NB: figures and tables are listed by name (e.g. in relation to individual prisons) or topic (e.g. in relation to imprisonment rates)
Åby open prison, Sweden 14f1.3
Adler-Karlsson, Gunnar 83
Åkertström, Malin 188
alcohol consumption 134–5, 153, 190; regulation of, in Nordic countries, 60–1, 135–6
Anderson, Sir Robert 144
Anglicanism 51
anti-intellectualism 113, 207; in England, 58–9, 79, 106; in Australia and New Zealand, 56
Armley prison, England 99f4.2
Arnold, Helen 19
Asptuna open prison, Sweden 21
Beccaria, Cesare 103–4, 105, 107, 167
Bjørnson, Bjørnstjerne 35–6, 37, 50, 52, 109–10
‘Bloody Code’ 97, 105, 106; see also capital punishment
Bulger, James, murder of 170
Bolton, I.M. 73
bønder34
Booth, Charles 68
Botsfengslet prison, Oslo 98f4.1, 99, 123, 198
Bowlby, John 89
Bramwell, Baron 108
Breivik, Anders, mass murders committed by, in Norway 208
British Conservative Party 70, 78, 79–80, 168
Brodeur, Jean-Paul 5
Cameron, David, British Prime Minister 25, 80, 208
Capek, Karel 45
capital punishment 97–8, 101–8, 168–9; abolition of 100, 104, 105, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 114; deterrent effects of 104, 107, 113, 114, 169
castration of sex offenders 135
Cavadino, Michael 8, 29, 30, 181
chaplains, role of, in prisons 115, 118, 122–3, 137
Chief Inspector of Prisons in England 25
child care 66, 77, 87, 88, 89–90
Clarke, Edward 46, 51–2, 57, 62, 97, 110–11
class divisions: in England 44–5, 51, 79, 106; in New Zealand 49; in relation to education level 54–6, 58; in Sweden 93; in Anglophone countries 30, 37, 40, 42–3, 84, 90, 155, 206; see also class structure
class structure 33, 34–47; in Anglophone countries 37–43, 155–6; in Nordic countries 34–5, 81–2; see also class divisions
Conservative Party, Sweden 81
consumers' cooperatives, Sweden 43
Cooper, Isaac Rhodes 43
corporeal punishment 97–8, 101, 119, 120, 123, 150
Courvoisier, Francois, execution of 109, 110
Cranworth, Lord 108
Crichton, Andrew 34
crime: as an illness 131, 132, 151, 185; as a product of criminogenic environment 130, 131, 137; rates 26, 26f1.4
crime types: alcohol-related 136, 153, 187; drug-related 186, 187, 188, 189, 190–2; organized 15, 22, 187; property 155, 167, 173, 176, 193, 200; sexual 28, 146, 149, 151, 170, 175, 176, 190; theft 136, 155; violent 3, 15, 22, 28, 136, 149, 153, 155, 170, 171, 175, 176–7, 187, 188, 189, 192; white collar 136, 153, 156
Criminal Justice Act 1972, England 174
Criminal Justice Act 1991, England 167
criminological research 131, 197
Crown Prince Oscar of Sweden 101–2, 105, 121
death penalty see capital punishment
demonstrations within prisons see prisons, disturbances in
depopulation: in Anglophone countries 88–9; in Sweden 86, 134
Dickens, Charles 45, 55, 63, 68, 97, 112, 115, 116
diet of prisoners. See prisoners, diet of
Du Cane, Edmund 116, 118, 119, 120, 121
education: schools in Australia and New Zealand built in imitation of English public schools 41f2.3, 42f2.4; sex, in Swedish schools 61; value of, in Anglophone countries 54–7, 58; value of, in Nordic countries 51–4, 57–8, 76, 95
Education Act 1877, New Zealand 56
education of prisoners see prisoners, education programmes for
egalitarianism: in Australia and New Zealand 43 (see also mateship); in Nordic culture 30, 36, 37, 43, 74, 92–3, 136; see also likhet
Ehrström, Karl Gustav 105
Ekberg, Gunilla 190
Elias, Norbert 31
Ellis, Havelock 144
English Poor Law 1834 67, 68, 71
Enlightenment, influence of, on penal reform 104, 105, 106
Eriksson, Torsten 133, 138, 139, 140, 142, 162
escapes from prison 22, 142–3, 162–3, 178, 180, 182, 194–5, 200
Escott, Thomas 58
European Committee against Torture and Inhumane Treatment 22
European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) 25
exceptionalism, Nordic 28, 29, 30, 184–205, 206
excess, Anglophone 27–8, 29, 32, 108, 127, 165–84, 206
exclusion, practices and policies of, in Anglophone countries 24, 25, 29, 96, 101, 129, 145, 156, 160, 169, 170, 175, 206–7
executions: Courvoisier, Francois, execution of: crowd behaviour at 109–12; last in Nordic countries 100;
private 111, 112; public 30, 97–8; see also Hagbo, Peer, execution of; Johannesdatter, Sofie, execution of; Muller, Franz, execution of
expertise: mistrust of, in Anglophone countries 59, 113, 151, 166, 170–1 (see also anti-intellectualism); role of, in Nordic policymaking 57–8, 198
fear of crime 223t6.1
fines 131, 132, 137, 152, 167, 176, 186
Finnish Artists' Union 52
Finnish Civil War 1918, 6, 35, 134
Finnish Literary Society 52
Finnish Penal Code 1889 120
Finnish Poor Law 1852 71
Finnish Poor Law 1879 72
Finnish Social Democratic Party 191, 193
Garland, David 26–7, 28, 29, 30, 129, 183
Geijer, Lennart, Swedish Minister of Justice 186, 187, 190, 192, 197–8
Gerhardsen, Einar, Norwegian Prime Minister 76
Gibbs, Philip 65
Global Financial Crisis, 2008 70
gold rush, in Australia 42
Goldthorpe, John 69
Göransson, Hardy 132, 133–1, 135, 136, 153
Gorer, Geoffrey 78
Grafton prison, NSW 179
Great Reform Act 1832, England 101
Green, Thomas Hill 147
Gruchy, Allan 83
Hagbo, Peer, execution of 109–10
Halden prison, Norway 1, 2f0.1, 12, 203, 203f6.1, 205f6.4
Hamar prison, Norway 10f1.1
Hansson, Per Albin, Swedish Prime Minister 73
Higden, Betty 68
housing: in Nordic countries 44, 61, 86, 87–8; of the poor in Anglophone countries 44–5
Howitt, William 68
Hughes, Thomas 55
Hume, Captain Arthur 117, 119, 120
immigration 5–6, 84, 90; in Australia 43, 47, 92; in England 91; in Finland 187; in New Zealand 43, 47, 48, 92; in Nordic countries 47, 94, 189; in Sweden 93, 187–9
imprisonment: as a deterrent 115–20, 127, 139, 157, 168, 177, 180; rates 7f0.3, 8, 26, 27f1.5, 154–7, 154f5.1, 155f5.2, 187, 196
inclusion, value of, in Nordic culture 29, 33, 95–6, 101, 129, 132, 139, 191, 192, 193, 206–7
indefinite sentences 25, 131, 132–3, 175–6, 185, 195
indeterminate sentences see indefinite sentences
individual responsibility 62–3, 123–4, 144, 145, 147, 150–1, 156, 168
individualism 30, 33, 37, 38, 39, 63, 64–5, 78, 79–80, 84, 85, 91, 168, 207
industrialization 36, 37, 44, 72, 75, 81, 110, 134
influence of British culture in Australia and New Zealand 40–2
Inge, William Ralph 59
insecurity, feeling unsafe 224t6.2
International Prison Congress (IPC) 124, 130
International Union of Penal Law (IUPL) 130
isolation see solitary confinement
Jenkins, David 58, 74, 85, 143
Jevons, William Stanley 65
Johannesdatter, Sofie, execution of, 110
judges, role of 102–3, 104, 105, 106, 107–8, 111, 113, 114, 148
Justice Model 166–7, 173, 175, 185–6, 189
Kayll, Reverend James 150
Kia Marmara sex offender unit 22
King, Michael 5
Kirkham open prison, England 11, 21
Kleen, Else 138
KRIM, prisoner rights group 197
KRUM, prisoner rights group 197
Kumla prison, Sweden 11, 143, 199
lagom, in Nordic culture 33, 62, 76, 83, 92, 123, 165; see also moderation, value of
Laing, Samuel 34–5, 46, 47, 51, 59–60, 62
land ownership: in Anglophone countries 37–9, 40, 42–3; in Nordic countries 34–5; see also housing
Landsmal dialect (Norway) 35
Lappi-Seppälä, Tapio 28, 193, 198
Laukaa open prison, Finland 14f1.2
law reform, penal 103–8, 131–2, 138–9
less eligibility, principle of 67–8, 69, 70, 71, 73, 75, 115, 116, 125, 128, 129, 154, 157, 159, 161, 162
Leveson Inquiry, England 86
Levi, Dr Leone 107
likhet, value of, in Nordic culture 33, 43, 71, 76, 83, 93, 123, 165; see also egalitarianism
Lord Lane, Chief Justice, England 166
Lutheranism 4, 32, 49–50, 51, 59, 72, 83, 103, 110, 123, 124, 141, 206
Mandelson, Peter, British Cabinet Minister 70
Maori people, New Zealand 22, 48, 112, 155
Marshall, Thomas Humphrey 78
Martin, Anthony 52
Martin, Baron 108
maternity leave 88t3.1; see also parental leave
mateship, tradition of, in Australia 49, 119
Mead, William Richard 37
media, mass 30, 85–6, 142, 163, 172–3, 183, 194–5, 200
medical services in prisons see prisoners, health care services for
medico-psychological knowledge 132–4, 145, 150–2
Mendelsohn, Ronald 69
Mental Deficiency Act, 1913, England 147–8
Michanek, Ernst 73
Miller, J.D.B 5
Moderaterna, Swedish Moderate Party 81, 189, 192, 200
moderation, in Nordic culture 30, 33, 37, 43, 44, 85, 94, 101, 112, 132, 137–8, 142, 188, 195, 206; see also lagom
Muller, Franz, execution of 112
Myrdal, Alva and Gunnar 77, 86–7, 135
New Labour, England 69, 80, 175
New Zealand First Party 92
Newgate prison, London 97
News of the World 172
Nikolai I, Tsar of Russia 101
Nilson, Ulf 93
Nissen, Hartvig, Norwegian Director of Prisons 133, 135
One Nation Party, Australia 91–2
Osteraker Prison 200
panopticon (Bentham) 98
parental leave, 88, 90; see also maternity leave
Parklea Correction Centre, New South Wales, Australia 22
parole 3, 142, 152, 156, 167, 169, 170, 176, 187
pastors. See chaplains, role of, in prisons
Pearson, Charles H. 63
Penal Institutions Commission, Norway 105
Pentonville Model Prison 98, 115
poverty: in Anglophone countries 67–70; in England 44–5
Preston prison, England 15
Prevention of Crime Act, 1908, England 147
preventive detention 130, 133, 147, 148, 149, 176, 185, 195
prison labour see prisoners, work programmes for
prison officers see prison staff
prison staff: attire 18; gender of 20; recruitment of 19, 160–1; relations with prisoners 10–12, 126–7, 158, 177, 178; trade unions for 23, 181; training and qualifications of 18–20, 140
prisoners: abuse of 21, 119, 179, 183; attire of 126, 157, 159; diet of 15, 16–17, 16t1.2, 17t1.3, 115, 116–17, 125–6, 158, 159, 184; education programmes for 20–1, 24, 119, 122, 157, 158–9, 162, 199; exclusion of, from society 25, 30, 32, 128, 183; health care services for 23, 24, 118, 199; mental illness among 24–5, 132–4, 135, 137, 139, 145, 147–8, 150–1 (see also crime, as an illness); relations with staff 10–12, 126–7, 158, 177, 178; on remand 15, 22, 186; rights groups 178–9, 196, 197; rights of 23, 101, 173, 180, 183–4, 192, 196; voting rights of 23, 24, 25, 183; wages of, while working in prison 20–1, 124, 141; women, with babies or children 21–2; work programmes for 20–1, 116, 124, 140–1, 157, 160, 162, 169 (see also workhouses)
prisons: abolition of 197–8; cell size in 12, 161; conditions in 9–21, 115, 116, 143, 157–62, 177–8, 180, 184, 198; contemporary visiting arrangements 204f6.3, 205f6.5; design of 1–4, 139, 161, 198–9, 202–5; disturbances in 164, 178–9, 196–7, 200, 201; leave from 139, 142; open 15, 139, 158; overcrowding in 12, 21, 161, 177–8, 181, 184; private 10, 23, 181–2; sanitation in 12–13; security in 22, 24, 140, 159, 162–3, 180, 182, 184, 201, 202–3; size of 9–10, 127; see also individual prison names
Prisons Act 2002, Finland 23
privatization of prisons see prisons, private
probation 152
Protestantism 51
punitivity, differing levels of 224t6.2
race: homogeneity in Australia and New Zealand 47–8; homogeneity in Nordic countries 47; nationalism, Norway's national day 53f2.5; racial purity 134
reformation see rehabilitation
rehabilitation 100, 115, 121, 123, 130, 140, 157, 158, 166, 191, 199, 202
Reiner, Robert 85
religion: heterogeneity of, in Anglophone countries 50–1; uniformity of in Nordic countries, 49; see also chaplains; Catholicism; Lutheranism; Protestantism
restraint, value of, in Nordic culture 94, 101, 104, 112, 132, 137, 138, 142, 165, 188, 195, 206, 207
riots see prisons, disturbances within
Roberts, Henry 115
Roberts, Robert 68
Rock, Paul 171
Roper, W.F. 161
Ruggles-Brise, Sir Evelyn 147, 149, 150–1
Russian Revolution 6
Sami people, Sweden 47
Sampson, Anthony 79
Schlyter, Karl, Swedish Minister of Justice 136–7
Scobie, I. 85
security provided by the state 67, 75–80, 83, 90, 92, 94, 132, 135, 190, 206; see also trygghet
sentencing 28, 131, 147, 152, 176; see also preventive detention; indefinite sentences; suspended sentences
Serlachius, Allan 132
Sherer, John 42
shipping containers, converted into prison cells in New Zealand 1–2,3f0.2,4205; see also prisons, design of
Sidney, John and Samuel 56
Simon, Sir John, Under-Secretary of State, Home Office, England 159
Social Security Act 1938, New Zealand 69
solitary confinement 21, 22, 120–2, 137–8
state power: extent of, in Anglophone countries 63–5, 78–80, 91, 144, 148–9, 152; extent of, in Nordic countries 59–63, 75–7, 94
Statute of Westminster 6
Stephen, James Fitzjames 107
sterilization: in Anglophone countries 146, 150; in Nordic countries 61, 77, 87, 135, 185
Stockholm Exhibition, 1930 43
Stoltenberg, Jens, Norwegian Prime Minister 208
Strangeways Prison, England 179
suspended sentences 131–2, 152
Swedish Inebriety Act 1913 136
Swedish Penal Code 1902 111, 120
Swedish Poor Law 1845 71
Swedish Poor Law 1871 75
Taine, Hyppolyte 39, 45, 54–5, 57, 58, 68
Tallack, William 120
Thackeray, William 109
Thatcher, Margaret, British Prime Minister 78, 167–8, government of, 166, 168, 171, 207
Tidaholm prison, Sweden 201
trade unions 82, 84, 90, 141, 160, 181
training of prisoners see prisoners, education programmes for
treadwheel, hard labour machines, 116, 117f4.3; see also prisons, conditions in
Trevelyan, George Macaulay 59
trygghet 75, 77, 83, 189, 191; see also security provided by the state
Ugelvik, Thomas 95
Ullersmo Central prison, Norway 141
victims of crime 173–4, 176, 189, 193–4
von Hayek, Friedrich 78
von Liszt, Franz 130, 131, 132
Ward, Stuart 5
Webb, Sidney 56
welfare dependency 64, 69, 79, 167
welfare sanction: concept of 129; liberal 144–63; social democratic 130–44
welfare state 29; liberal 29, 31, 32, 66, 67–70, 74–5, 78–80, 84–5, 90, 91; social democratic 29, 31, 32, 66, 70, 73, 74, 75–7, 80–8, 94
Wellington Prison, New Zealand 179
Wells, H.G. 146
Whitelaw, William 166
Wieselgren, Sigfrid 101, 121, 125, 127
Winnicott, D.W. 89
Winston, Lord Robert 207
Wootton, Baroness Barbara 151
work colonies see labour colonies
workhouses 67–8, 70, 71, 72–3, 116, 136
young offenders 137, 153, 168, 169, 185
youth detention centres 168