Chapter One
1. Andres Gluski and Chris Shelton, Key Trends Driving Change in the Electric Power Industry, Volume II, ed. Lisa Wood and Robert Marritz (Washington, DC: The Edison Foundation, 2016). Retrieved from http://www.edisonfoundation.net/iei/Documents/Key_Trends_Driving_Change_Volume_II_FINAL_Web.pdf.
2. Ibid.
3. “1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip,” Computer History Museum. Retrieved from http://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/.
4. “Moore’s Law: Raising the Bar,” 2005. Retrieved from http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/history/museum-gordon-moore-law.html.
5. “BU-002: Introduction,” Battery University, April 1, 2016. Retrieved from http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/bu_002_introduction.
6. Ibid.
7. Gluski and Shelton, Key Trends, 2016.
8. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, “Adoption of the Paris Agreement,” December 12, 2015. Retrieved from http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2015/cop21/eng/l09r01.pdf.
9. T. Bruckner, I. A. Bashmakov, Y. Mulugetta, H. Chum, A. de la Vega Navarro, J. Edmonds, A. Faaij, B. Fungtammasan, A. Garg, E. Hertwich, D. Honnery, D. Infield, M. Kainuma, S. Khennas, S. Kim, H. B. Nimir, K. Riahi, N. Strachan, R. Wiser, and X. Zhang, “2014: Energy Systems,” in Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. O. Edenhofer, R. Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, E. Farahani, S. Kadner, K. Seyboth, A. Adler, I. Baum, S. Brunner, P. Eickemeier, B. Kriemann, J. Savolainen, S. Schlömer, C. von Stechow, T. Zwickel, and J. C. Minx (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014).
10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” August 9, 2016. Retrieved from https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/commercialresidential.html.
11. Ibid.
12. Gene Berry, “Present and Future Electricity Storage for Intermittent Renewables,” March 25, 2004. Retrieved from http://www.c2es.org/docUploads/10-50_Berry.pdf. From workshop proceedings, “The 10-50 Solution: Technologies and Policies for a Low-Carbon Future.” The Pew Center on Global Climate Change and the National Commission on Energy Policy.
13. Daniel Moore, “Batteries Are the ‘Holy Grail’ for Transitioning to Clean Energy but Development Is Slow.” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, April 5, 2016.
14. Paul Denholm, Erik Ela, Brendan Kirby, and Michael Milligan, The Role of Energy Storage with Renewable Electricity Generation (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2010). Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy10osti/47187.pdf.
15. International Energy Agency’s Energy Technology Policy Division, Technology Roadmap: Energy Storage, ed. Melissa C. Lott, Paris: International Energy Agency, 2014. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/TechnologyRoadmapEnergystorage.pdf.
16. Linden, David and Thomas B. Reddy, Handbook of Batteries. 3rd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2001).
17. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Electricity—Energy Explained,” January 7, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/?page=electricity_home.
18. National Academy of Engineering, “Greatest Engineering Achievements of the 20th Century.” Retrieved from http://www.greatachievements.org/.
19. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Sources of Greenhouse …,” August 9, 2016. Retrieved from https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/commercialresidential.html.
20. U.S. Department of Transportation, “About Transportation & Climate Change: Transportation’s Role in Climate Change: Overview—DOT Transportation and Climate Change Clearinghouse.” Retrieved from http://climate.dot.gov/about/transportations-role/overview.html.
21. Union of Concerned Scientists, “Electric Vehicles.” Retrieved from http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/electric-vehicles#.V4Z_ZJMrKRs.
22. Henry Schlesinger, The Battery: How Portable Power Sparked a Technological Revolution (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2011).
23. PlugIn Cars, “Detailed List of Electric Cars and Plug-in Hybrids,” 2016. Retrieved from http://www.plugincars.com/cars.
24. Björn Nykvist and Måns Nilsson. “Rapidly Falling Costs of Battery Packs for Electric Vehicles,” Nature Climate Change 5.4 (March 23, 2015): 329–332, doi:10.1038/nclimate2564.
25. U.S. Energy Information Administration, “FAQs: How Much of U.S. Carbon Dioxide Emissions Are Associated with Electricity Generation?,” April 1, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.cfm?id=77&t=11.
26. Stephen P. A. Brown, Alan J. Krupnick, and Margaret A. Walls, Natural Gas: A Bridge to a Low-Carbon Future? Issue Brief 09–11 (Tulsa, OK: National Energy Policy Institue, 2009). Retrieved from http://www.rff.org/files/sharepoint/WorkImages/Download/RFF-IB-09-11.pdf.
27. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Overview of Greenhouse Gases,” August 9, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/overview-greenhouse-gases.
28. Jeff Tollefson, “Methane Leaks Erode Green Credentials of Natural Gas.” Nature 493, no.7430 (January 2, 2013): 12. doi:10.1038/493012a. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/news/methane-leaks-erode-green-credentials-of-natural-gas-1.12123.
29. I. P. Gyuk and S. Eckroad, EPRI-DOE Handbook Supplement of Energy Storage for Grid Connected Wind Generation Applications, Technical Report 1008703, EPRI and DOE, 2004. Retrieved from http://www.epri.com/abstracts/Pages/ProductAbstract.aspx?ProductId=000000000001008703.
30. John Miller, “Why Expanded Alternative Energy Increases the Need for Natural Gas,” The Energy Collective, January 29, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.theenergycollective.com/jemiller_ep/178096/expanded-wind-and-solar-power-increase-need-natural-gas.
31. Jason Rugolo and Michael J. Aziz, “Electricity Storage for Intermittent Renewable Sources,” Energy & Environmental Science 5.5 (2012): 7151. doi:10.1039/c2ee02542f.
32. Ibid.
33. Paul Denholm and Robert Margolis, Energy Storage Requirements for Achieving 50% Solar Photovoltaic Energy Penetration in California, NREL/ TP -6A20 -66595 (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2016). Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/66595.pdf.
34. Barry Fischer and Erik Shilts, “We Plotted 812,000 Energy Usage Curves on Top of Each Other. This Is the Powerful Insight We Discovered,” October 13, 2014. Retrieved from https://blog.opower.com/2014/10/load-curve-archetypes/.
35. Ernie Tretkoff, “This Month in Physics History: March 20, 1800: Volta Describes the Electric Battery,” American Physical Society, March 2006. Retrieved from https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200603/history.cfm.
36. Schlesinger, The Battery.
37. Tretkoff, “This Month.…”
38. Benjamin Franklin, “Letter To Peter Collinson, April 29, 1749,” in Benjamin Franklin Papers (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press). Retrieved from http://franklinpapers.org/franklin/framedVolumes.jsp?vol=3&page=352a.
39. Kevin Desmond, Innovators in Battery Technology: Profiles of 95 Influential Electrochemists (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2016), 73.
40. Alan J. McComas, Galvani’s Spark: The Story of the Nerve Impulse (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 17–19.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Ibid.
44. Ibid.
45. Tretkoff, “This Month.…”
46. Schlesinger, The Battery.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Desmond, Innovators.
50. Desmond, Innovators.
51. Ziyad Salameh, Renewable Energy System Design (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2014), 203.
52. Carl Gassier, Patent US373064-Gael Gassier, November 15, 1887. Retrieved from http://www.google.com/patents/US373064.
53. American Chemical Society, “The Columbia Dry Cell Battery: National Historic Chemical Landmark,” ACS. Retrieved from https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/drycellbattery.html.
54. Allen J. Bard, Gyorgy Inzelt, and Fritz Scholz, eds., Electrochemical Dictionary. 2nd ed. (Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 2012), 523–524.
55. Schlesinger, The Battery.
56. Bard et al., Electrochemical Dictionary, 523–524.
57. Murat Yukselir, Katherine Scarrow, Paula Wilson, and Tonia Cowan, “Meet the Canadian Who Invented the Modern-Day Battery,” The Globe and Mail. April 24, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/small-business/meet-the-canadian-who-invented-the-modern-day-battery/article1390903./
58. Steve LeVine, The Powerhouse: Inside the Invention of a Battery to Save the World (New York: Viking Press, 2015).
59. Steve LeVine, “The Man Who Brought Us the Lithium-Ion Battery at the Age of 57 Has an Idea for a New One at 92” (Quartz), February 5, 2015. Retrieved from http://qz.com/338767/the-man-who-brought-us-the-lithium-ion-battery-at-57-has-an-idea-for-a-new-one-at-92/.
60. Isidor Buchmann, “BU-204: How Do Lithium Batteries Work?” Battery University, May 3, 2016. Retrieved from http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/lithium_based_batteries.
Chapter Two
1. Don Reisinger, “iPhones In Use in US Rise to 94M, New Study Suggests,” cnet, May 15, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.cnet.com/news/nearly-100m-iphones-in-use-in-the-us-new-study-shows.
2. Christopher Helman, “How Much Electricity Do Your Gadgets Really Use?,” Forbes.com, September 7, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/christopherhelman/2013/09/07/how-much-energy-does-your-iphone-and-other-devices-use-and-what-to-do-about-it/#120569d2228e.
3. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator, October 23, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/energy/greenhouse-gas-equivalencies-calculator.
4. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Magnets and Electricity, October 27, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=electricity_magnets.
5. Sara Barnowski and Kevin Jones, Courting a Response to FERC’s Authority Over Demand Response, October 2015. Retrieved from http://vjel.vermontlaw.edu/topten/courting-a-response-to-fercs-authority-over-demand-response/.
6. Richard P. Feynman, Robert B Leighton, and Matthew Sands, Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher (New York: Basic Books, 2011).
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Catherine Drennan and Elizabeth Vogel Taylor, “5.111 Lecture Summary #5,” MIT OpenCourseWare, Fall 2008. Retrieved from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.
11. Physics Department Faculty, Lecturers, and Technical Staff, “8.02 Summary of Class 2,” MIT OpenCourseWare, Spring 2005. Retrieved from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.
12. John Zavisa, HowStuffWorks.com, April 1, 2000. Retrieved from http://science.howstuffworks.com/nature/natural-disasters/lightning.htm.
13. Physics Department Faculty, Lecturers, and Technical Staff, “8.02 Summary of Class 14,” MIT OpenCourseWare. Spring 2005. Retrieved from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.
14. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 2006–December 2016. Retrieved from https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_1_1.
15. Physics Department Faculty, Lecturers, and Technical Staff, “8.02 Summary of Class 12,” MIT OpenCourseWare. Spring 2005. Retrieved from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.
16. Energy Storage Association, Energy Storage Technologies, 2016. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/energy-storage-technologies.
17. How A Car Works, How the Starting System Works, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.howacarworks.com/basics/how-the-starting-system-works.
18. Physics Department Faculty, Lecturers, and Technical Staff, “8.02 Summary of Class 4,” MIT OpenCourseWare, Spring 2005. Retrieved from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.
19. Physics Department, Class 12.
20. Catherine Drennan and Elizabeth Vogel Taylor, “5.111 Lecture Summary #25,” MIT OpenCourseWare, Fall 2008. Retrieved from https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/legalcode.
21. MIT Electric Vehicle Team, A Guide to Understanding Battery Specifications, Brief, Cambridge: MIT Electric Vehicle Team, 2008, 1–3.
22. Ibid.
23. Battery University, Learn how certain discharge loads will shorten battery life, April 28, 2016. Retrieved from http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/discharge_methods.
24. Ibid., supra note 21.
25. Kendra Redmond, Charging Ahead: The Future of Battery Technology, American Physical Society, 2016. http://www.physicscentral.com/explore/action/battery-future.cfm (accessed June 3, 2016), and MIT Electric Vehicle Team, 1–3.
26. E.g., Aquacell, Magnevolt, and NoPoPo—No Pollution Power.
27. E.g., Arotech, Fluidic Energy, and Phinergy.
28. Darrell M West and Jack Karsten, Five emerging battery technologies for electric vehicles, September 15, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2015/09/15/five-emerging-battery-technologies-for-electric-vehicles/, and Nitta et al., Li-ion battery materials (see note 32).
29. Toyota, Features and Specs: Mechanical Performance, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.toyota.com/prius/features/mechanical_performance/1223/1224/1225/1226.
30. Energy Storage Association, Energy Storage Technologies, 2016. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/energy-storage-technologies.
31. Greg Satell, Why Energy Storage May Be the Most Important Technology in the World Right Now, April 1, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/gregsatell/2016/04/01/why-energy-storage-may-be-the-most-important-technology-in-the-world-right-now/#214c85484869.
32. Donald Chung, Emma Elgqvist, and Shriram Santhanagopalan, Automotive Lithium-ion Battery (LIB) Supply Chain and U.S. Competitiveness Considerations. Presentation, Washington, DC: Clean Energy Manufacturing Analysis Center, 2015, 7, and Nitta, Naoki, Feixiang Wu, and Jung Tae Lee, “Li-ion battery materials: present and future,” Materials Today 18.5 (June 2015): 7.
33. West and Karsten, www.brookings.edu.
34. Ibid.
35. Also: Sakti3 and Seeo.
36. Yan Wang et al., “Design principles for solid-state lithium superionic conductors,” Nature Materials, August 17, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/nmat/journal/v14/n10/full/nmat4369.html.
37. David L. Chandler, “New manufacturing approach slices lithium-ion battery cost in half,” MIT News, June 23, 2015. Retrieved from http://news.mit.edu/2015/manufacturing-lithium-ion-battery-half-cost-0623.
38. E.g., Amprius, Alevo, CODA Energy, Orison, and Valence.
39. Dana Hull, Inside the Gigafactory That Will Decide Tesla’s Fate, May 6, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/features/2016-inside-tesla-gigafactory/.
40. Satell, Why Energy Storage, www.forbes.com; Allan Chen, Berkeley Lab, Holistic Cell Design by Berkeley Lab Scientists Leads to High-Performance, Long Cycle-Life Lithium-Sulfur Battery. November 2013. Retrieved from https://eetd.lbl.gov/news/article/57182/holistic-cell-design-by-berkele.
41. Joel Hruska, “Sony plans to boost battery performance 40 percent by 2020,” ExtremeTech, December 18, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.extremetech.com/electronics/219729-sony-plans-to-boost-battery-performance-40-percent-by-2020.
42. Gaenor Howells, Oxis Energy Battery Systems Headed for China, June 8, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.oxisenergy.com/blog/oxis-energy-battery-systems-headed-for-china/.
43. Joshua Buck and Chris Rink, NASA Selects Proposals to Build Better Batteries for Space Exploration, August 12, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-selects-proposals-to-build-better-batteries-for-space-exploration.
44. Energy Storage Association, Energy Storage Technologies, 2016. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/energy-storage-technologies.
45. E.g., EnerVault and Imergy Power Systems.
46. Frances White, Upgrading the vanadium redox battery, March 17, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.pnnl.gov/news/release.aspx?id=855.
47. Frances White, New flow battery offers lower-cost energy storage, December 21, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.pnnl.gov/news/release.aspx?id=4246.
48. E.g., ESS, Inc., Primus Power, and ViZn Energy.
49. Energy Storage Association, Energy Storage Technologies.
50. Aquion Energy, Redefining Energy Storage, 2016. Retrieved from http://aquionenergy.com/company/battery-manufacturers/.
51. David Bradwell, Infocast’s Energy Storage Week, March 2014. Reproduced by Greentech Media, September 10, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Ambri-To-Cut-Staff-Postpone-Commercial-Shipments-to-Hone-Battery-Design.
52. GroupSadoway, Liquid Metal Batteries, October 19, 2015. Retrieved from http://sadoway.mit.edu/research/liquid-metal-batteries.
53. Yiying Wu, Eco-friendly Battery and Solar Cell All-in-One, October 1, 2015. Retrieved from http://science.energy.gov/bes/highlights/2015/bes-2015-10-f/.
54. Recall that voltage measures the difference in electric potential energy between two points, whereas amperage measures the current in a system or the flow of electrons from one point to another.
55. Battery University, Series and Parallel Battery Configurations, May 4, 2016. Retrieved from http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/serial_and_parallel_battery_configurations.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Daniel H. Doughty, Paul C. Butler, Abbas A. Akhil, Nancy H. Clark, and John D. Boyes, “Batteries for Large-Scale Stationary Electrical Energy Storage,” The Electrochemical Society Interface (Fall 2010): 49–52.
59. E.g., Qnovo, Sendyne, and Spider9.
60. ARPA-E, ARPA-E’s 19 New Projects Focus on Battery Management and Storage. August 2012. Retrieved from https://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=news-item/arpa-e%E2%80%99s-19-new-projects-focus-battery-management-and-storage.
61. E.g., 3 Sun and Maxwell.
62. Henry Sanderson, “Supply Chain Scrutiny Intensifies for Battery Materials,” Financial Times, January 29, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d7c2f3ba-c5c3-11e5-808f-8231cd71622e.html.
63. Donald Chung, Emma Elgqvist, and Shriram Santhanagopalan, Automotive Lithium-ion Battery (LIB) Supply Chain and U.S. Competitiveness Considerations. Presentation, Washington, DC: Clean Energy Manufacturing Analysis Center, 2015, 10.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid., 11.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. Amnesty International, Human Rights Abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Power the Global Trade in Cobalt. Report, London: Amnesty International Ltd., 2016, 6. Retrieved from https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr62/3183/2016/en/.
69. Ibid.
70. Steve LeVine, The story of the invention that could revolutionize batteries—and maybe American manufacturing as well, June 22, 2015. Retrieved from http://qz.com/433131/the-story-of-the-invention-that-could-revolutionize-batteries-and-maybe-american-manufacturing-as-well/.
71. Ibid.
72. Chandler, new.mit.edu, and Steve LeVine, supra note 70.
Chapter Three
1. Technical Committee ISO/TC 207, Environmental management & Subcommittee SC 5, Lifecycle assessment. ISO 14040. International Standard, International Organization for Standards, 1997, iii.
2. International Organization for Standardization, Environmental management: The ISO 14000 Family of International Standards. Report, Geneva: ISO Central Secretariat, 2009, 6.
3. Ibid., 2.
4. ISO/TC 207, 4.
5. Ibid., 8.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 5.
8. Ibid.
9. The terminology used in this section and the description of the various phases and calculations for LCA studies will be further defined below through additional explanation and examples.
10. Ibid., 7.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid., 8.
13. It would be difficult at this point for an average consumer to know which apple is better for the environment because the answer would depend upon many variables (e.g., how the conventional apple was grown, how the organic apple was transported, and how many organic apples were transported together). This is why professionals conduct LCAs.
14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, Application of Life- Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles, 2013, 22.
15. Ibid., 32.
16. Ibid., 25.
17. Ibid., 64.
18. Ibid., 23.
19. Ibid., 25.
20. Ibid., 46.
21. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, eGRID, January 4, 2016. https://www.epa.gov/energy/egrid (accessed September 22, 2016).
22. Troy R. Hawkins et al., “Comparative Environmental Lifecycle Assessment of Conventional and Electric Vehicles,” Journal of Industrial Ecology 17, no. 1 (2012): 58.
23. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 81 and Hawkins et al., 58.
24. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 79 and Yajuan Yu, Bo Chen, Kai Huang, Xiang Wang, and Dong Wang, “Environmental Impact Assessment and End-of-Life Treatment Policy Analysis for Li-Ion Batteries and Ni-MH Batteries,” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (2014): 3190.
25. Hawkins et al., 56 and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 71.
26. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper 8.
27. Hawkins et al., 58; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 63; and Yu et al., 3190.
28. Hawkins et al., 58; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 74; and Yu et al., 3190.
29. Hawkins et al., 58; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 76; and Yu et al., 3190.
30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 8.
31. Ibid.
32. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 87 and Yu et al., 3190.
33. Hawkins et al., 58.
34. Ibid.
35. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 95.
36. Hawkins et al., 58–60; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 11–12; and Yu et al., 3195.
37. The specific information provided about lithium-ion batteries in this chapter has been based on an aggregation of life-cycle assessment studies conducted between 2012 and 2015 in both the United States and the European Union by government agencies, universities, and other academic researchers. All of the studies comply with ISO standards.
38. Hawkins et al., 56.
39. Linda Gaines and Jennifer Dunn, “Lithium-Ion Battery Production and Recycling Materials Issues,” Project ID: ES229. Washington, DC: Argonne National Laboratory, 2015, 10.
40. J. B. Dunn, L. Gaines, J. C. Kelly, C. James, and K. G. Gallagher, “The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling’s role in its reduction,” Energy & Environmental Science (2015): 158.
41. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, What are the harmful effects of SO2? August 16, 2016. https://www.epa.gov/so2-pollution/sulfur-dioxide-basics#effects (accessed September 15, 2016).
42. Hawkins et al., 58.
43. Gaines and Dunn, 17–20 and Dunn et al., 158.
44. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 11.
45. Hawkins et al., 56–57.
46. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 7.
47. Ibid.
48. Hawkins et al., 56.
49. Ibid and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 11–12.
50. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency White Paper, 11.
51. Rachael Nealer, David Reichmuth, and Don Anair, Cleaner Cars from Cradle to Grave: How Electric Cars Beat Gasoline Cars on Lifetime Global Warming Emissions, Union of Concerned Scientists, November 2015, 1. http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/attach/2015/11/Cleaner-Cars-from-Cradle-to-Grave-full-report.pdf
52. Hawkins et al., 56.
53. Gaines and Dunn, 14.
54. Ibid.
55. Nealer, Reichmuth, and Anair, 2.
56. Ibid., 1.
57. ISO/TC 207, 4.
58. Steve LeVine, The story of the invention that could revolutionize batteries—and maybe American manufacturing as well, June 22, 2015. http://qz.com/433131/the-story-of-the-invention-that-could-revolutionize-batteries-and-maybe-american-manufacturing-as-well/ (accessed July 8, 2016) and Gaines and Dunn, 10.
59. Gaines and Dunn, 10.
60. Henry Sanderson, “Supply Chain Scrutiny Intensifies for Battery Materials,” Financial Times, January 29, 2016. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d7c2f3ba-c5c3-11e5-808f-8231cd71622e.html (accessed July 8, 2016).
61. Ibid.
62. Amnesty International, Human Rights Abuses in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Power the Global Trade in Cobalt. Report, London: Amnesty International Ltd., 2016, 6.
63. Ibid.
64. H.R.4173, “Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act,” Public Law No: 111–203, July 21, 2010: § 1502.
65. Securities and Exchange Commission, 75 FR 80947, Federal Register, December 23, 2010: 80950.
66. Ibid., 80961–80962.
67. Angelo Young, “Tesla Motors Outlines Difficulties in Tracking Conflict Minerals in Its Supply Chain,” International Business Times, June 3, 2014, 1–2.
68. One way of accomplishing this level of transparency is through laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy. This procedure involves a plasma emission spectrum that provides a “chemical fingerprint” which has been identified as a “a convenient and low-cost means for rapidly determining a mineral’s geographic origin,” Amnesty International (January 2016).
Chapter Four
1. Callie Taintor, “Chronology: Technology and the Music Industry,” Frontline. May 27, 2004. Retrieved from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/inside/cron.html.
2. Stefan Heck and Matt Rogers, Resource Revolution: How to Capture the Biggest Business Opportunity in a Century (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2014); Amory B. Lovins, Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2011).
3. Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August 9, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions.
4. U.S. Public Interest Research Group, New Federal Data Show Transportation Sector Now the Largest Source of Carbon Pollution in the United States, First Time in Nearly 40 Years, August 4, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.uspirg.org/news/usp/new-federal-data-show-transportation-sector-now-largest-source-carbon-pollution-united.
5. Ibid.
6. About Transportation & Climate Change: Transportation’s Role in Climate Change: Overview—DOT Transportation and Climate Change Clearinghouse, U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved from https://climate.dot.gov/about/transportations-role/overview.html.
7. Reduce Climate Change, U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved from https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/climate.shtml.
8. Ibid.
9. Tony Dutzik and Alana Miller, “A New Way Forward Envisioning a Transportation System without Carbon Pollution,” Frontier Group, May 2016. Retrieved from http://frontiergroup.org/sites/default/files/reports/Frontier Group—A New Way Forward—May 2016 (digital).pdf.
10. David L. Chandler, “Can Today’s EVs Make a Dent in Climate Change?,” MIT News, August 15, 2016. Retrieved from http://news.mit.edu/2016/electric-vehicles-make-dent-climate-change-0815.
11. Ibid.
12. Bradley Berman, “Here’s Why You Might Be an Electric Car Owner a Decade from Now,” MIT Technology Review, March 30, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601091/heres-why-you-might-be-an-electric-car-owner-a-decade-from-now/.
13. Mike Orcutt, “The 2020s Could Be the Decade When Electric Cars Take Over,” MIT Technology Review, February 26, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/600910/the-2020s-could-be-the-decade-when-electric-cars-take-over/.
14. “Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” NOW on PBS, October 30, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/now/shows/223/electric-car-timeline.html.
15. Ibid.
16. Alex Madrigal, “The Electric Taxi Company You Could Call in 1900,” The Atlantic, March 15, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/03/the-electric-taxi-company-you-could-have-called-in-1900/72481/.
17. Sarah Pruitt, “Ferdinand Porsche’s First Car Was Electric,” History.com, January 29, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/news/ferdinand-porsches-first-car-was-electric.
18. “Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” supra note 14.
19. “Electric Vehicles Attract Attention,” New York Times, January 20, 1911. Retrieved from http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E4DA1331E233A25753C2A9679C946096D6CF.
20. Ibid.
21. “Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” supra note 14.
22. Tom Tietenberg and Lynne Lewis, Environmental & Natural Resource Economics. 10th ed. (New York: Routledge, 2016).
23. Joel K. Goldstein, “Edmund S. Muskie: The Environmental Leader and Champion,” Maine Law Review. Retrieved from https://mainelaw.maine.edu/academics/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/10-Goldstein.pdf.
24. James F. Van Orden, “National Emissions Standards Act (1965),” Encyclopedia.com, 2004. Retrieved from http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3407400213.html.
25. 42 United States Code (U.S.C.) 1521(a)(1).
26. 42 U.S.C. (b)(1)(A)(a).
27. “Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” supra note 14.
28. Ibid.
29. Tietenberg and Lewis, supra note 22, 427–428.
30. “Timeline: History of the Electric Car,” supra note 14.
31. Ibid.
32. What Is ZEV? Union of Concerned Scientists, September 15, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/california-and-western-states/californias-zev-program#.V9yxljuZJUQ.
33. Thayer Watkins, The True Story of GM’s Electric Car of the 1990’s, the EV1. Retrieved from http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/electriccar.htm.
34. Ibid.
35. Owen Edwards, “The Death of the EV-1,” Smithsonian Magazine, June 2006. Retrieved from http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-death-of-the-ev-1-118595941/?no-ist.
36. Ibid.
37. U.S. Department of Energy, Key Federal Legislation, Alternative Fuels Data Center, June 4, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.afdc.energy.gov/laws/key_legislation.
38. Clarke Bowling, “Toyota Prius Turns 16: How the Hot Hybrid Has Changed over the Years,” NY Daily News, June 28, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.nydailynews.com/autos/toyota-prius-turns-16-hot-hybrid-changed-years-article-1.1385087.
39. Caroline Tremblay, “15 Things You Didn’t Know About Mitsubishi,” January 30, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.miamilakesautomall.com/mitsubishi-blog/15-things-didnt-know-mitsubishi/.
40. InsideEVs, “Monthly Plug-In Sales Scorecard,” September 2016. http://insideevs.com/monthly-plug-in-sales-scorecard/.
41. Ibid.
42. Julia Pyper, “How to Accelerate the Electric Vehicle Market: Create Allure,” Greentech Media, October 7, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-to-accelerate-the-electric-vehicle-market?utm_source=Daily&utm_medium=Newsletter&utm_campaign=GTMDaily.
43. “Current Events,” Electric Vehicle Magazine, May/June 2016, 42.
44. InsideEVs. “Monthly Plug-in Sales Scorecard.”
45. Pyper, October 7, 2016.
46. Ibid.
47. Consumer Federation of America, New Data Shows Consumer Interest in Electric Vehicles Is Growing, Press Release, September 19, 2016. Retrieved from http://consumerfed.org/press_release/new-data-shows-consumer-interest-electric-vehicles-growing/.
48. Ibid.
49. Charles Fleming, “Chevy Bolt EV Range Is 238 Miles: Prime Time for the Electric Car?,” Los Angeles Times, September 12, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/business/autos/la-fi-hy-bolt-ev-range-20160912-snap-story.html.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Angus MacKenzie, Chevrolet Bolt EV is the 2017 Motor Trend Car of the Year, November 14, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.motortrend.com/news/chevrolet-bolt-ev-2017-car-of-the-year/.
53. Ibid.
54. Kirsten Korosec, “The Chevy Bolt EV Range Is Blowing Away Expectations—and Even Tesla’s Model 3,” Fortune, September 13, 2016. Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2016/09/13/chevy-bolt-range/; Katie Fehrenbacher, “Tesla’s Model 3 Reservations Rise to Almost 400,000,” Fortune, April 15, 2016. Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2016/04/15/tesla-model-3-reservations-400000/.
55. “The World’s Largest Electric Vehicle Maker Also Has a US Presence,” BusinessWire, December 23, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20151223005656/en/World’s-Largest-Electric-Vehicle-Maker-Presence.
56. “BYD Sees Electric-Car Sales Tripling in Market Coveted by Tesla,” Bloomberg News, March 29, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-29/byd-sees-electric-car-sales-tripling-in-market-coveted-by-tesla.
57. Ibid.
58. Philip Reed, Electric Car Battery Basics: Capacity, Charging and Range, January 25, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.edmunds.com/car-technology/electric-car-battery-basics-capacity-charging-and-range.html.
59. Ibid.
60. Brad Berman, “Ford’s Electric Car Battery Breakthrough from 45 Years Ago,” PluginCars.com, October 27, 2011. Retrieved from http://www.plugincars.com/ford’s-electric-car-battery-breakthrough-45-years-ago-109417.html.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Christian Ruoff, “Improving Aerodynamic Modeling: Combining Airflow Dynamics with Vehicle-Handling Models,” Charged Electronic Vehicles Magazine, June 5, 2016. Retrieved from https://chargedevs.com/features/improving-aerodynamic-modeling-combining-airflow-dynamics-with-vehicle-handling-models/.
64. Ibid. Drag coefficient is a dimensionless parameter used to quantify aerodynamic efficiency in the horizontal (drag) plane.
65. Ibid.
66. Ibid. The all-new Chevrolet Bolt is expected to have a coefficient of drag of 0.32, while the Kia Soul EV’s is 0.35. Tesla reports that it expects to be an industry leader by achieving a coefficient of drag of 0.21 for its Model 3.
67. James Ayre, “Chevy Bolt Drag Coefficient Is 0.32, Says Lead Designer,” CleanTechnica, August 14, 2016. Retrieved from https://cleantechnica.com/2016/08/14/chevy-bolt-drag-coefficient-0-32-says-lead-designer/.
68. Omar Sohail, “Tesla Model 3 Is the Most Aerodynamic Car That Has Ever Been Produced,” wccftech, April 2016. Retrieved from http://wccftech.com/tesla-model-3-aerodynamic-car-produced/.
69. Darrell M. West and Jack Karsten, “Five Emerging Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles,” Brookings Institution, September 15, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/techtank/2015/09/15/five-emerging-battery-technologies-for-electric-vehicles/.
70. Mike Ramsey, “Auto Industry’s Ranks of Electric-Car Battery Suppliers Narrow,” Wall Street Journal, August 20, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.wsj.com/articles/auto-industrys-ranks-of-electric-car-battery-suppliers-narrow-1440021009.
71. “Electric Vehicle Batteries: Lithium Ion Batteries for Hybrid, Plug-In Hybrid, and Battery Electric Light Duty Vehicles, Market Analysis and Forecasts,” PR Newswire, January 14, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/electric-vehicle-batteries-lithium-ion-batteries-for-hybrid-plug-in-hybrid-and-battery-electric-light-duty-vehicles-market-analysis-and-forecasts-186760071.html.
72. Travis Hoium, “4 Battery Companies Not Named Tesla Motors to Watch in 2016,” The Motley Fool, January 23, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2016/01/23/4-battery-companies-not-named-tesla-motors-to-watc.aspx.
73. Danny King, “GM Says Li-Ion Battery Cost per KWh Already Down to $145,” Autoblog, October 8, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.autoblog.com/2015/10/08/gm-li-ion-battery-cost-per-kwh-already-down-to-145/.
74. Charlie Osborne, “Samsung Reveals Long-Lasting Electric Vehicle Battery Prototype,” | ZDNet, January 14, 2016 (accessed March 16, 2016). http://www.zdnet.com/article/samsung-reveals-long-lasting-electric-vehicle-battery-prototype/.
75. Charlie Osborne, “Tesla Confirms Nevada as Host for Electric Vehicle Battery Gigafactory,” ZDNet, September 5, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.zdnet.com/article/tesla-confirms-nevada-as-host-for-electric-vehicle-battery-gigafactory/.
76. Ibid.
77. David Gilbert, “Apple Car Battery: Behind the Technology That Will Power Tim Cook’s Revolutionary Electric Vehicle,” International Business Times, September 26, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.ibtimes.com/apple-car-battery-behind-technology-will-power-tim-cooks-revolutionary-electric-2113932.
78. Vehicle Technologies Office: Batteries, U.S. Department of Energy. Retrieved from http://energy.gov/eere/vehicles/vehicle-technologies-office-batteries.
79. Ibid.
80. Phil Berg, “8 Potential EV and Hybrid Battery Breakthroughs,” Popular Mechanics, February 29, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/g785/8-potential-ev-and-hybrid-battery-breakthroughs/.
81. Emily Gosden, “New Battery Could Power Electric Car from London to Edinburgh on Single Charge,” The Telegraph, October 29, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/11964217/New-battery-could-power-electric-car-from-London-to-Edinburgh-on-single-charge.html.
82. Berg, supra note 80.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. West and Karsten, supra note 69.
86. Julie Chao, “Goodbye, Range Anxiety? Electric Vehicles May Be More Useful Than Previously Thought,” Berkeley Lab News Center, March 30, 2015. Retrieved from http://newscenter.lbl.gov/2015/03/30/goodbye-range-anxiety-electric-vehicles-may-be-more-useful-than-previously-thought/.
87. Ibid.
88. Tina Casey, “Your EV Battery Lifespan Might Last Longer Than You Think,” CleanTechnica, March 31, 2015. Retrieved from http://cleantechnica.com/2015/03/31/ev-battery-lifespan-might-last-longer-think/.
89. Don Sherman, “When Electric-Car Batteries Die, Where Will They End Up?,” The New York Times, June 11, 2010. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/13/automobiles/13RECYCLE.html?_r=0.
90. Jeff McIntire-Strasburg, “The Electric Vehicle Battery ‘Can And Should Be Recycled’,” CleanTechnica, July 23, 2015. Retrieved from http://cleantechnica.com/2015/07/23/electric-vehicle-battery-can-recycled/.
91. Ibid.
92. “Renault to Recycle Used EV Batteries for Energy Storage Systems,” GreenFleet.net, February 5, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greenfleet.net/news/2245-renault-to-recycle-used-ev-batteries-for-energy-storage-systems.
93. Seth Weintraub, “BMW unveils new repurpose battery storage system and grid offset ‘ChargeForward’ solutions at EV29,” electrek, June 21, 2016. Retrieved from https://electrek.co/2016/06/21/bmw-unveils-new-vehicle-to-grid-and-repurpose-system-for-i3-batteries-to-power-your-home/.
94. Stephen Edelstein, “BMW electric-car batteries to be used as home energy-storage devices,” Green Car Reports, June 24, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1104656_bmw-electric-car-batteries-to-be-used-as-home-energy-storage-devices.
95. Sherman, supra note 89.
96. Peter Kelly-Detwiler, “Building Out the Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure: Greenlots Advocates for Open Standards,” Forbes, March 13, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/peterdetwiler/2014/03/13/building-out-the-electric-vehicle-charging-infrastructure-greenlots-advocates-for-open-standards/#5a370de33f7a.
97. Electric Vehicle Charging Station Locations, U.S. Department of Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center. Retrieved from http://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_locations.html.
98. Kevin B. Jones and David Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2014), 106–107.
99. Ibid., 107–108.
100. Ibid., 109.
101. R. G. Pratt, P. J. Balducci, C. Gerkensmeyer, S. Katipamula, M. C. W. Kintner-Meyer, T. F. Sanquist, K. P. Schneider, and T. J. Secrest, The Smart Grid: An Estimation of the Energy and CO2 Benefits, U.S. Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA.
102. Jones and Zoppo, 96–103.
103. Mindy Blank and Kevin Jones, “Electric Vehicle Charging: Tariffs and Tradeoffs,” Public Utilities Fortnightly, March 2015, 44.
104. Jones and Zoppo, 76–82.
105. Jones and Zoppo, 103.
106. Battery University, “BU-401a: Fast and Ultra-Fast Chargers,” June 13, 2012. Retrieved from http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/ultra_fast_chargers.
107. Khosrow Khy Vijeh, “Current, Voltage and Temperature Govern Li-Ion Battery Charging,” EETimes. May 28, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1225957.
108. Ibid.
109. Ibid.
110. Ibid.
111. Joachim Skoy Johansen, “Fast Charging Electric Vehicles Using AC,” Master’s thesis, Technical University of Denmark, September 2013 (accessed November 9, 2015). Retrieved from http://www1.udel.edu/V2G/resources/JSJ-PreliminaryReportJSJ200913.pdf.
112. Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, U.S. Light-Duty Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) Sales (2011−2016). Retrieved from http://www.zevfacts.com/sales-dashboard.html.
113. Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, ZEV Mandate Timeline. Retrieved from http://www.zevfacts.com/zev-mandate.html.
114. Nancy Bardertscher, “Electric car sales hit the brakes as tax credit axed and fee added,” Politifact, November 2, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.politifact.com/georgia/statements/2015/nov/02/don-francis/electric-car-sales-hit-brakes-tax-credit-axed-and-/.
115. Michael Murray, “$4 Gas Might Be Here to Stay,” ABC News, May 4, 2011. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/US/gas-prices-continue-rise-dollar-gas-norm/story?id=13529072.
116. U.S. Department of Energy, Clean Cities. Retrieved from https://cleancities.energy.gov/.
117. Stephanie Searle, Nikita Pavlenko, and Nic Lutsey, Leading Edge of Electric Vehicle Market Development in the United States: An Analysis of California Cities, International Council on Clean Transportation, September 2016. Retrieved from http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_EV_Calif_Cities_201609.pdf.
118. Ibid.
119. Stephen Edelstein, “California Ends Electric-Car Rebates for Wealthy Buyers, Boosts Them For Poorest (UPDATED),” Green Car Reports, July 21, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1098988_california-ends-electric-car-rebates-for-wealthiest-buyers-boosts-them-for-poorest.
120. Center for Sustainable Energy, California Clean Vehicle Rebate Project. Retrieved from https://cleanvehiclerebate.org/eng/eligibility-guidelines.
121. Searle, Pavlenko, and Lutsey, iii.
122. “The Blueindy Technology,” Blue-indy.com. Retrieved from https://www.blue-indy.com/blueindy.
123. John Tuohy, “BlueIndy Tops 1,000 Memberships in Four Months,” Indianapolis Star, January 15, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.indystar.com/story/news/2016/01/14/blueindy-tops-1000-memberships-four-months/78796436/.
124. Ibid.
125. David Jolly, “Norway Is a Model for Encouraging Electric Car Sales,” The New York Times, October 16, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/17/business/international/norway-is-global-model-for-encouraging-sales-of-electric-cars.html.
126. Leigh Phillips, “Norway’s Electric Vehicle Revolution: Lessons for British Columbia,” Pacific Institute for Climate Solutions, October 26, 2015. Retrieved from https://pics.uvic.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/Norway EV Briefing Note October 2015.pdf.
127. Ibid.
128. Ibid.
129. Jeff Cobb, “Norway Aiming For 100-Percent Zero Emission Vehicle Sales By 2025,” HybridCars.com, March 8, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.hybridcars.com/norway-aiming-for-100-percent-zero-emission-vehicle-sales-by-2025/.
130. “EV Norway.” Retrieved from http://www.evnorway.no/#/history.
131. Petter Haugneland, Christina, Bu, and Espen Hauge, “The Norwegian EV Success Continues,” EVS29 Symposium, Montreal, Quebec, June 19−22, 2016, p. 3. Retrieved from http://gammel.elbil.no/elbilforeningen/dokumentarkiv/finish/10-dokumenter/458-evs29-symposium-montreal-the-norwegian-ev-success-continues-paper.
132. Keith Barry, “World’s First Electric Car Ferry Recharges in 10 Minutes,” Wired, February 1, 2013. Retrieved from https://www.wired.com/2013/02/electric-ferry/.
133. Ibid.
134. Ibid.
135. Jon Hurdle, “Use of Public Transit in U.S. Reaches Highest Level Since 1956, Advocates Report,” The New York Times, March 10, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/10/us/use-of-public-transit-in-us-reaches-highest-level-since-1956-advocates-report.html?_r=1.
136. Ibid.
137. Michael Linse and Zach Barasz. “Urban Transportation Will Go All-Electric Sooner Than You Think,” TechCrunch, May 29, 2015. Retrieved from https://techcrunch.com/2015/05/29/urban-transportation-will-go-all-electric-sooner-than-you-think/.
138. Ibid.
139. Christian Ruoff, “Proterra CEO on the Economics of the Electric Bus Business,” Charged Electric Vehicles Magazine, July 20, 2015. Retrieved from https://chargedevs.com/features/proterra-ceo-on-the-economics-of-the-electric-bus-business/.
140. Global Mass Transit Report, Regenerative Braking: Gaining Acceleration, November 1, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.globalmasstransit.net/archive.php?id=17689.
141. Ibid., 48.
142. Ibid., 449.
143. Ibid., 450.
144. Ibid.
145. Ibid., 51–52.
146. Ibid., 52.
147. Ibid., 52–53.
148. Charles Morris, “Going Electric for Less,” Charged Electric Vehicles Magazine, January/February 2016, 46
149. Ibid., 47.
150. Ibid., 47.
151. Ibid.
152. Ibid., 48.
153. Ibid., 49.
154. Ibid., 51
155. Ibid., 51.
156. Ibid., 50.
157. Ventura Systems, “Copenhagen Is Introducing the First Full-Size Pure Electric Buses from BYD.” Retrieved from http://www.venturasystems.com/en-4-172/copenhagen-is-introducing-the-first-full-size-pure-electric-buses-from-byd.html?view=all.
158. Ibid.
159. Mihai Andrei, “All of China’s Buses Might Be Electric by 2025.” ZME Science, January 19, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.zmescience.com/ecology/renewable-energy-ecology/china-electric-bus-19012016/.
160. “Chinese Electric Bus Charges In 10 Seconds, Fastest In World.” EV Obsession, August 05, 2015. Retrieved from http://evobsession.com/chinese-electric-bus-charges-in-10-seconds-fastest-in-world/.
161. Ibid.
162. Paul A. Eisenstein, “If You Think Electric Cars Save Gas, Think about Electric Trucks,” NBC News, August 14, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/business/autos/if-you-think-electric-cars-save-gas-think-about-electric-n622261.
163. Ibid.
164. Michael Reilly, “Here Come the Electric Garbage Trucks,” MIT Technology Review, August 4, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/602106/here-come-the-electric-garbage-trucks/.
165. Stephen Edelstein, “Nikola Unveils How Its Electric Truck Works: Custom Hydrogen Fuel Cell,” Green Car Reports, August 31, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1105873_nikola-unveils-how-its-electric-truck-works-custom-hydrogen-fuel-cell.
166. John Siciliano, “Obama Gives Electric Trucks a Big Bump in New Climate Rules,” Washington Examiner, August 18, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/obama-gives-electric-trucks-a-big-bump-in-new-climate-rules/article/2599655.
167. Ibid.
168. Mark Kane, “BYD Awarded $9 Million To Deliver 27 Electric Trucks In Southern California,” Inside EVs, July 2016. Retrieved from http://insideevs.com/byd-awarded-9-million-to-deliver-27-electric-trucks-in-southern-california/.
Chapter Five
1. Dana Hull and Mark Chediak, “Tesla Launches Batteries for Home, Businesses, Utilities,” Bloomberg Technology, May 1, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-05-01/tesla-s-musk-unveils-batteries-for-home-businesses-utilities.
2. David Savenije, “All you need to know about Tesla’s big battery announcement,” Utility Dive, May 1, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/all-you-need-to-know-about-teslas-big-battery-announcement/393175.
3. Amory B. Lovins et al., Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing, 2011), 166.
4. Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins, Brittle Power: Energy Strategy for National Security (Andover: Brick House Publishing Company, 1982), 123–124.
5. Abbas A. Akhil, Georgianne Huff, Aileen B. Currier, Benjamin C. Kaun, Dan M. Rastler, Stella Bingqing Chen, Andrew L. Cotter, Dale T. Bradshaw, and William D. Gauntlett, DOE/EPRI Electricity Storage Handbook in Collaboration with NRECA, SAND201 5–1002, Albuquerque, NM: Sandia National Laboratories, February 2015. Retrieved from http://www.sandia.gov/ess/publications/SAND2015-1002.pdf.
6. Tesla soon discontinued its 10-kWh battery, citing “difficulties with the economics of a storage option designed for self-consumption and with a relatively short lifespan.” Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/tesla-motors-abandons-10-kwh-battery-offering/416013/.
7. Savenije, “All you need.…”
8. Ibid.
9. Tesla Press Kit. Retrieved from https://www.teslamotors.com/presskit/teslaenergy.
10. Savenije, “All you need.…”
11. Tesla Press Kit.
12. Ivan Penn, “German company plugs into L.A. area for its electricity storage operation,” Los Angeles Times, July 31, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-sonnen-batteries-20160731-snap-story.html; Jason Deign, “Sonnenbatterie Launches Solar-Plus-Storage Storage System for $10,645,” Greentech Media, November 25, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/sonnenbatterie-launches-solar-plus-storage-storage-system-for-10645.
13. Julia Pyper, “Sonnen Launches a Home Battery for Self-Consumption at a 40% Reduced Cost,” Greentech Media, July 7, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Sonnen-Launches-a-Home-Battery-for-Self-Consumption-at-a-40-Reduced; Michelle Mapel, “Sonnen reduces U.S. residential energy storage system cost by 40% with new sonnenBatterie eco compact,” Sonnen, July 7, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.sonnen-batterie.com/en-us/sonnen-reduces-us-residential-energy-storage-system-cost-40-new-sonnenbatterie-eco-compact.
14. Pyper, “Sonnen Launches a Home Battery.”
15. Julia Pyper, “Sonnen Ships Its 10,000th Battery, Putting Pressure on Tesla and Utilities,” Greentech Media, February 17, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/sonnen-ships-its-10000th-battery-putting-pressure-on-tesla-and-utilities.
16. Pyper, “Sonnen Ships Its 10,000th Battery.…”
17. Deloitte, Energy Storage: Tracking the Technologies That Will Transform the Power Sector, 2015, 25. Retrieved from http://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/energy-resources/us-er-energy-storage-tracking-technologies-transform-power-sector.pdf.
18. International Renewable Energy Agency, Battery Storage for Renewables: Market Status and Technology Outlook, January 2015, 7–8. Retrieved from http://www.irena.org/documentdownloads/publications/irena_battery_storage_report_2015.pdf.
19. Kevin B. Jones and David Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2014), 51–56, 68–72.
20. Adam Cooper, Electric Company Smart Meter Deployments: Foundation for a Smart Grid, The Edison Foundation, Institute for Electric Innovation, October 2016, 2. Retrieved from http://www.edisonfoundation.net/iei/publications/Documents/Final%20Electric%20Company%20Smart%20Meter%20Deployments-%20Foundation%20for%20A%20Smart%20Energy%20Grid.pdf.
21. Jones and Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid, 48–51.
22. Garrett Fitzgerald, James Mandel, Jesse Morris, and Hervé Touati, The Economics of Battery Energy Storage: How multi-use customer-sited batteries deliver the most services and value to customers and the grid. Rocky Mountain Institute, October 2015. Retrieved from http://www.rmi.org/Content/Files/RMI-TheEconomicsOfBatteryEnergyStorage-ExecutiveSummary-FINAL.pdf.
23. Ibid., 70.
24. EUROBAT, Battery Energy Storage for Smart Grid Applications, 2013, 12. Retrieved from http://www.eurobat.org/sites/default/files/eurobat_smartgrid_publication_may_2013_0.pdf.
25. Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research, The Great Battery Race: Framing the Next Frontier in Clean Technology—Electrical Energy Storage, October 18, 2015, 17.
26. Jim Lazar, “Use Great Caution in Design of Residential Demand Charges,” Regulatory Assistance Project, February 2016. Retrieved from http://www.raponline.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/lazar-demandcharges-ngejournal-2015-dec.pdf.
27. Ibid.
28. U.S. Department of Energy, Net Metering, North Carolina Clean Energy Technology Center. Retrieved from http://ncsolarcen-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Net_Metering1.pdf.
29. Honda Generators, Honda. Retrieved from http://www.honda.com
30. Julia Pyper, “Tesla Discontinues 10-kilowatt-hour Powerwall Home Battery,” Greentech Media, March 18, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Tesla-Discontinues-10kWh-Powerwall-Home-Battery.
31. Stephen Lacey, “Survey: Batteries Still Can’t Give Consumers What They Expect for Backup Power,” Greentech Media, September 15, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/batteries-still-cant-give-consumers-what-they-expect-for-backup-power.
32. Tesla Press Kit.
33. Jones and Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid, 174–194.
34. John Chamberlin and Timothy Lyons, Review of Proposed Adjustments to Salt River Project’s Standard Electric Price Plans, Sussex Economic Advisors, December 12, 2014, 5. Retrieved from http://www.srpnet.com/prices/priceprocess/pdfx/Review.pdf.
35. Herman K. Trabish, “Why SRP’s Controversial Demand Charge Unlocks a Huge Opportunity for Solar-Plus-Storage,” Utility Dive, March 12, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/why-srps-controversial-demand-charge-unlocks-a-huge-opportunity-for-solar-/372548.
36. Chamberlin and Lyons, 5−6.
37. Ryan Randasso, “SRP Board Oks Rate Hike, New Fees for Solar Customers,” The Arizona Republic, February 27, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/2015/02/26/srp-board-oks-rate-hike-new-fees-solar-customers/24086473.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid. It should be noted that since SolarCity’s business model is to strip the renewable energy credits from the net metering credits provided to their rooftop solar customers and sell the RECs to a third party, SolarCity does not legally enable their rooftop solar customers to “go solar” in the first place.
40. Patrick O’Grady, “SolarCity Sues Salt River Project Over New Rate Hikes on Potential Solar Customers,” Phoenix Business Journal, March 3, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.bizjournals.com/phoenix/blog/energy-inc/2015/03/solarcity-sues-salt-river-project-solar-rates.html.
41. Julia Pyper, “Arizona Court Advances SolarCity Lawsuit Against Salt River Project Over Solar Fees,” Greentech Media, November 10, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/arizona-court-advances-solarcity-lawsuit-against-salt-river-project.
42. Herman K. Trabish, “Why SRP’s Controversial.…”
43. Julia Pyper, “Arizona Court.…”
44. Herman K. Trabish, “Why SRP’s Controversial.…”
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Bobby Magill, “New Fees Seen to Weaken Demand for Rooftop Solar,” Climate Central, November 10, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.climatecentral.org/news/new-fees-weaken-rooftop-solar-demand-19667.
50. Ibid.
51. Mark Dyson, “How Demand Flexibility Can Help Rooftop Solar Beat Demand Charges in Arizona,” RMI Outlet, September 14, 2015. Retrieved from http://blog.rmi.org/blog_2015_09_14_how_demand_flexibility_can_help_rooftop_solar_beat__demand_charges_in_arizona.
52. Ibid.
53. Ibid.
54. Ryan Randazzo, “Solar Firm’s Home Battery Systems Target SRP Fees,” The Arizona Republic, April 22, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.azcentral.com/story/money/business/2015/04/22/solar-firms-home-battery-systems-target-srp-fees/26212163.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
60. Jones and Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid, 137, 195; Samantha Ruiz, Katie R. Thomas, and Kevin B. Jones, “Promoting Clean Reliable Energy through Smart Technologies and Policies: Lesson from Three Distributed Energy Case Studies,” San Diego Journal of Climate and Energy Law 6 (2014–2015): 61.
61. Jeff St. John, “Sacramento’s Path to Battery-Backed Solar Homes,” Greentech Media, October 16, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/sacramentos-path-to-battery-backed-solar-homes.
62. ADM Associates, Inc., 2500 R Street Integrated Energy Management Use Case Report, submitted to SMUD, December 22, 2014, p. 6
63. Ibid., 4.
64. Jeff St. John, “Will Utilities Control Behind-the-Meter Solar Batteries?” Greentech Media, April 17, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/will-utilities-control-behind-the-meter-solar-batteries.
65. Jones and Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid, 75-76.
66. Jeff St. John, “How Solar, Batteries and Time-of-Use Pricing Can Add Up to Value,” Greentech Media, October 21, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/How-Solar-Batteries-and-Time-of-Use-Pricing-can-Add-Up-to-Value.
67. Ibid.
68. Herman K. Trabish, “From Theory to Practice: The Challenges in Moving to ‘Utility 2.0,’ ” Utility Dive, October 27, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/from-theory-to-practice-the-challenges-in-moving-to-utility-20/407919.
69. ADM Associates, Inc, 56.
70. Jeff St. John, Greentech Media, April 17, 2014.
71. Ibid.
72. “Sunverge Announces Next-Generation Energy Storage System,” Utility Dive, February 9, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/press-release/20160209-sunverge-announces-next-generation-energy-storage-system.
73. Ibid.
74. SMUD Board of Directors Resolution No. 14-09-02, adopted September 4, 2014.
75. SMUD, SMUD AB2514 Storage Procurement Report, August 29, 2014, 40-41.
76. Ibid., 41.
77. Ibid., 29.
78. Ibid., 41.
79. SMUD News Release, SMUD Cancels Iowa Hill Project, February 5, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.smud.org/en/about-smud/news-media/news-releases/2016/2016-02-05-Iowa-Hill.htm.
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.
82. Ibid.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. Josh Castonguay, Letter to Vermont Public Service Board Re: GMP—Tesla Powerwall Innovative Pilot, December 2, 2015
86. Jeff St. John, “What’s the Value of a Tesla Powerwall? $50 per Month, Bets Green Mountain Power,” Greentech Media, December 8, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/green-mountain-powers-bet-on-tesla-powerwall-value-50-per-month.
87. Jeff St. John, “How Tesla’s Energy Storage Play Could Take Flight—or Flop,” Greentech Media, May 1, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-teslas-energy-storage-play-could-take-flight-or-founder.
88. Jeff St. John, “California Passes Huge Grid Energy Storage Mandate,” Greentech Media, October 17, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-passes-huge-grid-energy-storage-mandate.
89. Marianne Boust, “AES, AMS and Stem largest contract winners of SCE’s energy storage procurement plans in 2016,” IHS Markit, September 16, 2016. Retrieved from, https://technology.ihs.com/583596/aes-ams-and-stem-largest-contract-winner-of-sces-energy-storage-procurement-plans-in-2016.
90. Eric Wesoff and Jeff St. John, “Stem Wins Big With 85MW of Energy Storage in SCE Procurement,” Greentech Media, November 5, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Stem-Wins-Big-With-85-MW-of-Energy-Storage-in-SCE-Procurement.
91. Ibid.
92. Ibid.
93. Ibid.
94. Jeff St. John, “California Picks Winners for First-Ever Auction of Distributed Energy as Demand Response,” Greentech Media, January 12, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/California-Picks-Winners-for-First-Ever-Auction-of-Distributed-Energy-as-De.
95. Ibid.
96. Ibid.
97. Ibid.
98. Ibid.
99. Herman Trabish, “What to expect from California utilities’ new aggregated demand response offerings,” Utility Dive, January 26, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/what-to-expect-from-california-utilities-new-aggregated-demand-response-of/412614/.
100. Peter Maloney, “Stem secures $100M in financing to fuel battery deployment,” Utility Dive, August 12, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/stem-secures-100m-in-financing-to-fuel-battery-deployment/424250/.
101. Stephen Lacey, “SunPower Broadens Its Commercial Reach by Offering Battery Services from Stem,” Greentech Media, May 12, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/sunpower-broadens-its-commercial-reach-by-offering-battery-services-from-st.
Chapter Six
1. Harold L. Platt, The Electric City: Energy and Growth for the Chicago Area, 1880–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 23–25.
2. G. Smith, Storage Batteries: Including Operation, Charging, Maintenance and Repair (London: Pitman Publishing Limited, 1980), 139.
3. Platt, 84.
4. Aaron Bloom et al., Eastern Renewable Generation Integration Study, U.S. Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, August, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/64472.pdf.
5. Kevin B. Jones, Taylor L. Curtis, Marc de Konkoly Thege, Daniel Saur, and Matthew Roche, “Distributed Utility: Conflicts and Opportunities Between Incumbent Utilities, Suppliers, and New Market Entrants,” in Future of Utilities, Utilities of the Future: How Technological Innovations in Distributed Energy Resources Will Reshape the Electric Power Sector, ed. Fereidoon P. Sioshansi (London: Academic Press, 2015), 412–412.
6. Kevin B. Jones, David Clarke, and James Parmelee, “The LMP Model: Bottlenecking Merchant Transmission,” Public Utilities Fortnightly, April 15, 2003, 35.
7. Sandia National Laboratories, DOE/EPRI Electricity Storage Handbook in Collaboration with NRECA, July 2013, 1–3.
8. Ibid., 3–4.
9. Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research, The Great Battery Race: Framing the Next Frontier in Clean Technology—Electrical Energy Storage, October 18, 2015, 23.
10. Eric Wesoff, “FERC’s Energy Storage Ruling Could Jump-Start Big Batteries,” Greentech Media, August 12, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/FERCs-Energy-Storage-Ruling-Could-Jump-Start-Big-Batteries.
11. Sandia National Laboratories, 2013, 9.
12. Deloitte, “Energy Storage: Tracking the Technologies That Will Transform the Power Sector,” 2015, 12.
13. U.S. Department of Energy, Electricity Advisory Committee, Bottling Electricity: Storage as a Strategic Tool for Managing Variability and Capacity Concerns in the Modern Grid, December 2008, 5. Retrieved from http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/oeprod/DocumentsandMedia/final-energy-storage_12-16-08.pdf.
14. KEMA, Inc., for the California Energy Commission, Research Evaluation of Wind Generation, Solar Generation, and Storage Impact on the California Grid, June 2010, 3. Retrieved from http://www.energy.ca.gov/2010publications/CEC-500-2010-010/CEC-500-2010-010.PDF.
15. Fitzgerald et al., The Economics of Battery Energy Storage, 21. See Chapter 5, note 22.
16. Sandia National Laboratories, Energy Storage for the Electricity Grid: Benefits and Market Potential Assessment Guide, February 2012.
17. Mike Munsell, “US Energy Storage Market Grew 243% in 2015, Largest Year on Record,” Greentech Media, March 3, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/us-energy-storage-market-grew-243-in-2015-largest-year-on-record.
18. Ibid.
19. Stephen Lacey, “The Second Coming of Storage in America,” Greentech Media, March 10, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/the-second-coming-of-storage-in-america.
20. “PJM leads the US fast-frequency regulation market,” Energy Storage Update, April 20, 2015. Retrieved from http://analysis.energystorageupdate.com/market-outlook/pjm-leads-us-fast-frequency-regulation-market.
21. AES Energy Storage, “Advancion Energy Storage: Building the Clean, Unbreakable Grid,” August 2016; Katie Fehrenbacher, “Long Before Tesla Made Grid Batteries Cool, There Was AES,” Fortune, June 19, 2015. Retrieved from http://fortune.com/2015/06/19/long-before-tesla-made-grid-batteries-cool-there-was-aes.
22. “PJM leads,” supra note 20.
23. Advancion Energy Storage, Advancion Case Study: AES Alamitos Energy Storage. August 2016.
24. Marianne Boust, “AES, AMS and Stem largest contract winners of SCE’s energy storage procurement plans in 2016,” IHS Markit, September 16, 2016. Retrieved from https://technology.ihs.com/583596/aes-ams-and-stem-largest-contract-winner-of-sces-energy-storage-procurement-plans-in-2016.
25. Jeff St. John, “California Utilities Are Fast-Tracking Battery Projects to Manage Aliso Canyon Shortfall,” Greentech Media, August 18, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-utilities-are-fast-tracking-battery-projects-to-manage-aliso-can.
26. Jeff St. John, “How EnerNOC Is Building Tesla’s Batteries into Its Demand Response Plans,” Greentech Media, May 11, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-enernoc-is-building-teslas-batteries-into-its-demand-response-plans.
27. Eric Wesoff, “E.ON Joins AEP in $18M VC Investment in Greensmith to Grow Grid-Scale Energy Storage,” Greentech Media, December 11, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/E.ON-Joins-AEP-in-18M-VC-Investment-in-Greensmith-to-Grow-Grid-Scale-Energ.
28. Stephen Lacey, “How Distributed Battery Storage Will Surpass Grid-Scale Storage in the US by 2020,” Greentech Media, March 10, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/how-distributed-battery-storage-will-surpass-grid-scale-storage-in-the-us-b.
29. Herman K. Tabish, “How Storage Can Help Solve the Distributed Energy ‘Death Spiral’,” Utility Dive, June 21, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/how-storage-can-help-solve-the-distributed-energy-death-spiral/421160.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Robert Walton, “The non-wire alternative: ConEd’s Brooklyn-Queens pilot rejects traditional grid upgrades,” Utility Dive, August 3, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/the-non-wire-alternative-coneds-brooklyn-queens-pilot-rejects-traditional/423525/.
34. Robert Walton, “ConEd virtual power plant shows how New York’s REV is reforming utility practices,” Utility Dive, June 21, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/coned-virtual-power-plant-shows-how-new-yorks-rev-is-reforming-utility-pra/421053/.
35. Eric Wesoff, “New York’s Con Ed Is Building a Virtual Power Plant from Sunverge Energy Storage and SunPower PV,” Greentech Media, June 12, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/New-Yorks-ConEd-Is-Building-a-Virtual-Power-Plant-From-Sunverge-Energy-Sto.
36. Ibid.
37. Walton, June 21, 2016.
38. Anya Breitenbach, Battery Second Use Offsets Electric Vehicle Expenses, Improves Grid Stability, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), June 22, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/news/features/2015/18519.
39. Julia Pyper, “Automakers on Second-Life Batteries for the Grid: ‘We Want a Foot in the Door of this Market,’ ” Greentech Media, November 9, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Automakers-on-Second-Life-Batteries-For-the-Grid-We-Want-a-Foot-in-the-Do.
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.
43. Fred Lambert, “BMW and Bosch open new 2.8 MWh energy storage facility built from batteries from over 100 electric cars,” electrek, September 22, 2016. Retrieved from https://electrek.co/2016/09/22/bmw-bosch-energy-storage-facility-built-from-batteries-from-over-100-electric-cars/.
44. Jeff St. John, “Nissan, Green Charge Networks Turn ‘Second-Life’ EV Batteries Into Grid Storage Business,” Greentech Media, June 15, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/nissan-green-charge-networks-turn-second-life-ev-batteries-into-grid-storag.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. Anya Breitenbach, June 22, 2015.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Executive Office of the President, Economic Benefits of Increasing Electric Grid Resilience to Weather Outages, August 2013, available at http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/08/f2/Grid%20Resiliency%20Report_FINAL.pdf.
51. U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Energy Sector Vulnerabilities to Climate Change and Extreme Weather, July, 2013. Retrieved from http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2013/07/f2/20130716-Energy%20Sector%20Vulnerabilities%20Report.pdf.
52. Ibid., 35.
53. Ibid.
54. Alexandra von Meier, Electric Power Systems: A Conceptual Introduction (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2006), 152.
55. Ibid., 153.
56. Michael Montoya et al., “Islands in the Storm: Integrating Micro-grids into the Larger Grid,” IEEE Power & Energy Magazine (July/August 2013), 33–36.
57. Z. Ye, R. Walling, N. Miller, P. Du, and K. Nelson, Facility Microgrids, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, May 2005, iii. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/38019.pdf.
58. Ibid.
59. Montoya, 35–36.
60. Jones and Zoppo, 131.
61. Ibid.
62. Walton, June 21, 2016.
Chapter Seven
1. Joyce McLaren, “Batteries 101 Series: How to Talk about Batteries and Power-to-Energy Ratios,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Solar STAT Blog, April 13, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.nrel.gov/tech_deployment/state_local_governments/blog/batteries-101-series-how-to-talk-about-batteries-and-power-to-energy-ratios.
2. Carl Christiansen and Ben Murray, Energy Storage Study: Funding and Knowledge Sharing Priorities (Sydney, Australia: AECOM Australia, July 13, 2015). Retrieved from http://arena.gov.au/files/2015/07/AECOM-Energy-Storage-Study.pdf.
3. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Hydropower—Pumped Storage Projects, August 5, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.ferc.gov/industries/hydropower/gen-info/licensing/pump-storage.asp.
4. Department of Energy, DOE Global Energy Storage Database. Retrieved from http://www.energystorageexchange.org/projects.
5. American Society of Civil Engineers, Rocky River Pumped Storage Hydraulic Plant. Retrieved from http://www.asce.org/project/rocky-river-pumped-storage-hydraulic-plant/.
6. Richard Baxter, Energy Storage: A Nontechnical Guide (Tulsa, OK: PennWell Corp., 2005).
7. Joseph Truini, “The Guide to Sump-Pump Problems: DIY Guy,” Popular Mechanics, February 19, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.popularmechanics.com/home/how-to/a3896/4305543/.
8. Susannah F. Locke, “How It Works: Protecting New Orleans with the World’s Largest Flood Pump,” Popular Science, August 18, 2009. Retrieved from http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2009-08/saving-new-orleans-worlds-largest-water-pump?image=2.
9. “A 10-Mile Storage Battery,” Popular Science Monthly,” July, 1930. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?id=sigDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA60&dq=1930+plane+%22Popular&hl=en&ei=zxiVTtztJ-Pr0gGvtu2kBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q&f=true.
10. Surface Reservoir Pumped Hydroelectric Storage, Energy Storage Association, 2016. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/surface-reservoir-pumped-hydroelectric-storage.
11. Willie G. Manuel, Energy Storage Study 2014, n.p.: Turlock Irrigation District, 2014. Retrieved from http://www.energy.ca.gov/assessments/ab2514_reports/Turlock_Irrigation_District/2014-10-28_Turlock_Irrigation_District_Energy_Storage_Study.pdf.
12. L. D. Mears, H. L. Gotschall, T. Key, and H. Kamath, EPRI-DOE Handbook of Energy Storage for Transmission & Distribution Applications, EPRI PEAC Corporation; EPRI ID 1001834, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, and the U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC, 2003. Retrieved from http://www.sandia.gov/ess/publications/ESHB%201001834%20reduced%20size.pdf.
13. International Energy Agency, Technology Roadmap: Hydropower, 2012. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/2012_Hydropower_Roadmap.pdf.
14. Peter Fairley, “A Renaissance for Pumped Storage Hydro,” IEEE Spectrum (April 2015): 9.
15. Ibid., 10.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Eric Wesoff, “Solar Star, Largest PV Power Plant in the World, Now Operational,” Greentech Media, June 26, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Solar-Star-Largest-PV-Power-Plant-in-the-World-Now-Operational.
22. Ibid.
23. Federal Register, “Bison Peak Pumped Storage, LLC; Notice of Preliminary Permit Application Accepted for Filing and Soliciting Comments, Motions to Intervene, and Competing Applications,” April 28, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2015/04/28/2015-09840/bison-peak-pumped-storage-llc-notice-of-preliminary-permit-application-accepted-for-filing-and.
24. Matthew Shapiro, “Pumped Storage Peaks in the US,” Water Power and Dam Construction, February 13, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/features/featurepumped-storage-peaks-in-the-us/.
25. Herman K. Trabish, “Beyond Batteries: The Diverse Technologies Vying for the Bulk Storage Market,” Utility Dive, September 14, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/beyond-batteries-the-diverse-technologies-vying-for-the-bulk-storage-marke/405189/.
26. SMUD, SMUD Cancels Iowa Hill Project, News Release, February 5, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.smud.org/en/about-smud/news-media/news-releases/2016/2016-02-05-Iowa-Hill.htm; Mark Glover, “SMUD Cancels $1.45 Billion Hydro Project in El Dorado County,” The Sacramento Bee, February 5, 2016 (accessed September 22, 2016). Retrieved from http://www.sacbee.com/news/business/article58651808.html#storylink=cpy.
27. ARES North America, Electricity and Power Storage—ARES Nevada. Retrieved from http://www.aresnorthamerica.com/about-ares-north-america.
28. ARES North America, Electricity and Power Storage—Pumped Storage Vs ARES Performance. Retrieved from http://www.aresnorthamerica.com/ares-performance.
29. ARES NW Power and Conservation Council Presentation, ARES North America, February 13, 2013. https://www.nwcouncil.org/media/4440767/ares.pdf.
30. Peter Maloney, “First-of-Its-Kind Rail Energy Storage Project Targets Role in CAISO Ancillary Services Market,” Utility Dive, April 26, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/first-of-its-kind-rail-energy-storage-project-targets-role-in-caiso-ancilla/417817/.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. U.S. Department of Energy, Compressed Air Energy Storage, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, April 2013. Retrieved from http://caes.pnnl.gov/.
34. Ibid.
35. Department of Energy, DOE Global Energy Storage Database, Sandia National Laboratories. Retrieved from http://www.energystorageexchange.org/projects/318.
36. Jeff St. John, “LightSail’s Secret Plan to Slash the Costs of Compressed Air Energy Storage,” Greentech Media, April 28, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/LightSails-Secret-Plan-to-Slash-the-Costs-of-Compressed-Air-Energy-Storage.
37. Miles O’Brien, “How Building a Better Battery Would Change the Game for Renewable Energy,” A Better Battery, the Holy Grail of Renewable Energy, PBS NewsHour, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/how-building-a-better-battery-would-change-the-game-for-renewable-energy/.
38. “Lightsail-Tech.” Retrieved from http://www.lightsail.com/tech.
39. Jeff St. John, “LightSail’s Secret Plan.…”
40. Haisheng Chen, Thang Ngoc Cong, Wei Yang, Chunqing Tan, Yongliang Li, and Yulong Ding, “Progress in Electrical Energy Storage System: A Critical Review,” Progress in Natural Science 19, no. 3 (March 2009): 303. doi:10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.07.014.
41. Peter Taylor, Ronan Bolton, Dave Stone, Xiao-Ping Zhang, Chris Martin, and Paul Upham, Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage: Factsheet to Accompany the Report ‘Pathways for energy storage in the UK’,” The Centre for Low Carbon Futures, 2012. Retrieved from http://www.lowcarbonfutures.org/sites/default/files/superconductingmagneticenergystorage_final.pdf.
42. Ibid.
43. Peter Taylor, Ronan Bolton, Dave Stone, Xiao-Ping Zhang, Chris Martin, and Paul Upham, Pathways for energy storage in the UK, The Centre for Low Carbon Futures, 2012, 307. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S100200710800381X.
44. Mairaj ud din Mufti, Shameem Ahmad Lone, Shiekh Javed Iqbal, Muzzafar Ahmad, and Mudasir Ismail, “Super-Capacitor Based Energy Storage System for Improved Load Frequency Control,” Electric Power Systems Research 79, no. 1 (January 1, 2009): 226–233. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378779608001739.
45. Taylor et al., Pathways for energy storage in the UK.
46. Josie Garthwaite, “How Ultracapacitors Work (and Why They Fall Short),” GigaOm, July 12, 2011. Retrieved from https://gigaom.com/2011/07/12/how-ultracapacitors-work-and-why-they-fall-short/.
47. Jeff St John, “Ultracapacitors Provide Solar-to-Grid Smoothing in San Diego,” Greentech Media, June 21, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Ultracapacitors-Provide-Solar-to-Grid-Smoothing-in-San-Diego.
48. Energy Storage Association, Flywheels. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/flywheels.
49. NASA Glenn Research Center, Flywheel Program. Retrieved from http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/portal/pdf/flywheel.pdf.
50. Department of Energy, DOE Global Energy Storage Database, Sandia National Laboratories. Retrieved from http://www.energystorageexchange.org/.
51. Jeff Postelwait, “Beacon Power Emerges from Bankruptcy with New Energy Storage Project,” Renewable Energy World, June 26, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2013/06/beacon-power-emerges-from-bankruptcy-with-new-energy-storage-project.html.
52. Ibid.
53. Beacon Power, “Modular Design.” Retrieved from http://beaconpower.com/modular-design/.
54. Robert Walton, “Alaska Co-Op to Install Hybrid Storage for Renewables Integration,” Utility Dive, June 5, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/alaska-co-op-to-install-hybrid-storage-for-renewables-integration/400294/.
55. Isentropic, “Isentropic Technology,” 2015. Retrieved from http://www.isentropic.co.uk/Technologies.
56. Ibid.
57. Energy Storage Association, Highview’s 5MW Liquid Air Energy Storage Demonstrator Starting Operations This Winter. August 19, 2015. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/news/esa-news/highviews-5mw-liquid-air-energy-storage-demonstrator-starting-operations-winter.
58. Energy Storage Association, Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES), 2016. Retrieved from http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/technologies/liquid-air-energy-storage-laes.
59. Ben Jervey, “The Other Solar,” GOOD Magazine, May 2, 2009. Retrieved from https://www.good.is/articles/the-other-solar.
60. Ibid.
61. Knvul Sheikh, “New Concentrating Solar Tower Is Worth Its Salt with 24/7 Power,” Scientific American, July 14, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/new-concentrating-solar-tower-is-worth-its-salt-with-24-7-power/.
62. Mark Mehos, Craig Turchi, Jennie Jorgenson, Paul Denholm, Clifford Ho, and Kenneth Armijo, On the Path to SunShot: Advancing Concentrating Solar Power Technology, Performance, and Dispatchability (Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2016). NREL/TP-5500-65688. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/65688.pdf.
63. Ibid.
64. Kevin Bullis, “Molten Salts Might Provide Half-Price Grid Energy Storage,” MIT Technology Review, February 27, 2014. Retrieved from https://www.technologyreview.com/s/525121/molten-salts-might-provide-half-price-grid-energy-storage/.
65. Concentrating Solar Power Projects: Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, March 9, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=60.
66. Peter Fairley, “A Tower of Molten Salt Will Deliver Solar Power After Sunset,” IEEE Spectrum, October 21, 2015. Retrieved from http://spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/solar/a-tower-of-molten-salt-will-deliver-solar-power-after-sunset.
67. Ibid.
68. Susan Kraemer, “Crescent Dunes 24-Hour Solar Tower Is Online,” CleanTechnica, February 22, 2016. Retrieved from https://cleantechnica.com/2016/02/22/crescent-dunes-24-hour-solar-tower-online/.
69. Jonathan Hart, Greg Miller, and Amrit Robbins, “Small Thermal Energy Storage and Its Role in Our Clean Energy Future,” ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings (2016): 3.1–3.11. Retrieved from http://aceee.org/files/proceedings/2016/data/papers/3_262.pdf.
70. GreenCE Sustainable Design Education, “Thermal Energy Storage: A Vital Ingredient to a Low Carbon Future.” Retrieved from https://www.greence.com/course/thermal-energy-storage-vital-ingredient-low-carbon-future.
71. Hart et al., “Small Thermal Energy Storage.…”
72. Ice Energy, “Technology: A Smart Ice Battery,” 2016. Retrieved from http://www.ice-energy.com/technology/.
73. Jeff Brady and Leigh Paterson, “Solar and Wind Energy May Be Nice, but How Can We Store It?,” NPR All Things Considered, April 5, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2016/04/05/470810118/solar-and-wind-energy-may-be-nice-but-how-can-we-store-it.
74. Ibid.
75. Brian Eckhouse, “Energy Storage Costs Expected to Slide 41% by 2020, GTM Says,” Bloomberg News, January 4, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-04/energy-storage-costs-expected-to-slide-41-by-2020-gtm-says.
Chapter Eight
1. Richard Martin, Coal Wars: The Future of Energy and the Fate of the Planet (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 3.
2. Frances Cairncross, Costing the Earth: The Challenge for Governments, the Opportunities for Business (Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press, 1992), 8.
3. Dieter Helm, Carbon Crunch How We’re Getting Climate Change Wrong—and How to Fix It (Cumberland: Yale University Press, 2014), 214.
4. William R. Cline, The Economics of Global Warming (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1992), 43–77.
5. Kevin B. Jones and David Zoppo, A Smarter, Greener Grid: Forging Environmental Progress through Smart Energy Policies and Technologies (Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2014).
6. Record: 177 Parties Signed the Paris Agreement. UN Climate Change Conference, Paris, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.cop21.gouv.fr/en/a-record-over-160-countries-expected-to-sign-the-paris-agreement-in-new-york-on-22-april-2016/.
7. Paris Agreement, Art. 7 (2015). Retrieved from https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf.
8. Paris Agreement, supra note 7, Art. 25.
9. Ibid., Art. 10.
10. Jason Deign, “Paris Climate Deal Expands Opportunities for Energy Storage,” Green Tech Media, December 21, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/paris-climate-commitments-offer-a-new-opportunity-for-storage.
11. Paris Agreement, supra note 7, Art. 7.
12. John D. Sutter, “Hooray for the Paris Climate Agreement! Now What?” CNN, December 14, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.cnn.com/2015/12/14/opinions/sutter-cop21-climate-5-things/.
13. Grace Wallack, “Comments on the EPA’s Clean Power Plan Reveal Both Consensus and Partisan Divide.” Brookings, May 27, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/planetpolicy/2015/05/27/comments-on-the-EPAs-clean-power-plan-reveal-both-consensus-and-partisan-divide-2/.
14. As noted previously, EIA data suggest that transportation carbon emissions exceeded utility emissions in 2015 for the first time.
15. Fact Sheet: President Obama to Announce Historic Carbon Pollution Standards for Power Plants. The White House, August 3, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/08/03/fact-sheet-president-obama-announce-historic-carbon-pollution-standards.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Kiran Kumaraswamy, “The Solution for the Clean Power Plan? Energy Storage.” AES Energy Storage, September 16, 2015. Retrieved from http://aesenergystorage.com/storage_blog/the-solution-for-the-clean-power-plan-energy-storage/#.V7p7OmUi1UQ.
23. Fact Sheet, supra note 15.
24. Eric Wesoff, “These States Are the Early Leaders in the US Energy Storage Market,” Green Tech Media, March 25, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/These-States-Are-the-Early-Leaders-in-the-U.S.-Energy-Storage-Market; Kevin B. Jones, Taylor L. Curtis, Marc de Konkily Thege, Daniel Sauer, and Matthew Roche, “Distributed Utility: Conflicts and Opportunities between Incumbent Utilities, Suppliers, and Emerging New Entrants,” in Future of Utilities, Utilities of the Future: How Technological Innovations in Distributed Energy Resources will Reshape the Electric Power Sector, ed. F. P. Sioshansi (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2016), 399, 405–412.
25. Jeff St. John, “California Passes Huge Grid Energy Storage Mandate,” Greentech Media, October 17, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-passes-huge-grid-energy-storage-mandate
26. Julian Spector, “California Enacts 4 New Laws to Promote Energy Storage,” Greentech Media, September 26, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-enacts-four-new-laws-to-promote-energy-storage
27. Wesoff, “These states are.…”
28. Spector, September 26 2016.
29. Ibid.
30. California SB-350 Clean Energy and Pollution Reduction Act of 2015. Retrieved from https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201520160SB350
31. Jeff St. John, “The Reality of Energy Storage Policy Is Different from What Solar-Storage Vendors Expect,” Greentech Media, July 20, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Energy-Storage-Policy-Reality-Versus-Solar-Storage-Vendor-Expectations.
32. Kevin B. Jones, Taylor L. Curtis, Marc de Konkily Thege, Daniel Sauer, and Matthew Roche, “Distributed Utility: Conflicts and Opportunities between Incumbent Utilities, Suppliers, and Emerging New Entrants,” in Future of Utilities, Utilities of the Future: How Technological Innovations in Distributed Energy Resources Will Reshape the Electric Power Sector, ed. F. P. Sioshansi (Cambridge, MA: Academic Press, 2016), 399, 405–412, 7.
33. Eric Wesoff, “New York’s Con Ed Is Building a Virtual Power Plant from Sunverge Energy Storage and SunPower PV,” Greentech Media, June 12, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/New-Yorks-ConEd-Is-Building-a-Virtual-Power-Plant-From-Sunverge-Energy-Sto.
34. Jones et al., “Distributed Utility,” supra note 32, 408–410.
35. Samantha Ruiz, Katie R. Thomas, and Kevin B. Jones, “Promoting Clean Reliable Energy through Smart Technologies and Policies: Lessons from Three Distributed Energy Case Studies,” San Diego Journal of Climate and Energy Law 6 (2014–2015): 66–67.
36. Peter Maloney, “Leading Edge: Hawaii Utilities Push Storage, Solar Integration for 100% Renewables Mandate,” Utility Dive, March 21, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/leading-edge-hawaii-utilities-push-storage-solar-integration-for-100-ren/415931/.
37. Ibid.; Gavin Bade, “Hawaii co-op signs deal for solar+storage project at 11¢/kWh,” Utility Dive, January 10, 2017. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/hawaii-co-op-signs-deal-for-solarstorage-project-at-11kwh/433744/
38. Herman K. Trabish, “Oregon Saddles Up to Implement Trailblazing Energy Storage Mandate,” Utility Dive, November 17, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/oregon-saddles-up-to-implement-trailblazing-energy-storage-mandate/409222/.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.
41. Peter Maloney, “Puerto Rico Energy Storage Project Tests Load Shifting Capabilities of Hybrid Batteries,” Utility Dive, May 3, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/puerto-rico-energy-storage-project-tests-load-shifting-capabilities-of-hybr/418331/.
42. Ibid.
43. Peter Maloney, “Massachusetts State Report Recommends 600 MW Energy Storage Target,” Utility Dive, September 19, 2016. Retrieved from http://www.utilitydive.com/news/massachusetts-state-report-recommends-600-mw-energy-storage-target/426483/.
44. Ibid.
45. Julian Spector, “New York City Sets the First Citywide Energy Storage Target,” Greentech Media, September 27, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/new-york-city-becomes-first-to-set-citywide-energy-storage-target.
46. Eric Wesoff, “3 Big Energy Storage Trends, 3 Important Energy Storage Projects.” Greentech Media, December 7, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.greentechmedia.com/squared/read/3-Big-Energy-Storage-Trends-and-3-Important-Energy-Storage-Projects.
47. Barbara Grady and Laura McCamy, “The Demise of Utilities as We Know Them Could Be 15 Years Away,” GreenBiz, April 7, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.greenbiz.com/article/utilities-are-you-ready-solar-plus-storage-going-take-over-says-rmi-solarcity.