grass:
– for wild areas of the garden
– acts as a link with surrounding countryside
– a low-maintenance alternative to mown grass
– provides a natural habitat for wildlife
– requires less mowing and maintenance than mown grass
– can be difficult to establish
There are many different qualities of lawn suitable for different purposes. Immaculate velvety lawns, so typical of elegant English gardens, are usually primarily decorative, laid out in bold shapes to complement the overall garden design or to act as a foil for plantings. They have a fine texture. All require moisture to remain green—grass roots are superficial, rarely going deeper than a few centimetres or inches into the soil, so they are prone to drying out during drought. Golf courses, where the fairways must be kept green, use a vast quantity of water, and in a domestic situation a drought-enforced water ban on using hose pipes and sprinklers in gardens can ruin the desired lush effect. However, beneath the soil the roots often remain viable for a long time, and even a badly desiccated lawn can be restored to a lush green with a good downpour.
If traditional grass is to be used for a general utility or play area, imperfections are acceptable and inevitable. Coarser grass will take heavier wear, and there are mixtures suitable for many different needs. The better mixtures avoid rye grass, which has flower heads that are resistant to mowing and which forms clumps rather than knitting together laterally. Seed mixtures are also available for areas of light shade, although if it is to be used in conjunction with another mix, it is important to make sure they will yield the same shade of green, For best effect, the edges of a lawn should be cut with an edging tool every two or three weeks to give crisply defined outline, which means more labour.
Pristine lawns require a considerable amount of maintenance and are unsuitable if subject to heavy wear. Keeping any type of mown lawn short and uniform requires one or two weekly mowings during the growing season.
With hotter, drier summers becoming the norm in most temperate countries, maintaining a lawn may no longer be a sustainable option unless the turf industry adopts a different approach to the traditional regime. If the amount of fertilizer is reduced, lush spring growth is avoided. If they are not watered at all in spring, the grass plants develop deeper root systems, helping the grass to remain greener for longer. Allowing the clippings to mulch back into the sward reduces the need for water and boosts nutrients. The UK turf industry constantly experiments with new strains of grass, altering seed mixtures to see which are most resistant to drought. In warmer and drier climates, different types of grass seed are used, and although this produces a coarser surface, in times of drought it remains green for longer.
To overcome the sustainability problem, look at alternatives. The first and most obvious is to reduce the size of the lawn. The second is to seek out other plant options by using plants that have a low creeping habit, such as some of the herb and Sedum species and that will survive with the minimum of water. Preparation for this type of “lawn” requires a weed-free, level and firm soil surface for the roots to establish themselves. Thereafter the plants can be left to spread naturally.
There are other ways of using grass, too. An eye-catching feature can be created by covering a bank with ground cover plants, or making a flight of steps formed out of grass. A grass roof can be an unusual addition to a garden shed. A modular system can be adapted to create a living grass wall, but this will need an inbuilt irrigation system, plus occasional cutting or trimming. A living wall is easily constructed and quick to assemble, consisting of cells in a series of half-metre squares with a couple of plugs in each cell. The squares then slot into a rail system on the wall with built-in irrigation. Many types of grass soon outgrow their small cells, and herbs can be used instead. Because of the necessary irrigation installed, avoid herbs which need dry conditions. Try mint, lemon balm, oregano, parsley and chives, plus perhaps alpine strawberries.
A bank which might be difficult to mow could be planted with ground cover plants.
The vast array of models offered by different manufacturers is constantly being updated and improved, but the main consideration in buying a mower is to match the garden’s requirements to a suitable machine.
Cylinder mowers, often fitted with rollers at the front and rear, have a scissorlike action and can produce the highest-quality cut and the traditional striped pattern. They are quieter than the other types. Ride-on machines operate in a similar way.
Rotary mowers have a disc with one or more blades spinning horizontally at high speed, and are generally fitted with wheels. The cut can be set higher, so they are able to cope with long grass.
Strimmers have an engine mounted at one end of a long pole, driving a high-speed spinning disc fitted with up to four nylon cords at the other. They are versatile and can be used for trimming edges around obstacles and areas where other mowers cannot operate.
In all cases, health and safety are crucial and any operator should be aware of the safety features of the machine as well as its limitations and capabilities.
Rough grass and wildflower meadows
Rough grass is basically grass left to grow long, requiring a cut only two or three times per year. It can be very attractive, providing a suitable medium for growing bulbs and wildflowers, although when in full growth it is difficult to walk through. There are many different species of grass, and the appearance of a grass meadow will depend on the species you grow. If you are growing other plants through it, cutting time is crucial. Bulbs must be left to die down, and wildflowers must be left until after flowering so that their seeds will be distributed. If the ground has been heavily fertilized, the grass, being more aggressive, will grow more quickly and gradually stifle the wildflowers, so choose a recommended non-aggressive grass seed.
Grass is unlikely to thrive in heavily shaded areas and is unsuited to places where mowing would be difficult, but several seed companies provide seed species bred to cope with various difficult conditions, such as shade or pedestrian traffic.
Despite the current interest in wildflower meadows, they are difficult to establish, particularly if the ground has previously been well fertilized. It is not simply a matter of buying some wildflower seed and sprinkling it around. Poor, thin soils are preferable, which can mean scraping off the topsoil to reach subsoil that has not been grazed, and would thus be richer in nutrients as a result of animal droppings. Removal of stones, careful raking and levelling of soil can then be followed by sowing and raking in grass and wildflower seed in the correctly weighed proportions according to the suppliers’ instructions. Soil preparation is best carried out in autumn, then left to weather until spring sowing. Try to obtain a local seed source to preserve any genetic variation in local wildflower populations, and never take wild plants from the countryside, which is usually illegal. An alternative is to sow non-aggressive grass seed, adding wildflower plugs once the grass is established.
Edging is often used decoratively to provide a border around an area, but it also has the important function of providing a separation between two areas that would otherwise tend to mingle, such as a planted area and a gravel path. Most paths require an edging to hold them together and separate them from the soil. If abutting a lawn, the finished level of the edging needs to be below the level of the lawn to allow the mower to skim over unimpeded.
Pressure-treated timber cut into short strips can follow the curves of a lawn, separating two areas.
There are many materials that are suitable to use for edging—pressure-treated timber, bricks laid on edge, cobbles, stone or purpose-made Victorian “rope” tiles. Timber, which soon weathers and becomes unnoticeable, may need to be cut into shorter strips to follow the lines of a curved path. The unnatural appearance of metal and plastic edging should be avoided.
Design use or suitability
Edging:
– to repeat a material used elsewhere and help relate one area to another
– to separate two areas that would otherwise mingle
– to provide a mowing strip, eliminating the need to edge a lawn
– to disguise the edge of a pool liner
When you have allocated the ground plane surfaces on your preliminary garden layout plan, try lining up the plan at your own eye level, either by crouching down or by bringing the plan up to your eye level. Apart from the areas that you visualize as plantings, the space will still look flat and probably rather boring. Study the three-dimensional aspect of the garden and try to imagine how it might look, then consider how you might interrupt the flatness of the ground plane by introducing vertical and overhead features. Some examples of features you might consider are steps, walls, buildings, arbours, arches, pergolas, statues, pots or urns, seats, trees and large specimen shrubs.
Again, at this stage there is no need to decide exactly what shape or form these features will take, or of what material they will be built. Simply indicate where they will be by writing them in on your plan, trying to keep their proportions on the grid, or on a subdivision of it. Now try again putting yourself on the same eye level as your plan. Can you imagine the difference the verticals make? Even a slight change of level, such as two steps down or up and then back again, can make a garden more interesting. Low retaining walls for planting areas can give, in addition to visual appeal, an area raised up to a sunnier aspect with improved drainage, with the retaining walls sometimes doubling as extra seating, with or without cushions.
A low retaining wall can provide better drainage for a range of plants, informal “built-in” seating, and easier gardening for the elderly.
Very few gardens are absolutely flat, although they often appear to be so, and even slight changes of level, necessitating no more than one or two steps, can be used to create interest and variety. Although your garden may be relatively level, there may be the possibility of steps up or down from the terrace and a couple more partway along the length of the garden. If this is the case, try to avoid making the break halfway along the garden, since 50:50 is not a comfortable proportion. Dividing the garden up into thirds is often a better solution.
Remember that, compared with interiors, the scale outdoors is greatly increased, and the width of treads and heights of risers should be as generous as possible. The location of the level change will influence the step layout. When designing steps, keep them low, with the risers at best 100 mm (4 in.) and certainly no more than 150 mm (6 in.). The treads should be as wide as possible—450 mm (1.5 ft.), if practicable. Your steps may need an edging, such as a balustrade or retaining wall, parts of which can double as a plinth for pots and containers.
Planning permission in the UK now requires ramps to give level access to all domestic new buildings and extensions, and similar consideration should be given to level changes in gardens. Be sure to check restrictions of level changes in your area.
A sunken area with ample steps provides a conversation area and a protected place for a sand pit.
These well-designed steps have a retaining wall which doubles as a plinth for a pot.
Ramps can provide useful access to the garden for those using buggies (strollers) and wheelchairs, and they are also invaluable for wheelbarrows and mowers.
Ramps built alongside steps offer access for disabled visitors.
When installing wheelchair ramps the following need to be considered:
– Width. The surface width of the ramp should be at least 1200 mm (3 ft. 4 in.).
– Gradient. A gradient of 1 in 20 is preferred but where space is limited keep to a maximum of 1 in 12.
– Landings. If the gradient is 1 in 15, level landings 1.5 m (5 ft.) long should be provided at 5 m (16 ft.) intervals.
A level change within a garden should be treated as an opportunity to add interest, possibly through the use of hard landscape materials to create steps, walls and ramps. Severe changes in level and wall construction should be overseen by a qualified surveyor especially if the soil is sandy and liable to erosion in wet weather.
If there is a slope across the width of the garden, you must try to correct this, since looking out over a cross fall gives a very uneasy feeling, as though the whole place were sliding downhill. If the fall is slight, you may be able to correct it by “cut and fill”, or reducing the level on the upper side and filling in the lower level with soil removed from that upper level (see page 29), or just by filling the lower area with tall, dense plantings.
Land, especially on a slope, can be sculpted to create terraces that can be grassed over, provided that the slope is not too steep to be mown.
Land sculpting, very effective even in small gardens, requires more expertise and expert advice should be sought before the necessary JCB diggers are employed.
Slope Construction and Maintenance Principles |
1. JCB operation. Use a skilled operator who can understand the shapes you wish to create. 2. Compaction and water retention. The slopes need to be properly compacted in layers to avoid slump and settlement. Use biodegradable materials such as a geotextile to improve soil stability and to prevent soil erosion. Slopes need to be well drained to avoid boggy pockets, and well irrigated to prevent turf from drying out. 3. Working the slopes. Only work in dry weather, and handle the soil as little as possible. 4. Soil storage. Store turf, topsoil and subsoil separately and for as short a time as possible. 5. Soil structure. This is vital in keeping the soil well aerated and to establish and maintain planting. 6. Maintenance. If slopes are to be mown, the slope should be less than 1 in 2. Mowers such as hover mowers can be used on one to one slopes but electric ones are often too heavy to operate safely and can flood. 7. Laying turf. On steep slopes turf should be laid vertically, rather than horizontally which can allow the turf to slip. 8. Grass seed and wildflowers. An appropriate seed mix should be sown shallowly in early spring and must kept moist. |
Most gardens contain, or at least require, a certain number of ancillary buildings. Firstly there is the garage, which is frequently already present but may well require concealment or linking back to the house by a wall or hedge. There may also be a garden shed, and perhaps a greenhouse, summerhouse, children’s playhouse, jacuzzi or outdoor spa, but all these should be carefully sited and selected as design elements to be incorporated into the final garden plan. Sheds are generally allowed under planning legislation, but in the UK, they must not exceed fifty percent of the garden space. In conservation areas, planning permission is required if they exceed 10 m3 (33 ft.3) in volume, flat roof sheds should not exceed 3 m (10 ft.) in height and ridged roofs must be no taller than 4 m (13 ft.). Storage sheds are rarely permitted in front gardens and should be sited at least 20 m (65 ft.) away from the highway.
A multi-activity children’s area has a swing, climbing frame and castle all in a large, ship-shaped sand pit. When designing children’s play equipment safety is the priority.
Completing the garden owner’s checklist in Chapter 1 will have helped you to decide if there is a need for any structures that are not already present. Try to group them in a logical way—shed, greenhouse, garage and bin store might well fit together—and allow plenty of working space adjacent to them. Often the rear wall of one building can double for another, saving on space and cost.
Garden shed size will depend on its intended function; sheds are often only used as additional storage areas for mowers and bicycles, but if possible allow for more space than necessary—-it will soon be filled. Some sheds can double as workshops or additional office space. Incorporating a damp-proofing membrane into the base will help protect stored materials. If easy access with a path or ramp is important, this should be worked into the plan.
Most sheds are made of timber sold as prefabricated panels that bolt together. Security may be an issue, so if the contents are valuable, take adequate precautions as most household insurance companies will not cover equipment stored in a shed as locks are easily broken or removed. The roof is usually covered with waterproof asphalt sheets or roofing felt, but there are other roofing options. Corrugated Perspex, for instance, will allow light into the shed, which is useful for potting up seedlings and other chores. Garage roofs, outhouses, flat roof extensions, and porches can all be candidates for the “living” roof treatment.
Painting or staining a fairly mundane shed can make it appear to recede into the background (if painted a dark colour), or stand out as a garden feature (if painted or stained a bright colour). Staining has the advantage over painting as a further coat of wood stain may only be needed every three of four years, while paint needs to be renewed more often.
Clear, corrugated plastic roofing can be worked into the roof structure to let light in.
The recent trend for “green” or “living” roofs has given sheds a new dimension. Covering a roof with low-maintenance plants can transform an ordinary structure into a central focal point that benefits wildlife, increases biodiversity and will keep the shed cooler in summer and warmer in winter, in addition to giving it some sound insulation. It also provides an opportunity for growing a wide range of plants, both native and non-native. When viewed from above, a green roof can disguise the building. In these water-conscious times, any vegetation that covers impermeable surfaces, such as roofs or paths, has the advantage of trapping rainfall, preventing it from being shed and lost to drains.
Making a green roof consists of building up a series of layers that differ mainly in the depth of growing medium and therefore the type of plant life they can support. They can be obtained from and installed by a commercial company, or constructed on a do-it-yourself basis (or a combination of both).
A typical “living” roof consists of:
– Waterproof layer. This should also be “root-proof” and commercial companies usually provide a twenty-five year guarantee against leakage.
– Drainage layer. Placed on top of the waterproof layer, the drainage layer removes excess water from the roof, avoiding waterlogging which many plants will not tolerate. The drainage layer is usually made of small-scale aggregates or plastic cellular layers.
– Filter mat. A geotextile material placed between the drainage layer and the soil to prevent detritus from clogging the drainage layer.
– Soil or growing medium layer. Usually consisting of an artificial soil that is lightweight, such as clay granules, perlite, vermiculite, recycled crushed bricks or tiles, mixed with a small proportion (ten to twenty percent volume) of organic matter or lightweight compost.
– Planting. The living elements of the roof. As the chart above shows, the depth of growing medium (or soil) will determine the type of plants to be grown.
All manner of garden buildings could have living roofs, as long as the roof is capable of supporting the extra weight.
A shallow growing medium allows cultivation of sedums en masse, for a carpet-like effect.
A deeper growing medium can support perennials, grasses and subshrubs.
Commercial companies often supply sedum species as pre-grown mats to be placed on top of the drainage layer, but there are also other options such as wildflower meadows or alpine plants. It is not difficult to undertake the planting yourself onto a ready-supplied base, using either potted or plug plants, a seed mix or a combination of both. Irrigation should be installed if the living roof is to remain green and healthy during drought. It is important to choose a planting style that suits your climate, as well as the amount of maintenance you are prepared to devote.
The two most important factors when deciding whether to install a green roof are structural loading and waterproofing. It is important to check whether the roof can take the additional weight to be imposed on it, perhaps by using a reliable roofing contractor to oversee the construction work.
Arbours, statues or urns and garden seats can be used to subtly turn a corner, acting as a pivot, or as a focal point to be seen through an arch or pergola. Trees or specimen shrubs, even topiary, can also act as a pivot. The shape of a tree canopy can echo the shape of a pool or provide a positive shape or mass to complement a void.
Traditional focal points include statuary and furniture.
This garden statue is too small for its surroundings.
A larger statue is much better proportioned.
Too many, poorly coordinated ornaments can make a garden look more like a garden centre.
A simple, thoughtfully placed ornament is often far more effective.
The increase in the popularity of art for gardens can result in indiscriminate and unsuitable choices. Many garden centres offer mass-produced items strangely out of context and scale with nature, so seek out an artist’s gallery or sculpture park where genuine artwork is displayed or can be built to commission. Overcrowding can demean some well-chosen items. Careful siting will make or break the connection between landscape and art, and space will need to be allowed for comfortable viewing. Use planting as a backdrop, considering the subsequent seasonal effects in winter as well as summer, when garden art and sculpture are often being viewed from within the house. Use simplicity and restraint—plus occasionally a sense of humour.
The enclosing wall or hedge must act as a backdrop or foil for whatever is to be seen against it. The various boundaries illustrated here suit many different styles of planting.
At this stage in developing the preliminary garden layout plan, the garden boundaries should be considered. In Britain, gardeners tend to enclose their land, to set it physically apart from neighbouring land by constructing or planting a barrier that must be crossed before admission is granted into what is deemed a private area. This custom probably dates from medieval times when protection against a hostile force was necessary, but the habit continues today. In the United States the boundaries are often less defined; sometimes open landscape is marked by a simple and visually unobtrusive fence.
There are many ways to enclose a property, and walls, fences and hedges perform virtually the same function. As the chosen enclosure will often act as a backdrop or foil to the design or planting of the garden, it must be selected to set off whatever is to be seen against it; this is why boundaries need to be considered at this stage.
Boundaries constructed of horizontal wire, or wire mesh, will allow views through them. For best results supporting fence posts should be carefully positioned and obscured where possible.
Access will be required through the enclosure, so a suitable gateway, wide enough for people or for vehicles, will need to be included. Often the most obvious or direct route may not be the best. Offsetting a gate or entrance to gradually reveal, upon approaching, the objective (such as garage or garden shed) is subtle and intriguing, but once again, keep to the grid and do not think about the type or material of the enclosure or entrance at this stage.
When designing the entrances, allow wide enough access for vehicles as well as people.
The time has come to choose one of the theme plans and to develop your design and commit your ideas to paper. This stage will concentrate on organizing the horizontal plane; the next stage will focus on the vertical and overhead planes.
The garden layout plan is still in an embryo state. In the next chapter, almost inevitably, you will need to adjust your preliminary dimensions to fit all the desired elements and materials into the space.
Preliminary Garden Layout Plan (Model Plan):
The position of the main design features, such as pools, paths, arbour, terrace and lawn, are indicated. (See detailed caption opposite.)
With reference to the garden owner’s brief and site appraisal, the following developments have been made: |
1. More space has been allowed for planting, and the lawn has been reduced in size. 2. A hill garden runs down the slope into a gravel garden, planted with grasses to give movement and a focus to the centre of the garden. 3. An overhead vine-covered wire arbour has been introduced to provide shade, shelter and intimacy on the south-facing terrace. 4. A path has been infiltrated through the “jungle” shrub belt to lead into the secret garden. 5. The area in front of the French windows has doors “in the wings” to left and right. It can be used as an outdoor theatre for children’s shows or musical events at parties. 6. Important trees have been located to improve vistas, provide focal points and give enclosure. |
Views of the French countryside surround this garden. Plants within the garden are clipped or “topiarized” to contrast with natural shapes in the distant landscape.
Unusual modern reinforced glass, timber walls and sliding doors relate this house to its woodland setting. A sturdy pierced timber deck bridges the gap over the lower ground level, allowing snow and rainwater to percolate to the ground below.
Carefully chosen paint and door lighting can transform a property, giving the building an air of individuality. An overhead canopy or porch protects visitors from the elements, and the stone flooring is easily swept.
A garden designer’s brief does not always begin with the garden. Here a porch has been added to link the house with the garden. It provides a sheltered place to wait until the door is opened.
In this coastal setting, the vertical plane of the brick and flint house is linked to the horizontal ground plane by the use of a columnar evergreen tree. Brick colours and tones are repeated in the semi-exotic planting.
The columnar cypress acts as an exclamation mark, drawing the eye to the low-built house. The matt or light-absorbent foliage of the cypress contrasts with the grey or glossy foliage of adjacent plants.
The pale green paint used for the door frames and windows of this single-storey house acts as a foil for the dark green foliage that softens the angular lines of the building.
Structural planting emphasizes the entrance to this property. The painted blue doorway is sympathetic to the silver and green foliage tones.
This house, its entranceway and its path are of the same stone. The permeable paviours are laid crosswise to emphasize the path width, and the mainly evergreen planting repeats the rough building textures.
The staggered levels of the timber fence and the covered garden seat set within it help to break what might otherwise have been a harsh line. Multi-stemmed silver birch reduce the impact of the house spire and help to connect house and garden.
Two dominant columns of Cupressus sempervirens (Italian cypress) unite the vertical façade of the house and the horizontal plane of this formal garden. A built-in seat attracts attention to the mature Pinus nigra (Corsican Pine), which is outside the garden boundary.
The herbs in this garden, which was designed by the late Rosemary Verey, are easily accessible from the kitchen. The curved planted beds soften the angular lines of the house.
Planting at the entrance to this country house emphasizes a sense of arrival. The variegated foliage looks cheerful even during the winter and the clipped box and holly are focal points within the planting.
The vertical impact of this house’s dominant façade has been reduced by building on a raised covered terrace or sundeck, providing extra space and allowing viewers to study wildlife in the surrounding woodland.
House and entrance-garden are united by a clipped box parterre. The formality of the planting repeats the formal architectural style of the house.
Hedges and topiary have a strong architectural influence on this space. The lighter foliage of the young mop-head Robinia will contrast with the darker green foliage beyond.
Hedges are useful, not only as a windbreak, but also to create a series of garden rooms. Here the bright red flowers of the climbing Nasturtium tropeo um speciosum contrast well with the texture of the yew hedge and can be easily pulled free at the end of each growing season.
Planting needed to be scaled up in proportion to this large property. Very large box (Buxus) balls, topiarized to varying heights and shapes by an annual clip, break up the space between terrace and lawn.
A long gravel path is broken up by creating a calm, shady clearing accentuated by low-growing box and the pruned columnar “clean” or non-dripping lime, Ti ia xeuch ora. Although free of aphids, the lime flowers have a narcotic effect on bees.
An example of mass and void, where the lawn flows through the space, held in by the intricate curves of the low box hedge. Planting of foxglove spires, with shrub roses and beech held in by metal tripods, give height to the “mass” of this planting.
During the growing season, this cleverly woven hazel fence merges with the deciduous hawthorn hedge behind. The repetitive detail of the angled finish to the uprights adds to the effect.
An unusual open combination of copper, wood and brick prevent the danger of falling from this raised walkway. Metal is a material easily worked into intricate patterns.
Recycled birch (Betula) logs make an unusual fence. Of slightly differing lengths, the logs are sawn to an angle, seeming to merge with the landscape beyond.
Not strictly a fence, these regular hardwood columns delineate the garden boundary. A similar timber is used for the unusual light fitting.
The robust lines of this bridge parapet are in keeping with the country setting. Detailing includes wooden plugs as opposed to metal screws which could corrode and stain.
A simple post-and-rail fence defines this field while allowing a view of the wildflowers beyond. Only use oak or a timber treated with preservative. Other untreated wood uprights will eventually rot.
The circular grassy landing between the forward and receding stone risers of these steps is fundamental to their design. Treads are generous, and plants are allowed to self-seed in cracks in the risers.
This raised, wildlife-friendly circular damp or bog garden provides a dramatic change of level. Water spills from the ornate heads into a trough before being pumped and recycled around the perimeter of the planting.
This sunken seating area can double as a fire pit or barbecue. Using a raised metal brazier will protect the decorative tiles. Columnar evergreen conifers emphasize the circular outline.
Sustainable and recycled materials create a magical atmosphere in this secluded seating area. The stone and bark chipping flooring is permeable, and green-leaved plants provide contrasting foliage and texture.
A circular theme where bricks delineate the outline of both pool and steps. For ease of mowing, turf has been laid slightly above the level of the pool’s brick edge.
A sympathetic planting of Begonia evansii and Helichrysum petiolare repeat the shades in this terracotta urn.
By placing the larger pot in the foreground, and a much smaller pot behind, the perspective is lengthened.
A colourful planting of the Tulipa ‘General de Wet’ brings out the colour tones of this terracotta urn. Avoid using too many contrasting plants in a pot, especially if the pot is decorative.
These strategically placed display plinths are made of the same monotone material as the paved floor, while white supporting metal uprights echo the silver-barked birch trees.
The effect of this border is more dramatic when seen through a dark opening. Shadows and effects of light are often overlooked when considering planting.
The mirrored arch helps to break up the length of the wall and brings light into the garden. Flowers and foliage are based on green, yellow, silver and white.
Mirrors may be used to bring light into a garden. Here, a mirror has been fitted into the arch and a gate placed in front of it. The gate helps prevent birds flying into the mirror.
In this tiny garden room, the apparent “window” is actually mirrored glass, which brings reflected light into the space. The round, painted, upright posts, planted with the fast-growing golden hop, Humulus aureus, support overhead timber shading.
