1. Don Tapscott, “A Declaration of Interdependence: Toward a New Social Contract for the Digital Economy,” Blockchain Research Institute, rev. January 14, 2019, https://www.blockchainresearchinstitute.org/socialcontract.
2. “2020 Edelman Trust Barometer,” Daniel J. Edelman Holdings Inc., January 19, 2020. https://www.edelman.com/trustbarometer.
1. Troika (in the context of the Greek crisis): the European Union, the European Central Bank, and the International Monetary Fund.
2. Oana Lungescu, “Greece Should Sell Islands to Cut Debt,” BBC News, March 4, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8549793.stm.
3. Sebastiaan Faber and Bécquer Seguín, “Welcome to Sunny Barcelona, Where the Government Is Embracing Coops, Citizen Activism, and Solar Energy,” The Nation, August 11, 2016, https://www.thenation.com/article/welcome-to-sunny-barcelona-where-the-government-is-embracing-coops-citizen-activism-and-solar-energy.
4. The Icelandic citizen assembly (the “2010 National Gathering”) took into account suggestions put forward by 1,000 randomly selected citizens ages 18 to 89 years old. It should be noted that the constitutional proposals of the Icelandic citizen assembly were ultimately rejected by the national parliament. Richard Conner, “Iceland Votes for Citizen Assembly to Draft New Constitution,” DW, November 28, 2010, https://www.dw.com/en/iceland-votes-for-citizen-assembly-to-draft-new-constitution/a-6274235-0.
5. Joseph Stiglitz, “How I Would Vote in the Greek Referendum,” The Guardian, June 29, 2015.
6. Winston Churchill, quoted in Bartleby.com, at https://www.bartleby.com/73/417.html.
7. Rachel Donadio, “Macron and Salvini: Two Leaders, Two Competing Visions for Europe,” The Atlantic, May 20, 2019, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2019/05/emmanuel-macron-matteo-salvini-europe/589753.
8. Klaus Schwab, The Fourth Industrial Revolution (New York: Crown, 2016).
9. The Second Industrial Revolution starts at the end of nineteenth century and through the first part of the twentieth century with rapid industrialization, mostly due to the invention of electrical power production and distribution. The Third Industrial Revolution started in the second part of the twentieth century with the invention of the computer; we are arguably still in that historical phase that saw the emergence of the Internet and the digital economy.
10. Given that, on average, labor accounts for a significant percentage of total production costs. For precise information on labor contribution and effectiveness, read the US Human Capital Effectiveness Report published periodically by PwC. For example, https://www.pwc.com/us/en/hr-management/publications/pwc-trends-in-hr-effectiveness-final.html.
11. “Difference Engine: Luddite Legacy,” The Economist, November 4, 2011.
12. We see this clearly happening already with companies such as Amazon, Google, Facebook, and Apple amassing billions of dollars by virtually controlling the digital economy, where the “digital platform” is essentially a rentier’s dream.
13. China started opening up its economy to global markets in the late 1970s under the leadership of Chairman Deng Xiaoping. However, there can be no doubt that the Communist Party can intervene at any time to replace, and sometime imprison, corporate bosses that fall out of the party line. In fact, under President Xi Jinping the Communist Party has increased its control over state-owned and private enterprises.
14. As reported in Forbes, a 2019 survey showed a 50% failure in 25% of enterprises deploying AI. Gil Press, “This Week in AI Stats: Up to 50% Failure Rate in 25% of Enterprises Deploying AI,” Forbes.com, July 19, 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/gilpress/2019/07/19/this-week-in-ai-stats-up-to-50-failure-rate-in-25-of-enterprises-deploying-ai/#3dc95aa372ce.
15. Henry Mance, “Britain Has Had Enough of Experts, Says Gove,” Financial Times, June 3, 2016, https://www.ft.com/content/3be49734-29cb-11e6-83e4-abc22d5d108c.
16. These values are also stipulated in the Liberal Manifesto, adopted by the 48th Congress of Liberal International. See “Oxford Manifesto 1997: The Liberal Agenda for the 21st Century,” accessed via https://web.archive.org/web/20110207012341/http://www.liberal-international.org/editorial.asp?ia_id=537.
1. Astra Taylor, Democracy May Not Exist, but We’ll Miss It When It’s Gone (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2019).
2. Agnes Heller, “Hungary: How Liberty Can Be Lost,” Social Research 86, no. 1 (Spring 2019).
3. Timothy Garton Ash, “Europe Must Stop This Disgrace: Viktor Orbán Is Dismantling Democracy,” The Guardian, June 20, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jun/20/viktor-orban-democracy-hungary-eu-funding.
4. Dalibor Rohac, “Hungary and Poland Aren’t Democratic: They’re Authoritarian,” Foreign Policy, February 5, 2018, https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/02/05/hungary-and-poland-arent-democratic-theyre-authoritarian.
5. Yascha Mounk, The People vs. Democracy: Why Our Freedom Is in Danger and How to Save It (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).
6. Isaiah Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty,” Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 118–172.
7. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty (1859). 2016 edition by Enhanced Media Publishing, Los Angeles, CA.
8. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract (1762). 1998 edition by Wordsworth Editions Ltd., Hertfordshire, England.
9. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1925).
10. Full transcript of Hillary Clinton’s comment: http://time.com/4486502/hillary-clinton-basket-of-deplorables-transcript.
11. Mounk, The People vs. Democracy.
12. The European Convention on Human Rights can be accessed at https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf.
13. Given that Italian governments change quickly and unpredictably, I refer here to the coalition government of 2018–2019 between Five Star and the Northern League.
14. As the far-right conspiracy theory social media platform QAnon promotes.
15. Rasmussen Global and Dalia Research, “Global Perceptions of Democracy,” June 22, 2018, https://www.allianceofdemocracies.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Democracy-Perception-Index-2018-1.pdf.
16. Jaspers quoted in Benas Gerziunas, “Citizens Disillusioned with Democracy: Poll,” Politico, June 21, 2018, https://www.politico.eu/article/democracy-europe-citizens-disillusioned-poll.
17. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (New York: Free Press, 1992).
18. Data accessed March 2018, https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018.
19. Richard Wike, Katie Simmons, Bruce Stokes, and Janell Fetterolf, “Globally, Broad Support for Representative and Direct Democracy,” Pew Research Center, October 16, 2017, http://www.pewglobal.org/2017/10/16/globally-broad-support-for-representative-and-direct-democracy.
20. Wike et al., “Globally, Broad Support.”
21. Rupert Neate, “Richest 1% Own Half the World’s Wealth, Study Finds,” The Guardian, November 14, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2017/nov/14/worlds-richest-wealth-credit-suisse.
22. Oxfam’s 2017 report “An Economy for the 99%,” accessed via https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/economy-99.
23. Jill Treanor, “Half of the World’s Wealth Now in Hands of 1% of Population—Report,” The Guardian, October 13, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/money/2015/oct/13/half-world-wealth-in-hands-population-inequality-report.
24. World Economic Forum, “The Global Risks Report 2017,” accessed via http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GRR17_Report_web.pdf.
25. As a demonstrator of the relative weight in investment choices for capital in the world, I took the total VC investment in start-ups globally in four consecutive quarters in 2016, which comes to approximately US$165 billion, and compared it with the total capitalization value of NYSE, which was US$18,500 billion in 2016, and accounted for only 27% of global total. Jason Rowley, “Inside the Q2 2017 Global Venture Capital Ecosystem,” TechCrunch.com, July 11, 2011, https://techcrunch.com/2017/07/11/inside-the-q2-2017-global-venture-capital-ecosystem.
26. Ian Goldin and Mike Mariathasan, The Butterfly Effect: How Globalization Creates Systemic Risks, and What to Do about Them (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).
27. J. P. Morgan, “Fallout from COVID-19: Global Recession, Zero Interest Rates and Emergency Policy Actions,” March 27, 2020, http://www.jpmorgan.com/global/research/fallout-from-covid19.
28. US Government Accountability Office report dated April 20, 2015. Source: http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/669899.pdf.
29. Angela Monaghan, “One in Four UK Families Have Less Than £95 in Savings, Report Finds,” The Guardian, February 20, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/feb/20/one-in-four-uk-families-have-less-than-95-in-savings-report-finds.
30. Martin Gilens and Benjamin I. Page, “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens,” Perspectives on Politics 12, no. 3 (September 2014): 564–581.
32. PricewaterhouseCoopers, “The Macroeconomic Impact of Artificial Intelligence,” February 2018, https://www.pwc.co.uk/economic-services/assets/macroeconomic-impact-of-ai-technical-report-feb-18.pdf.
1. George Zarkadakis, In Our Own Image: The History and Future of Artificial Intelligence (New York: Pegasus, 2016).
2. Richard Waters, “Microsoft Invests $1bn in OpenAI Effort to Replicate Human Brain,” Financial Times, July 22, 2019.
3. Zarkadakis, In Our Own Image.
4. Steve B. Furber, Francesco Galluppi, Steve Temple, and Luis A. Plana, “The SpiNNaker Project,” Proceedings of the IEEE 102, no. 5 (2014): 652–655.
5. Jing Pei, Lei Deng, Sen Song, Mingguo Zhao, Youhui Zhang, Shuang Wu, Guanrui Wang, et al. “Towards Artificial General Intelligence with Hybrid Tianjic Chip Architecture,” Nature 572 (2019): 106–111.
6. Karl Friston, “Learning and Inference in the Brain,” Neural Networks 16, no. 9 (2003): 1325–1352.
7. Karl Friston, “The Free-Energy Principle: A Rough Guide to the Brain?,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences 13, no. 7 (2009): 293–301.
8. For example, AlphaGo came up with hitherto unthought of strategies to beat Lee Sedol, a 9th-dan Go master, in Seoul in March 2016.
9. The “black box” problem of deep learning: in an ironic twist of Polanyi’s paradox our best AI machines do not “know” how they know what they know, and they cannot explain it to us either.
10. George Zarkadakis, Ravin Jesuthasan, and Tracey Malcolm, “The 3 Ways Work Can Be Automated,” Harvard Business Review, October 13, 2016.
11. Sonali Basak and Christopher Palmeri, “A Goldman Trading Desk That Once Had 500 People Is Down to Three,” Bloomberg, April 30, 2018, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-30/goldman-trading-desk-that-once-had-500-people-is-down-to-three.
12. Current AI technology automates many translation tasks (e.g., text-to-text, text-to-voice, voice-to-text). However, as technology advances evermore, translation, as well as interpretation, tasks will become automated, including efficient and accurate, real-time, voice-to-voice interpretation.
13. Accenture’s research estimates a 40% productivity improvement due to AI.
14. Erik Brynjolfsson and Andrew McAfee, The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies (New York: W. W. Norton, 2014).
1. Assuming our species is around 200,000 years old, and that the agricultural revolution started roughly 10,000 years ago, humans have been “working” for less than 5% of our evolutionary history.
2. Timothy A. Kohler, Michael E. Smith, Amy Bogaard, Gary M. Feinman, Christian E. Peterson, Alleen Betzenhauser, Matthew Pailes, et al., “Greater Post-Neolithic Wealth Disparities in Eurasia Than in North America and Mesoamerica,” Nature 551 (November 2017): 619–622.
3. Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997).
4. Tellingly, the root of the word “capital” (cap-) means “head,” as in the head of an animal. The same root is perhaps more obvious in the word “de-cap-itation.”
5. Genesis 3:17–19.
6. Timothy B. Gage and Sharon DeWitte, “What Do We Know about the Agricultural Demographic Transition?” Current Anthopology 50, no. 5 (October 2009): 649–655.
7. Richard B. Lee, The Dobe Ju/’hoansi (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1984).
8. Karl Zimmerer, “The World Is Stuck on Eating the Same Few Crops, and That’s Really Bad for Us All,” ScienceAlert, November 30, 2017, https://www.sciencealert.com/fewer-crops-agrobiodiversity-diet-farming-rice-wheat-maze-health-crisis?perpetual=yes&limitstart=1.
9. Marshall Sahlins, The Original Affluent Society, June 21, 2002, http://appropriate-economics/materials/Sahlins.pdf.
10. Andrea Komlosy, Work: The Last 1,000 Years (London: Verso, 2018).
11. It is important to highlight the difference between “freedom” and “liberty.” Adopting a Jeffersonian perspective, freedom usually means to be free from something (in this case “work”), whereas liberty usually means to be free to do something, for instance to exercise the right to own property, speak one’s opinion, choose how to live one’s life, choose whom to marry, and so forth. See also Isaiah Berlin, “Two Concepts of Liberty,” Four Essays on Liberty (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969), 118–172.
12. Graph based on data from the Maddison project database: https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/historicaldevelopment/maddison/releases/maddison-project-database-2018. License and funding: Maddison Project Database, version 2018, by Jutta Bolt, Robert Inklaar, Herman de Jong, and Jan Luiten van Zanden is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
13. “The Labour Share in G20 Economies,” report by OECD prepared for the G20 Employment Working Group, Antalya, Turkey (February 26–27, 2015).
14. Ronald Coase, “The Nature of the Firm,” Economica 4, no. 16 (1937): 386–405.
15. Bourree Lam, “Where Do Firms Go When They Die?,” The Atlantic, April 12, 2015, https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/04/where-do-firms-go-when-they-die/390249.
16. Geoffrey G. Parker, Marshall W. Van Alstyne, and Sangeet Paul Choudary, Platform Revolution: How Networked Markets Are Transforming the Economy and How to Make Them Work for You (New York: W. W. Norton, 2016).
17. As, for example, Disney is doing in its theme parks.
18. George Zarkadakis, “Do Platforms Work?,” Aeon, May 28, 2018.
19. Martin Konrad, “Freelancers Make Up 34 Percent of the U.S. Workforce: Here’s How to Find, Hire and Manage Them,” Entrepreneur, May 24, 2016, https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/275362.
20. Mehreen Khan, “EU Seeks Greater Protection for Gig Economy Workers,” Financial Times, March 13, 2018, https://www.ft.com/content/dff6d21a-26cc-11e8-b27e-cc62a39d57a0.
21. James Manyika, Susan Lund, Jacques Bughin, Kelsey Robinson, Jan Mischke, and Deepa Mahajan, “Independent Work: Choice, Necessity, and the Gig Economy,” McKinsey Global Institute, October 2016, https://www.mckinsey.com/global-themes/employment-and-growth/independent-work-choice-necessity-and-the-gig-economy.
22. This vacuum in labor law is being debated and starting to be addressed in various jurisdictions. An example is the Supreme Court ruling in California in April 2018 that raised the likelihood of companies such as Uber and Lyft categorizing gig workers as employees.
23. Zhang Ruimin and Paul Michelman, “Leading to Become Obsolete,” MIT Sloan Management Review, June 19, 2017, https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/leading-to-become-obsolete.
24. Brian J. Robertson, Holacracy: The Revolutionary Management System That Abolishes Hierarchy (New York: Penguin, 2014).
25. Sarah Kessler, “How Uber Manages Drivers without Technically Managing Drivers,” Fast Company, August 9, 2016, https://www.fastcompany.com/3062622/how-ubers-app-manages-drivers-without-technically-managing-drivers.
26. Carl Benedikt Frey and Michael Osborne, “The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerization?,” 2013, https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/publications/the-future-of-employment.
27. The Word Bank, World Development Report 2016: Digital Dividends, http://worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2016.
28. Daron Acemoglu and Pascual Restrepo, “Robots and Jobs: Evidence from US Labor Markets,” NBER Working Paper 23285, March 2017.
29. Karen Harris, Austin Kimson, and Andrew Schwedel, “Labor 2030: The Collision of Demographics, Automation, and Inequality,” Bain & Co., February 7, 2018, https://www.bain.com/insights/labor-2030-the-collision-of-demographics-automation-and-inequality.
30. Rodney Brooks, “The Productivity Gain: Where Is It Coming from and Where Is It Going To?,” February 25, 2018, https://rodneybrooks.com/the-productivity-gain-where-is-it-coming-from-and-where-is-it-going-to.
31. Ravin Jesuthasan, Tracey Malcolm, and George Zarkadakis, “Automation Will Make Us Rethink What a ‘Job’ Really Is,” Harvard Business Review, October 12, 2016.
32. Richard Wike and Bruce Stokes, “In Advanced and Emerging Economies Alike, Worries about Job Automation,” Pew Research Center, September 13, 2018, http://www.pewglobal.org/2018/09/13/in-advanced-and-emerging-economies-alike-worries-about-job-automation.
33. Axios labor data research 2018, https://www.axios.com/most-jobs-created-since-recciu-1536269032-13ccc866-5fb0-44e8-bd14-286ae09c296f.html.
34. Data from https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MANEMP.
1. Jon Agar, The Government Machine: A Revolutionary History of the Computer (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).
2. Agar, The Government Machine.
3. Virginia Eubanks, Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2018).
4. Eubanks, Automating Inequality.
5. Jeff Larson, Surya Mattu, Lauren Kirchner, and Julia Angwin, “How We Analyzed the COMPAS Recidivism Algorithm,” ProPublica, May 23, 2016, https://www.propublica.org/article/how-we-analyzed-the-compas-recidivism-algorithm.
6. Kristian Lum and William Isaac, “To Predict and Serve?,” Significance 13, no. 5 (October 7, 2016): 14–19, https://rss.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1740-9713.2016.00960.x.
7. Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: NYU Press, 2018).
8. Elisa Shearer and Katerina Eva Matsa, “New Use across Social Media Platforms 2018,” Pew Research Center, September 10, 2018, https://www.journalism.org/2018/09/10/news-use-across-social-media-platforms-2018.
9. Carole Cadwalladr and Emma Graham-Harrison, “Revealed: 50 Million Facebook Profiles Harvested for Cambridge Analytica in Major Data Breach,” The Guardian, March 17, 2018, accessed via:Raja, https://www.theguardian.com/news/series/cambridge-analytica-files.
10. Raja Chatila, Ethically Aligned Design, IEEE Standards Association, January 21, 2020, https://standards.ieee.org/develop/indconn/ec/autonomous_systems.html.
11. Manuel Velasquez, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, and Michael J. Meyer, “The Common Good,” Issues in Ethics 5, no. 1 (Spring 1992).
12. https://www.wyden.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Algorithmic%20Accountability%20Act%20of%202019%20Bill%20Text.pdf.
13. Big tech companies are exerting enormous influence in shaping the landscape of AI ethics and regulation. In 2019 the US National Science Foundation launched a US$7.6 million funding program on Fairness in Artificial Intelligence, funded by Amazon, as reported in Yochai Benkler, “Don’t Let Industry Write the Rules of AI,” Nature 569, no. 7755 (2019): 161. In the same year Facebook invested US$7.5 million in a center of ethics and AI at the Technical University of Munich, Germany.
14. Ludwig von Mises, Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth (Auburn, AL: Mises Institute, 1990).
15. Geoffrey M. Hodgson, “Socialism against Markets? A Critique of Two Recent Proposals,” Economy and Society 27, no. 4 (November 1998): 407–433.
16. Eden Medina, Cybernetic Revolutionaries: Technology and Politics in Allende’s Chile (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011).
17. Feng Xiang, “AI Will Spell the End of Capitalism,” The Washington Post, May 3, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/theworldpost/wp/2018/05/03/end-of-capitalism/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.ea05123dfc43.
18. Binbin Wang and Xiaoyan Li, “Big Data, Platform Economy, and Market Competition: A Preliminary Construction of Plan-Oriented Market Economy System in the Information Era,” World Review of Political Economy 8, no. 2 (Summer 2017): 138–161.
19. See the BBC report on Chinese reeducation camps in Xinjiang. John Sudworth, “China Blog: Searching for Truth in China’s Uighur ‘Re-education’ Camps,” BBC News, June 21, 2019, https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-china-blog-48700786.
20. Douglas Ernst, “China Touts ‘Social Credit’ System to Deny Travel: ‘Once Untrustworthy, Always Restricted,’” The Washington Times, March 16, 2018, https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2018/mar/16/china-touts-social-credit-system-to-deny-travel-on.
21. Isaac Asimov, “Franchise,” If: Worlds of Science Fiction, August 1955.
22. Christina Larson, “Who Needs Democracy When You Have Data?,” MIT Technology Review, August 20, 2018, https://www.technologyreview.com/s/611815/who-needs-democracy-when-you-have-data.
23. “All Watched Over by Machines of Loving Grace” was the title of a poem by Richard Brautigan (1935–1984).
24. Darryl Campbell, “The Many Human Errors That Brought Down the Boeing 737 Max,” The Verge, May 1, 2019.
25. Edward Geist and Andrew J. Lohn, “How Might Artificial Intelligence Affect the Risk of Nuclear War?,” Rand International, Security 2040 Project, 2018, https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE296.html.
26. Edward Geist and Andrew J. Lohn, “How Might Artificial Intelligence Affect the Risk of Nuclear War?,” Perspectives, 2018, https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PE296.html.
1. “Websites Blocked in Mainland China,” Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Websites_blocked_in_mainland_China.
2. Nicholas Wright, “How Artificial Intelligence Will Reshape the Global Order,” Foreign Affairs, July 10, 2018, https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2018-07-10/how-artificial-intelligence-will-reshape-global-order.
3. Li Tao, “Malaysian Police Wear Chinese Start-Up’s AI Camera to Identify Suspected Criminals,” South China Morning Post, April 20, 2018, https://www.scmp.com/tech/social-gadgets/article/2142497/malaysian-police-wear-chinese-start-ups-ai-camera-identify.
4. Louise Matsakis, “What Happens if Russia Cuts Itself Off from the Internet,” Wired, February 12, 2019.
5. Various primary sources as listed in “Internet Censorship in Russia” article, Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/internet_censorship_in_Russia.
6. Shannon Van Sant, “Russia Criminalizes the Spread of Online News That ‘Disrespects’ the Government,” NPR, March 18, 2019, https://www.npr.org/2019/03/18/704600310/russia-criminalizes-the-spread-of-online-news-which-disrespects-the-government?t=1564467761076.
7. Wright, “How Artificial Intelligence Will Reshape the Global Order.”
8. B. F. Skinner, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (New York: Knopf, 1971).
9. Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (New York: Public Affairs, 2019).
10. Mostly through acquisitions—for example, Facebook acquiring WhatsApp.
11. See, for example, how Facebook is becoming a bank with the launch of Libra, or how Google is disrupting the automobile industry with Waymo.
12. Daniel Castro, “The EU’s Right to Be Forgotten Is Now Being Used to Protect Murderers,” Centre for Data Innovation, September 21, 2018, https://www.datainnovation.org/2018/09/the-eus-right-to-be-forgotten-is-now-being-used-to-protect-murderers.
13. Cecilia Kang, “FTC Approves Facebook Fine of about $5 Billion,” The New York Times, July 12, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/12/technology/facebook-ftc-fine.html.
14. Charles Riley and Ivana Kottasová, “Europe Hits Google with a Third, $1.7 Billion Antitrust Fine,” CNN, March 20, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/03/20/tech/google-eu-antitrust/index.html.
15. Wright, “How Artificial Intelligence Will Reshape the Global Order.”
16. Stef W. Kight, “Exclusive Poll: Young Americans Are Embracing Socialism,” Axios, March 10, 2019, https://www.axios.com/exclusive-poll-young-americans-embracing-socialism-b051907a-87a8-4f61-9e6e-0db75f7edc4a.html.
17. Virginia Furness, Sujata Rao, and Julien Ponthus, “Corbyn-Proof? British Water, Power Firms Take Nationalisation Precautions,” Reuters, April 29, 2019, https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-britain-eu-labour-privatisation-analy/corbyn-proof-british-water-power-firms-take-nationalisation-precautions-idUKKCN1S50BZ.
18. Jochen Bittner, “Why Is Socialism Coming Back in Germany?,” The New York Times, May 2, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/02/opinion/germany-socialism.html.
19. Liberal democracies today are “mixed economies” where the state and also international trade agreements and institutions exercise a high degree of control and regulation over so-called “free markets,” skewing free market dynamics via subsidies and public investment, while high taxation of personal income and corporate profits is used to redistribute wealth and fund public services, such as education and health care.
20. Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944).
21. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom.
22. Josh Barro, “Lessons from the Decades Long Upward March of Government Spending,” Forbes, April 16, 2012, https://www.forbes.com/sites/joshbarro/2012/04/16/lessons-from-the-decades-long-upward-march-of-government-spending/#13b137227201.
23. Calculated on 2019 data. Source: https://tradingeconomics.com/european-union/government-spending.
24. Steve Robinson, “Growth of Government Assistance Adds to National Debt,” Maine Wire, January 13, 2103, https://www.themainewire.com/2013/01/growth-government-assistance-adds-national-debt.
25. Rutger Bregman, Utopia for Realists: And How We Can Get There (London: Bloomsbury, 2018).
26. Evelyn L. Forget, “The Town with No Poverty: The Health Effects on a Canadian Guaranteed Annual Income Field Experiment,” Canadian Public Policy, 37, no. 3 (2011): 283–305.
27. Carrie Arnold, “Money for Nothing: The Truth about Universal Basic Income,” Nature, News Feature, May 30, 2018, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05259-x.
28. Clem Chambers, “Money and Markets: Universal Basic Income—Not So Revolutionary,” theiet.org, April 16, 2019, https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2019/04/money-markets-universal-basic-income.
29. Chambers, “Money and Markets.”
30. Chambers, “Money and Markets.”
31. Support for government intervention to compensate for income loss is widespread among US tech leaders. For example, Bill Gates is in favor of a “robot tax.” In 2018 Y Combinator announced a long-term study in UBI.
32. Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism.
33. Bryan Caplan, The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007).
34. Daniel Kahneman, Thinking Fast and Slow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2011).
35. Tim Harford, “Referendums Break Democracies So Best to Avoid Them,” Financial Times, March 2, 2018.
36. Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Democracy: The God That Failed (Livingston, NJ: Transaction, 2001).
37. The same research by Pew has also found a 49%–46% split in favor of being ruled by experts, while 26% preferred to be rules by a “strong leader” and 24% by the military. Pew Research Center, “Widespread Support for Representative and Direct Democracy, but Many Are Also Open to Nondemocratic Alternatives,” October 12, 2017, http://www.pewglobal.org/2017/10/16/globally-broad-support-for-representative-and-direct-democracy/pg_2017-10-16_global-democracy_0-01.
1. The Meeting of Minds project was funded by the European Commission and the King Baudouin Foundation and took place between 2005 and 2006.
2. Terms such as “epistocracy” or “noocracy” are used to describe rule by experts, which broadly corresponds to what ancient Greeks meant by rule by the best (the “aristoi”), hence the word “aristocracy.”
3. The nine countries that participated in the Meeting of Minds project were Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. In total 126 EU citizens took part.
4. This restriction included professionals such as neuroscientists, neurobiologists, neurologists, psychiatrists, and psychologists.
5. The citizens who were selected would be interacting with a wide spectrum of stakeholders, including patient groups and other special interest groups, on the basis of suggestions but also as they saw fit.
6. The six themes used for deliberation and recommendations were Regulation and Control, Normalcy versus Diversity, Public Information, Pressure from Economic Interests, Equal Access to Treatment, and Freedom of Choice.
7. The Greek word for someone who thinks, acts and cares only for himself or herself is ιδιώτης (idiotes), which the English word “idiot” is derived from.
8. This crucial observation on the sine qua non for a citizen democracy is also made in Josiah Ober, Demopolis: Democracy before Liberalism in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
9. Joseph M. Bessette, “Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government,” in How Democratic Is the Constitution?, ed. Robert A. Goldwin (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 1980), 102–116.
10. The Athenian Citizen Assembly was called “Ecclesia of the Demos.” “Ecclesia” (Εκκλησία) in Greek means the gathering.
11. Similarly to the selection for jury duty.
12. Remesh’s typical use case is to deliver cost-efficient “focus groups” on the web for commercial purposes. However, their application can also be used to facilitate deliberations in a citizen assembly. See https://remesh.ai.
13. Claudia Chwalisz, The People’s Verdict: Adding Informed Citizen Voices to Public Decision-Making (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).
14. The Irish Referendum took place on May 26, 2018. Citizens were asked to decide whether parliament should repeal the 1983 eighth amendment that prohibited abortion except in exceptional circumstances. Nearly two-thirds of Irish voters opted for a repeal.
15. You can watch a short film of the citizen assembly deliberations here: https://www.allhandsondoc.com.
16. Chwalisz, The People’s Verdict.
17. Ji-Bum Chung, “Let Democracy Rule Nuclear Energy,” Nature 555, no. 415 (March, 22, 2018).
18. National referenda to maintain or shut down nuclear energy have been held in Sweden (1980), Italy (1987), and Switzerland (1990).
19. The deliberative poll is a technique developed by James Fishkin, professor of communication at Stanford University. This technique was used at the Meeting of Minds project, as described in chapter 5 of Cyber Republic.
20. See https://granddebat.fr.
21. Beyond citizen assemblies, the Grand Débat included town hall meetings, complaint books, mobile desks in train stations and post offices, online suggestion forms, and four stakeholder conferences in Paris.
22. Renaud Thillaye, “Is Macron’s Grand Débat a Democratic Dawn for France?,” Carnegie Europe, April 29, 2019, https://carnegieeurope.eu/2019/04/26/is-macron-s-grand-d-bat-democratic-dawn-for-france-pub-79010.
23. Thillaye, “Is Macron’s Grand Débat a Democratic Dawn for France?”
24. Claudia Chwalisz and David Reybrouck, “Macron’s Sham Democracy,” Politico, September 9, 2018, https://www.politico.eu/article/macron-populism-sham-democracy-plans-to-revamp-decision-making-disappointing.
25. Ober, Demopolis.
26. Ober, Demopolis.
27. This is what happened with genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe. Decisions on funding GMOs were made among experts and politicians behind closed doors in elite deliberations until the citizens found out through the reporting, and distorting lens, of various media outlets. The popular reaction that ensued led to the hasty folding of GMO research in Europe and the banning of GMOs. This result damaged the experts, but it also damaged the citizens by keeping the costs of agricultural produce high and jeopardizing the resilience of food stocks in the face of climate change, desertification, and crop diseases.
1. Anton Korinek, “Integrating Ethical Values and Economic Value to Steer Progress in Artificial Intelligence,” NBER Working Paper Series, Working Paper 26130 (2019), http://www.nber.org/papers/w26130.
2. Daron Acemoglu and Pascual Restrepo, “The Wrong Kind of AI? Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Labor Demand,” NBER Working Paper No. 25682, March 2019, https://www.nber.org/papers/w25682.
3. William James Fox, “Human-Level Artificial Intelligence Could Be Achieved ‘within Five to Ten Years,’ Say Experts,” futuretimeline, September 25, 2018, https://www.futuretimeline.net/blog/2018/09/25.htm.
4. Nick Bostrom, Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).
5. Bostrom, Superintelligence.
6. Cybernetics has given birth to several contemporary scientific disciplines, including systems science and the science of complex adaptive systems, which study the behavior of complex systems such as physical, computational, biological, and social systems.
7. Reto Bisaz, Alessio Travaglia, and Cristina Alberini, “The Neurobiological Bases of Memory Formation: From Physiological Conditions to Psychopathology,” Psychopathology 46, no. 6 (2014): 347–356.
8. Bisaz, Travaglia, and Alberini, “The Neurobiological Bases of Memory Formation.”
9. Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings (Boston: Houghton Muffin, 1950).
10. John McCarthy, Marvin L. Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, and Claude E. Shannon, “A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence,” August 31, 1955, http://jmc.stanford.edu/articles/dartmouth/dartmouth.pdf.
11. George W. Ernst and Allen Newell, GPS: A Case Study in Generality and Problem Solving (New York: Academic Press, 1969).
12. David Silver, Thomas Hubert, Julian Schrittwieser, Ioannis Antonoglou, Matthew Lai, Arthur Guez, Marc Lanctot, et al., “Mastering Chess and Shogi by Self-Play with a General Reinforcement Learning Algorithm,” 2017, arxiv.org/abs/1712.01815.
13. As discussed in chapter 2 (“Machines That Think”), one of the most well-funded approaches to AGI today is envisaging using deep neural networks but with massive computing power.
14. Silver et al., “Mastering Chess.”
15. Vivi Nastase, Rada Mihalcea, and Dragomir R. Radev, “A Survey of Graphs in Natural Language Processing,” Natural Language Engineering 21, no. 5 (2015): 665–698.
16. Gordon Pask, Conversation Theory: Applications in Education and Epistemology (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1976).
17. Paul Pangaro and Hugh Dubberly, “What Is Conversation? How Can We Design for Effective Conversation?,” 2009, http://www.dubberly.com/articles/what-is-conversation.html.
18. OpenAI, “Better Language Models and Their Implications,” February 14, 2019, https://openai.com/blog/better-language-models.
19. Nastase, Mihalcea, and Radev, “A Survey of Graphs.”
20. George Zarkadakis, “How Next Generation Search Will Make the Web More Equal,” World Economic Forum Agenda, October 14, 2015, https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/10/how-next-generation-search-will-make-the-web-more-equal.
21. Autopoesis means “self-creation” in Greek.
22. Peter Harries-Jones, “The Self-Organizing Polity: An Epistemological Analysis of Political Life by Laurent Dobuzinskis,” Canadian Journal of Political Science 21, no. 2 (June 1988): 431–433.
1. Nakamoto vanished from the public sphere in 2009, and his identity remains unknown to this date. Perhaps that was the best move that he (if indeed Nakamoto is a “he”) could have made, given the global media’s attention on bitcoin’s notoriety, and his personal wealth of bitcoins estimated to be worth around US$16 billion (in January 2018 prices), making him one of the richest people in the world.
2. For a brief overview of the cypherpunk movement, see James Bridle’s introduction to The White Paper by Satoshi Nakamoto, ed. Jaya Klara Brekke and Ben Vickers (London: Ignota, 2019).
3. One of the most successful implementations of blockchain has been a marketplace for digital images of cats called “cryptokitties” (see cryptokitties.co), which goes to show the limitless potential of creating wealth out of one’s imagination.
4. Leslie Lamport, Robert Shostak, and Marshall Pease, “The Byzantine Generals Problem,” ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems 4, no. 3 (July 1982): 382–401.
5. Leslie Lamport has given an explanation for choosing the term “Byzantine” in Lamport, Shostak, and Pease, “The Byzantine Generals Problem.”
6. In June 2018 block miners were awarded 12.5 bitcoins. This rate will decrease over time (see also note 8 below).
7. There are only 21 million bitcoins to be mined in total, and the difficulty of mining them increases over time.
8. Anami Nguyen, “Intro to Cryptoeconomics—Part I,” Medium.com, June 11, 2018, https://medium.com/@anaminguyen/intro-to-cryptoeconomics-part-1-b2527775bc9c.
9. Private cryptonetworks are also called “permissioned” as opposed to public cryptonetworks that are called “permissionless.”
10. See European Council’s position on digital taxation here: https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-taxation.
11. CAC: how much money needs to be invested in order to convert someone into a loyal user of a platform.
12. ICO: a way to raise money for a business by issuing digital securities (“utility tokens”) to investors. ICOs were used by many, often dubious, start-ups who managed to raise considerable amounts of (fiat) cash solely on the basis of a “vision” written in a white paper and without having built anything at all. For example, in May 2018 a Cayman Islands–based start-up called Block.one, offering a cryptocurrency called “eos,” raised US$4 billion without any product.
13. The Gartner Hype Cycle distinguishes four stages in the evolution of a technology: trigger (when the technology first appears); hype (when the technology is hyped in the news, usually causing high expectations); trough of disillusionment (following hype, as the technology is not mature enough to deliver on the promised expectations); and plateau of productivity (when the technology actually delivers real value but does not enjoy as much media attention anymore).
14. Satoshi Nakamoto, “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System,” bitcoin.org, 2008, https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf.
15. Costs for mining bitcoins vary from US$531 to US$26,170, depending on the country. The United States ranks as the 40th cheapest to mine a single bitcoin, with an average cost of US$4,758 (in 2018).
16. Belarus announced in May 2019 that it will begin mining bitcoins by leveraging surplus from its nuclear energy plants.
17. As reported in various Western media, including Fortune magazine; see Naomi Xu Elegant, “Why China’s Digital Currency Is a ‘Wake-Up Call’ for the US,” Fortune, November 1, 2019, https://fortune.com/2019/11/01/china-digital-currency-libra-wakeup-call-us.
18. As reported in various media, including https://bitcoinist.com/bank-of-england-mark-carney-suggests-global-cryptocurrency.
19. Jacques Bughin, Jeongmin Seong, James Manyika, Michael Chui, and Raoul Joshi, “Modeling the Impact of AI on the World Economy,” McKinsey Report, September 2018, https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/artificial-intelligence/notes-from-the-frontier-modeling-the-impact-of-ai-on-the-world-economy.
20. Bughin et al., “Modeling the Impact of AI.”
1. Richard Henderson and Patrick Temple-West, “Group of Corporate Leaders Ditches Shareholder-First Mantra,” Financial Times, August 19, 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/e21a9fac-c1f5-11e9-a8e9-296ca66511c9.
2. Edelman, “In Brands We Trust?” Trust Barometer special report, 2019, https://www.edelman.com/sites/g/files/aatuss191/files/2019-06/2019_edelman_trust_barometer_special_report_in_brands_we_trust.pdf.
3. Mark Freeman, Robin Pearson, and James Taylor, Shareholder Democracies? Corporate Governance in Britain and Ireland before 1850 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 2012).
4. Rob McQueen, A Social History of Company Law: Great Britain and the Australian Colonies, (Farnham, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2009).
5. McQueen, A Social History of Company Law.
6. Paul Johnson, Making the Market: Victorian Origins of Corporate Capitalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
7. Colin Mayer, Prosperity: Better Business Makes the Greater Good (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
8. Data quoted in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization.
9. I am using the terms “web 3.0 platforms,” “cryptoplatforms,” and “cryptonetworks” interchangeably throughout the book.
10. George Zarkadakis, “Do Platforms Work?” Aeon, 2018, https://aeon.co/essays/workers-of-the-world-unite-on-distributed-digital-platforms.
11. For a discussion on forking and cryptogovernance, see Bruno Rodrigues, “In Crypto Economy, Governance Is Key!,” Medium, December 28, 2017, https://medium.com/insightsaltaperformance/in-crypto-economy-governance-is-key-8fb5430f7972.
12. In this example I assume dependency on fossil fuels to make the point of interconnectedness; naturally, one can replace “fossil fuel” with “electricity.”
13. See the blog post on cryptogovernance by Steven McKie, “The Crypto Governance Manifesto,” https://medium.com/blockchannel/the-crypto-governance-manifesto-2326e72dc3d0.
14. Ellie Rennie, “The Radical DAO Experiment,” Winburne News, May 12, 2016.
15. ”SEC Issues Investigative Report Concluding DAO Tokens, a Digital Asset, Were Securities,” Press Release, July 25, 2017, accessed via http://sec.gov/news/press-release/2017-131.
16. See http://lazooz.org.
17. Jacquelyn Cheok, “Blockchain-Based Ride-Hailing App TADA Makes Singapore Debut,” Business Times, July 27, 2018, https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/startups/blockchain-based-ride-hailing-app-tada-makes-singapore-debut.
18. Zheping Huang, “The Ride-Hailing Pioneer Thinks Blockchain Can Solve the Ride-Hailing Safety Crisis in China,” South China Morning Post, August 30, 2018, https://www.scmp.com/tech/enterprises/article/2161900/chinese-ride-hailing-pioneer-returns-blockchain-app-boost-safety.
19. See https://www.suppapp.com.
20. Rishi Iyengar, “Migrant Workers Will Send Home $450 Billion This Year,” CNN, June 15, 2017, http://money.cnn.com/2017/06/15/news/economy/migrant-workers-global-remittances/index.html.
21. Email exchange between the author and Jordan Murray, dated July 31, 2018.
22. Charles I. Jones and Christopher Tonetti, “Nonrivalry and the Economics of Data,” 2018, http://christophertonetti.com/files/papers/JonesTonetti_DataNonrivalry.pdf.
23. A subset of “personal data” is also often referred to as “personally identifiable information” (PII) and is subject to data regulation. PII data would include data such as social security numbers, bank account, passport number, email, and so forth.
24. Nidhi Kalra and Susan M. Paddock, “Driving to Safety: How Many Miles of Driving Would It Take to Demonstrate Autonomous Vehicle Reliability,” RAND Corporation research report, 2018, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1400/RR1478/RAND_RR1478.pdf.
25. Such as PII data.
26. See theodi.org.
27. See https://oceanprotocol.com.
28. Market data in 2019 quoted in Jeffrey Burt, “AWS Still King in Public Cloud, While Azure Grows Fastest, IBM Falls,” Channel Partners, n.d., https://www.channelpartnersonline.com/2019/02/07/azure-still-king-in-public-cloud-while-azure-grows-fastest-ibm-falls.
29. PricewaterhouseCoopers, “PwC’s Global Artificial Intelligence Study: Exploiting the AI Revolution,” 2017, https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/data-and-analytics/publications/artificial-intelligence-study.html.
30. See https://dadi.cloud/en.
31. “Introduction to Distributed Generation” Virginia Tech, 2007, accessed via https://www.dg.history.vt.edu/ch1/introduction.html.
32. Kate Cummins, “The Rise of Additive Manufacturing,” The Engineer, May 23, 2010. http://theengineer.co.uk/the-rise-of-additive-manufacturing.
33. Robert McDougall, Paul Kristiansen, and Romina Rader, “Small-Scale Urban Agriculture Results in High Yields but Requires Judicious Management of Inputs to Achieve Sustainability, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116, no. 1 (January 2, 2019): 129–134.
34. George Zarkadakis, “The Economy Is More a Messy Fractal Living Thing, Than a Machine,” Aeon Magazine, October 13, 2016.
2. United Nations, “68% of the World Population Projected to Live in Urban Areas by 2050, Says UN,” May 16, 2018, https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html.
3. Luis Bettencourt and Geoffrey West, “A Unified Theory of Urban Living,” Nature 467 (October 20, 2010): 912–913.
4. The definition of civitas comes from Cicero (Somn. Scip. c3), and it means city in the sense of the polity of citizens united under a common law; it thus corresponds directly to the Greek word “polis.”
5. Richard Dobbs, Sven Smit, Jaana Remes, James Manyika, Charles Roxburgh, and Alejandra Restrepo, “Urban World: Mapping the Economic Power of Cities,” McKinsey, March 2011, https://www.mckinsey.com/featured-insights/urbanization/urban-world-mapping-the-economic-power-of-cities.
6. Bettencourt and West, “A Unified Theory of Urban Living.”
8. Jane Wakefield, “The Google City That Has Angered Toronto,” BBC News, May 18, 2019, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-47815344.
9. Wakefield, “The Google City That Has Angered Toronto.”
10. Bettencourt and West, “A Unified Theory of Urban Living.”
11. Alyssa Harvey Dawson, “We Believe Quayside Can Set a New Model for Responsible Use of Data in Cities—Anchored by an Independent Civic Data Trust,” Sidewalk Labs, October 15, 2018, https://www.sidewalklabs.com/blog/an-update-on-data-governance-for-sidewalk-toronto.
12. In 2019 the Toronto Region Board of Trade suggested that the Toronto Public Library should take on the role of the data trust.
13. Open Data Institute, “Data Trusts: Lessons from Three Pilots,” ODI, April 15, 2019, https://theodi.org/article/odi-data-trusts-report.
14. Paul Copping, Jarmo Eskelinen, Ken Figueredo, Michael Fisher, and Lindsay Frost, “The 4th Industrial Revolution and Municipal CEO,” ETSI White Paper No. 26, 2018.
16. As quoted in Neil Munshi and Hannah Murphy, “Sierra Leone’s Thumbprint Breakthrough to Sign Up Unbanked,” Financial Times, August 21, 2019.
17. World Bank, “Inclusive and Trusted Digital ID Can Unlock Opportunities for the World’s Most Vulnerable,” August 14, 2019, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/immersive-story/2019/08/14/inclusive-and-trusted-digital-id-can-unlock-opportunities-for-the-worlds-most-vulnerable.
18. Olivia White, Anu Madgavkar, James Manyika, Deepa Mahajan, Jacques Bughin, Mike McCarthy, and Owen Sperling, “Digital Identification: A Key to Inclusive Growth,” McKinsey, April 2019, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/digital-identification-a-key-to-inclusive-growth.
19. World Bank, “Global ID Coverage, Barriers, and Use by the Numbers: Insights from the ID4D-Findex Survey,” n.d., http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/953621531854471275/pdf/Global-ID-Coverage-by-the-Numbers-Insights-from-the-ID4D-Findex-Survey.pdf.
20. Kenneth T. Frank, Brian Petrie, Jae S. Choi, and William C. Leggett, “Trophic Cascades in a Formerly Cod-Dominated Ecosystem,” Science 308, no. 5728 (2005): 1621–1623.
21. At about the same time the Homestead Act in the US privatized lands that belonged to Native Americans.
22. Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation (New York: Farrar & Rinehart, 1994).
23. Polanyi, The Great Transformation.
24. Elinor Ostrom, Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
25. Ostrom, Governing the Commons.
26. Demetris Loizos, “Economic History Problems of 18th c. Ottoman Greece: The Case of Ampelakia in Thessaly,” Anistoriton, E011 (April 2001).
27. The full list of Ostrom’s design principles is as follows:
- 1. Clearly defined (clear definition of the contents of the common pool resource and effective exclusion of external un-entitled parties);
- 2. The appropriation and provision of common resources that are adapted to local conditions;
- 3. Collective-choice arrangements that allow most resource appropriators to participate in the decision-making process;
- 4. Effective monitoring by monitors who are part of or accountable to the appropriators;
- 5. A scale of graduated sanctions for resource appropriators who violate community rules;
- 6. Mechanisms of conflict resolution that are cheap and of easy access;
- 7. Self-determination of the community recognized by higher-level authorities; and
- 8. In the case of larger CPR, organization in the form of multiple layers of nested enterprises, with small local CPRs at the base level. (Ostrom, Governing the Commons)
28. Guillaume Chapron, “The Environment Needs Cryptogovernance,” Nature 545 (May 25, 2017): 403–405.
29. Georg Eder, “Digital Transformation: Blockchain and Land Titles,” in 2019 OECD Global Anti-Corruption & Integrity Forum, Paris, March 20–21, 2019.
30. Eder, “Digital Transformation.”
31. Chapron, “The Environment Needs Cryptogovernance.”
1. As currently supported by the Bank of England—see the discussion in chapter 8 on SHC.
2. United Nations, “World Population Projected to Reach 9.7 Billion by 2050,” July 29, 2015, http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/population/2015-report.html.
3. Nicholas Christakis, Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society (New York: Little, Brown Spark, 2019).
4. David C. Lahti and Bret S. Weinstein, “The Better Angels of Our Nature: Group Stability and the Evolution of Moral Tension,” Evolution & Human Behavior 26, no. 1 (January 2005): 47–63.
5. Patricia S. Churchland, Conscience: The Origins of Moral Intuition (New York: W. W. Norton, 2019).
6. Henry Foy, “Why Russian Teenager Olya Misik Is Defying Putin’s Rule,” Financial Times, August 20, 2019, https://eblnews.com/video/why-russian-teenager-olya-misik-defying-putins-rule-731087.