1. Marie-Sandrine Sgherri, ‘La nouvelle bataille de Sétif’, Le Point, 20 May 2010.
2. ‘“Hors-la-loi”: Droit d’inventaire ou droit d’inventer?’, Marianne, 18 Sept. 2010; ‘“Hors-la-loi”’, Le Nouvel observateur, 23 Sept. 2010. My thanks to Will Higbee for his insights on the subject.
3. Beatrice Heuser, The Evolution of Strategy: Thinking War from Antiquity to the Present (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 18.
4. For details of that colonization, see T. C. W. Blanning, The French Revolution in Germany: Occupation and Resistance in the Rhineland 1792–1802 (Oxford University Press, 1983); Michael Rowe, From Reich to State: The Rhineland in the Revolutionary Age, 1780–1830 (Cambridge University Press, 2003); Todd Shepard, The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006), 56.
5. A point made by Christopher Goscha, ‘A “total war” of decolonization? Social mobilization and state-building in Communist Vietnam (1949–54)’, War & Society, 31:2 (2012), 136–62.
6. David French, The British Way in Counter-Insurgency, 1945–1967 (Oxford University Press, 2011), 47.
7. John Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford: Blackwell, 1991), 2; Sarah Stockwell, ‘Ends of Empire’, in Sarah Stockwell, ed., The British Empire: Themes and Perspectives (Oxford: Blackwell, 2008), 271. For an emphatic assertion that Britain did not escape such shocks, see Benjamin Grob-Fitzgibbon, Imperial Endgame: Britain’s Dirty Wars and the End of Empire (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2011).
8. Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of our Times (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 73.
9. John Darwin, ‘Decolonization and the end of empire’, in Robin Winks, ed., OHBE, vvol. V: Historiography (Oxford University Press, 1999), 542–4.
10. Mark Philip Bradley, ‘Decolonization, the Global South, and the Cold War, 1919–1962’, in Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad, eds, The Cambridge History of the Cold War, i: Origins (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 464–5.
11. Jennifer Pitts, A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France (Princeton University Press, 2005), II-III; Jennifer E. Sessions, By Sword and Plow: France and the Conquest of Algeria (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), 58, 64–6; Alice L. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930 (Stanford University Press, 1997).
12. Jeremy Jennings, Revolution and the Republic: A History of Political Thought in France since the Eighteenth Century (Oxford University Press, 2011), 494.
13. Ann Laura Stoler and Carole McGranahan, ‘Introduction: Reconfiguring imperial terrains’, in Stoler, McGranahan and Peter C. Perdue, eds, Imperial Formations (Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press 2007), 3–42 passim; Go, Patterns of Empire, 9–12.
14. Claude Liauzu, Histoire de l’anticolonialisme en France: Du XVIe siècle à nos jours (Paris: Armand Colin, 2007), especially chs 3, 4, 6.
15. On ‘banal imperialism’, see: Krishan Kumar, ‘Empire, nation, and national identities’, in Andrew S. Thompson, ed., OHBE Companion Volume: Britain’s Experience of Empire in the Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press, 2011), 298–329.
16. Zara Steiner, ‘On writing international history: Chaps, maps, and much more’, International Affairs, 73 (1997), 538.
17. David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire (New York: Norton, 2005), 6.
18. Nicholas Owen, ‘“Facts are sacred”: The Manchester Guardian and colonial violence, 1930–1932’, JMH, 84:3 (2012), 643–55.
19. A point recently proven in the British colonial case by Huw Bennett’s Fighting the Mau Mau, chs 3–5; and David French’s The British Way in Counter-Insurgency, especially chs 4–6.
20. Stephen Jacobson, ‘Imperial ambitions in an era of decline’, in Alfred W. McCoy, Josep M. Fradera, and Stephen Jacobson, eds, Endless Empire: Spain’s Retreat, Europe’s Eclipse, America’s Decline (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2012), 75.
21. French, The British Way in Counter-Insurgency, 12–15, 105–32.
22. John Horne, ‘Defeat and memory in modern history’, in Jenny MacLeod, ed., Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2008), 15.
23. Stockwell, ‘Ends of empire’, 278–80.
1. Historians are fond of quoting Wilson’s alarm, most recently Massimiliano Fiore, Anglo-Italian Relations in the Middle East, 1922–1940 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), 2–3.
2. DDF, 1914 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1999), no. 534, ‘Procès-verbal, Séance de la Commission interministérielle des affaires musulmanes’, 14 novembre 1914.
3. James F. Searing, ‘Conversion to Islam: Military recruitment and generational conflict in a Sereer-Safèn village (Bandia), 1920–38’, JAH, 44:1 (2003), 80–4.
4. Myron Echenberg, ‘Paying the blood tax: Military conscription in French West Africa, 1914–1929’, Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines, 10:2 (1975), 171–92; ‘Les Migrations militaires en Afrique Occidentale Française, 1900–1945’, CJAS, 14:3 (1980), 429–50. In French West Africa, this method of flight from colonial demands echoed efforts to escape slave recruiters: Bernard Moitt, ‘Slavery, flight and redemption in Senegal, 1819–1905’, Slavery and Abolition, 14:2 (1993), 70–86; Andrew F. Clark, ‘Internal migrations and population movements in the Upper Senegal Valley (West Africa), 1890–1920’, CJAS, 28:3 (1994), 399–420.
5. Alice L. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize, 142–50; Joe Lunn, Memoirs of the Maelstrom: A Senegalese Oral History of the First World War (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999); Anne Summers and R. W. Johnson, ‘World War I conscription and social change in Guinea’, JAH, 19:1 (1978), 25–8.
6. The gratitude expressed in Britain and France for these sacrifices was sullied by racist depictions and discriminatory treatment of colonial soldiers and war workers in Britain and France. See: Tyler Stovall, ‘The color line behind the lines: Racial violence in France during the First World War’, AHR, 103:3 (1998), 739–69; Philippa Levine, ‘Battle colors: Race, sex, and colonial soldiery in World War I’, Journal of Women’s History 9:4 (1998), 104–30.
7. Fiore, Anglo-Italian Relations, 9–11; Frederick R. Dickinson, War and National Reinvention: Japan in the Great War, 1914–1919 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), 204–37.
8. Zara Steiner, The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933 (Oxford University Press, 2005), 17–18, 189–90, 249–50; Patrick Cohrs, The Unfinished Peace after World War I: America, Britain, and the Stabilisation of Europe, 1919–1932 (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 15–16, 20–67 passim. Even in the United States, internationalist ideas for a global organization with supranational powers to maintain peace were not confined to Woodrow Wilson or the Democratic Party. The Republicans’ likely presidential nominee, Theodore Roosevelt, who died of heart failure in Jan. 1919, also had ambitious plans: Stephen Wertheim, ‘The League that wasn’t: American designs for a legalistsanctionist League of Nations and the intellectual origins of international organization, 1914–1920’, DH, 35:5 (2011), 799–832.
9. Susan Pedersen, ‘The meaning of the mandates system: An argument’, Geschichte und Gesellschaft 32 (2006), 560–82; ‘Back to the League of Nations’, AHR, 112:4 (2007), 1099–1117.
10. For the new identity politics in French-ruled Syria, see James L. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998); Elizabeth Thompson, Colonial Citizens: Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege, and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000); Keith Watenpaugh, Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class (Princeton University Press, 2006); Jennifer Dueck, The Claims of Culture at Empire’s End: Syria and Lebanon under French Rule (Oxford University Press, 2010); Sarah D. Shields, Fezzes in the River: Identity Politics and European Diplomacy in the Middle East on the Eve of World War II (Oxford University Press, 2011).
11. Susan Pedersen, ‘The impact of League oversight on British policy in Palestine’, in Rory Miller, ed., Britain, Palestine and Empire: The Mandate Years (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), 46–65; ‘Getting out of Iraq—in 1932: The League of Nations and the road to normative statehood’, AHR, 115:4 (2010), 975–1000.
12. Barry Eichengreen, Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919–1939 (Oxford University Press, 1992), chs 2–4; Kenneth Mouré, The Gold Standard Illusion: France, the Bank of France, and the International Gold Standard, 1914–1939 (Oxford University Press, 2002), 40–100 passim.
13. Michael Havinden and David Meredith, Colonialism and Development: Britain and its Tropical Colonies, 1850–1960 (London: Routledge, 1993), 159; Jacques Marseille, Empire colonial et capitalisme français: Histoire d’un divorce (Paris: Albin Michel, 1984), 187–207.
14. Robert Boyce, The Great Interwar Crisis and the Collapse of Globalization (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2009), 12–13, chs 5–6.
15. Boyce, Great Interwar Crisis, ch. 7; Joe Maiolo, Cry Havoc: The Arms Race and the Second World War, 1931–1941 (London: John Murray, 2010).
16. Darwin, ‘Was there a Fourth British Empire?’, in Martin Lynn, ed., The British Empire in the 1950s: Retreat or Revival? (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2006), 21.
17. Two leading economic historians of Southeast Asia stress the variation in hardship, but concur that, for many, it was severe: Anne Booth, ‘Four colonies and a kingdom: A comparison of fiscal, trade and exchange rate policies in Southeast Asia in the 1930s’, MAS, 37:2 (2003), 429–60; Ian Brown, ‘Rural distress in Southeast Asia during the world depression of the early 1930s: A preliminary re-examination’, Journal of Asian Studies, 45:5 (1986), 995–1025.
18. David Arnold, ‘Looting, grain riots, and government policy in South India, 1918’, PP, 84:1 (1979), 111–45.
19. Myron Echenberg, Black Death, White Medicine: Bubonic Plague and the Politics of Public Health in Colonial Senegal, 1914–1945 (Oxford: James Currey, 2002), 159–74, 184–91.
20. Keith Jeffery, Field Marshal Sir Henry Wilson: A Political Soldier (Oxford University Press, 2008), chs 12–13.
21. TNA, CAB 4/7, CID 255B, War Office memo, 27 July 1920; Jon Lawrence, ‘Forging a peaceable kingdom: War, violence and the fear of brutalization in post-First World War Britain’, JMH, 75:3 (2003), 557–9. The pivotal importance of the ‘front generation’ to post-First World War politics was not solely a British imperial phenomenon: Robert Gerwarth and John Horne, ‘The Great War and paramilitarism in Europe, 1917–23’, Contemporary European History, 19:3 (2010), 267–73; Robert Gerwarth, ‘The Central European counter-revolution: Paramilitary violence in Germany, Austria and Hungary after the Great War’, PP, 200 (Aug. 2008), 175–209.
22. Michael Rowe, ‘Sex, “race” and riot in Liverpool, 1919’, Immigrants and Minorities, 19:2 (2000), 53–70; Jacqueline Jenkinson, Black 1919: Riots, Racism and Resistance in Imperial Britain (Liverpool University Press, 2008); Howard Johnson, ‘The anti-Chinese riots of 1918 in Jamaica’, Immigrants and Minorities, 2:1 (1983), 50–63; W.F. Elkins, ‘A source of black nationalism in the Caribbean: The revolt of the B.W.I.R. at Taranto, Italy’, Science and Society 33:2 (1970), 99–103.
23. Eric D. Weitz, ‘From the Vienna to the Paris system: International politics and the entangled histories of human rights, forced deportations, and civilizing missions’, AHR, 113:5 (2008), 1313–43.
24. Mark Philip Bradley, ‘Decolonization, the Global South, and the Cold War’, 466; Michael Adas, ‘Contested hegemony: The Great War and the Afro-Asian assault on the civilizing mission ideology’, Journal of World History, 15:1 (2004), 31–63.
25. Mark Mazower, ‘An international civilization? Empire, internationalism and the crisis of the mid-twentieth century’, International Affairs 82 (2006), 533–66; Pedersen, ‘The meaning of the mandates system’, 560–82.
26. Helen McCarthy, The British People and the League of Nations: Democracy, Citizenship and Internationalism, c.1918–1945 (Manchester University Press, 2011).
27. C.A. Bayly, ‘Empires and Indian Liberals’, in Catherine Hall and Keith McClelland, eds, Race, Nation and Empire: Making Histories, 1750 to the Present (Manchester University Press, 2010), 88.
28. Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford University Press, 2007); ‘The Wilsonian moment and the rise of anticolonial nationalism: The case of Egypt’, DS, 12:4 (2001), 99–122.
29. The emergence of explicitly anti-colonial movements was matched by the growth of non-western women’s movements in colonial territories. Their primary concern with regional discrimination differed from the feminism of several European and North American women’s rights groups, see: Marie Sandell, ‘Regional versus international: Women’s activism and organisational spaces in the inter-war period’, IHR, 33:4 (2011), 607–25.
30. Martin Thomas, Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers, and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–40 (Cambridge University Press, 2012).
31. CCAC, Sir Maurice Hankey papers, HNKY 1/6, 1918 Diary, entry for 3 Oct. 1918.
32. Hankey papers, HNKY 1/6, 1918 Diary, entry for 6 Oct. 1918; Timothy J. Paris, Britain, the Hashemites and Arab Rule 1920–1925: The Sherifian Solution (London: Frank Cass, 2003); Martin Thomas, ‘Anglo-French imperial relations in the Arab world: Intelligence liaison and nationalist disorder’, DS, 17:1 (2006), 1–28.
33. Gelvin, Divided Loyalties; Gérard D. Khoury, Une tutelle coloniale: Le Mandat français en Syrie et au Liban (Paris: Belin, 2006), 27–71.
34. Dan Eldar, ‘France in Syria: The abolition of Sharifian government, April–July 1920’, MES, 29:3 (1993), 487–504.
35. Toby Dodge, Inventing Iraq: The Failure of Nation Building and a History Denied (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003); Mary C. Wilson, King Abdullah, Britain and the Making of Jordan (Cambridge University Press, 1987).
36. Christopher M. Andrew and A.S. Kanya-Forstner, France Overseas: The Great War and the Climax of French Imperial Expansion (London: Thames and Hudson, 1981).
37. Nicholas Owen, ‘Critics of Empire in Britain’, in Judith Brown and Wm. Roger Louis, eds, Oxford History of the British Empire, iv: The Twentieth Century (Oxford University Press, 1999), 193–8; R.E. Robinson, ‘The moral disarmament of African Empire, 1919–1947’, JICH, 7:1 (1979), 86–104.
38. Katherine C. Epstein, ‘Imperial airs: Leo Amery, air power and empire, 1873–1945’, JICH, 38:4 (2010), 571–98.
39. CCAC, Leo Amery diaries, AMEL 7/22, 1928 Diary, entry for 26–31 Dec. 1928.
40. Keith Jeffery, The British Army and the Crisis of Empire, 1918–1922 (Manchester University Press, 1984); Ronald Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire: The Road to Decolonisation, 1918–1968 (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 32–5.
41. B.J.C. McKercher, Transition of Power: Britain’s Loss of Global Pre-eminence to the United States, 1930–1945 (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 248–77 passim.
42. Anne L. Foster, Projections of Power: The United States and Europe in Colonial Southeast Asia, 1919–1941 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010); Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States and the Philippines (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), chs 3, 5.
43. Keith Nielson, Britain, Soviet Russia and the Collapse of the Versailles Order, 1919–1939 (Cambridge University Press, 2006), 43, 46–7, 318.
44. John Fisher, ‘The Interdepartmental Committee on Eastern Unrest and British responses to Bolshevik and other intrigues against the Empire during the 1920s’, Journal of Asian History, 34:1 (2000), 1–34.
45. TNA, CAB 4/14, CIP655B, ‘The Extension of Soviet Influence in Asia’, 15 Dec. 1925.
46. John Ferris, ‘The British Empire vs. the hidden hand: British intelligence and strategy and “the CUP-Jew-German-Bolshevik combination”, 1918–1924’, in Keith Nielson and Greg Kennedy, eds, The British Way in Warfare: Power and the International System, 1856–1956 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010), 325–46.
47. Keith Nielson, ‘The Foreign Office and the defence of Empire, 1919–1939’, in Greg Kennedy, ed., Imperial Defence: The Old World Order, 1856–1956 (London: Routledge, 2007), 31–2.
48. Keith Jeffery, MI6: The History of the Secret Intelligence Service 1909–1949 (London: Bloomsbury, 2010), 206–8; David Arnold, ‘Police power and the demise of British rule in India, 1930–47’, in Anderson and Killingray, Policing and Decolonisation, 44.
49. TNA, CAB 4/15, CID 701B, Chiefs of Staff, ‘Review of Imperial Defence’, 22 June 1926.
50. For naval aspects of British popular imperialism, see: Mary A. Conley, From Jack Tar to Union Jack: Representing Naval Manhood in the British Empire, 1870–1918 (Manchester University Press, 2009).
51. TNA, CAB 4/11, CID481B, Board of Trade memo, ‘French petroleum policy’, 11 Feb. 1924.
52. Gary B. Magee and Andrew S. Thompson, Empire and Globalisation: Networks of People, Goods and Capital in the British World, c.1850–1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2010), chs 2–3.
53. Carl Bridge and Kent Fedorowich, ‘Mapping the British world’, in Carl Bridge and Kent Fedorowich, eds, The British World: Culture, Diaspora and Identity (London: Routledge, 2003), 1–15; James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Angloworld (Oxford University Press, 2009); Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World System, 1820–1970 (Cambridge University Press, 2009), 12.
54. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 70.
55. A.G. Hopkins, ‘Rethinking decolonization’, PP, 200 (Aug. 2008), 213–18; W. David McIntyre, ‘The strange death of Dominion status’, JICH, 27:2 (1999), 193–212. Although still widely understood, the term ‘Dominion’ fell out of favour and disappeared from official correspondence in the late 1940s.
56. William A. Hoisington Jr., ‘In search of a native elite: Casablanca and French urban policy, 1914–24’, The Maghreb Revew, 12:5–6 (1987), 160–5; Zeynep Çelik, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997).
57. Peter Dunwoodie, Writing French Algeria (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), ch. 1; Patricia Lorcin, Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia: European Women’s Narratives of Algeria and Kenya, 1900–Present (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2012), chs 1, 6.
58. William B. Cohen, Rulers of Empire: The French Colonial Service in Africa (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1971), ch. 4.
59. Witness what Laurent Dubois terms the ‘republican racism’ to emerge in the French Caribbean after what turned out to be temporary slave emancipation in the 1790s: Dubois, A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787–1804 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 3–4, 166–8.
60. Jean Elizabeth Pederson, ‘“Special customs”: Paternity suits and citizenship in France and the colonies, 1870–1912’, in Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds, Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 1998), 43–64.
61. For the limits to inter-war assimilation, see: Jonathan K. Gosnell, The Politics of Frenchness in Colonial Algeria, 1930–1954 (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2002).
62. W.B. Cohen, ‘The colonized as child: British and French Colonial Rule’, African Historical Studies, 3:2 (1970), 427–31.
63. James E. Genova, Colonial Ambivalence, Cultural Authenticity, and the Limits of Mimicry in French-Ruled West Africa, 1914–1956 (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), 94–9.
64. Gary Wilder, The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude and Colonial Humanism between the Two World Wars (University of Chicago Press, 2005), III; Jennifer Boittin, ‘Black in France: The language and politics of race in the late Third Republic’, FPCS, 27:2 (2009), 23–46; Tyler Stovall, ‘Aimé Césaire and the making of black Paris’, FPCS, 27:3 (2009), 44–6.
65. Sophie Quinn-Judge, Ho Chi Minh: The Missing Years (London: Hurst, 2003), chs 1, 5.
66. ADA, Albert Sarraut papers, 12J307, Pierre Pasquier report on Yen Bay uprising, 6 June 1930.
67. Alice L. Conklin, ‘“Democracy” rediscovered: Civilization through association in French West Africa (1914–1930)’, Cahiers d’Études Africaines, 145:37 (1997), 59–84.
68. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton University Press, 1996), 17–18; also cited in Genova, Colonial Ambivalence, 8.
69. Conklin, A Mission to Civilize; Genova, Colonial Ambivalence.
70. Martin Thomas, ‘Fighting “Communist banditry” in French Vietnam: The rhetoric of repression after the Yen Bay uprising, 1930–32’, FHS, 34:3 (2011), 612–14, 634–9; Hy Van Luong, ‘Agrarian unrest from an anthropological perspective: The case of Vietnam’, Comparative Politics, 17:2 (1985), 153–74.
71. Mark Philip Bradley, ‘Becoming “Van Minh”: Civilizational discourse and visions of the self in twentieth-century Vietnam’, Journal of World History, 15:1 (2004), 65–83; Shawn McHale, ‘Printing and power: Vietnamese debates over women’s place in society, 1918–1934’, in K.W. Taylor and J.K. Whitmore, eds, Essays into Vietnamese Pasts (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), 183–92.
72. Wilder, French Imperial Nation-State, 202–54.
73. Ronald Chalmers Hood, Royal Republicans: The French Naval Dynasties Between the World Wars (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1985).
74. Introduction to Owen White and J.P. Daughton, eds, In God’s Empire: French Missionaries and the Modern World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 3–20.
75. Odile Goerg, ‘The French provinces and “Greater France”’, in Tony Chafer and Amanda Sackur, eds, Promoting the Colonial Idea: Propaganda and Visions of Empire in France (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 82–101; John F. Laffey, ‘Municipal imperialism in decline: The Lyon chamber of commerce, 1925–1938’, FHS, 9:3–4 (1975), 329–53.
76. Marianne Boucheret, ‘Les Organisations de planteurs de caoutchouc indochinois et l’État au début du XXe siècle à la veille de la Seconde Guerre mondiale’, in Hubert Bonin, Catherine Hodeir, and Jean-François Klein, eds, L’Esprit économique impérial (1830–1970): Groupes de pression et réseaux du patronat colonial en France et dans l’empire (Paris: Publications de la SFHOM 2008), 716–18.
77. Pierre Brocheux and Daniel Hémery, Indochina: An Ambiguous Colonization, 1858–1954 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2009), 189; Y. Gonjo, Banque colonial ou Banque d’affaires: La Banque de l’Indochine sous la IIIème République (Paris: CHEFF, 1998).
78. ANOM, Travaux Publiques, 1TP Carton 167: Rapports de Mission Kair, 1924–5: Routes coloniale 1 et 4; AN, F/14/12432, ‘Programme de construction des lignes nouvelles de Chemins de Fer adoptée par les Assemblées Algériennes en 1920.: Rapports de la Commission spéciale’, 10 Apr. 1924.
79. Hubert Bonin, ‘Les Réseaux bancaires impériaux parisiens’, in Bonin et al., L’Esprit, 454–5.
80. For contrasting views of colonial party ‘insiders’ see: C.M. Andrew and A.S. Kanya-Forstner, ‘The French “colonial party”: Its composition, aims and influence, 1885–1914’, HJ, 14:1 (1971), 99–128; L. Abrams and D. J. Miller, ‘Who were the French colonialists? A reassessment of the Parti colonial, 1890–1914’, HJ, 19:3 (1976), 685–725.
81. ADA, Sarraut Papers, 12J172, ‘Le Communisme et les colonies’; CAOM GGM, 6(2)D/55, PCF Section colonial, ‘La France du Front Populaire et les peuples coloniaux’, 25–29 Dec. 1937.
82. Alice L. Conklin, ‘The new “ethnology” and “la situation coloniale” in interwar France’, FPCS, 20:2 (2002), 29–48.
83. Emmanuelle Sibeud, Une science impériale pour l’Afrique? La Construction des savoirs africanistes en France 1878–1930 (Paris: EHESS, 2002), 257–72; Wilder, The French Imperial Nation-State, 58–61.
84. Hardy’s earlier work in Morocco helped shape his ideas: Spencer D. Segalla, ‘Georges Hardy and educational ethnology in French Morocco, 1920–26’, French Colonial History, 4 (2003), 171–90.
85. MAE, série K Afrique 1918–1940, sous-série Affaires musulmanes, vol. 9, K101–2, ‘Les Populations musulmanes de l’Afrique Occidentale et Equatoriale Française et la politique islamique de la France’.
86. Ruth Ginio, ‘Colonial minds and African witchcraft: Interpretations of murder as seen in cases from French West Africa in the interwar era’, in Martin Thomas, ed., The French Colonial Mind, i: Mental Maps of Empire and Colonial Encounters (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2012), 58–61.
87. Benoît de L’Estoile, ‘Rationalizing colonial domination? Anthropology and native policy in French-ruled Africa’, in Benoît de L’Estoile, Federico Neiburg and Lygia Sigaud, eds, Empires, Nations, and Natives: Anthropology and State-Making (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 44–7.
88. Conklin, ‘The new “ethnology”’, 29–46.
89. Benoît de L’Estoile, ‘Rationalizing colonial domination?’, 49–54.
90. Helen Tilley and Robert J. Gordon, eds, Ordering Africa: Anthropology, European Imperialism, and the Politics of Knowledge (Manchester University Press, 2007), 6–9.
91. Cooper, Colonialism in Question, 144.
92. Conklin, ‘“Democracy” rediscovered’, 59–60.
93. Darwin, The Empire Project, 8; Mary Dewhurst Lewis, ‘Geographies of power: The Tunisian civic order, jurisdictional politics, and imperial rivalry in the Mediterranean, 1881–1935’, JMH, 80:4 (2008), 791–830.
94. Benjamin N. Lawrence, Emily Lynn Osborn, and Richard L. Roberts, eds, Intermediaries, Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006), 4–34.
95. Heather J. Sharkey, Living with Colonialism: Nationalism and Culture in Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2003), 37, 41, 48–9, 52.
96. Sharkey, Living with Colonialism, 1.
97. Donald Bloxham and Robert Gerwarth, eds, Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2011), 15–21; Isobel Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), I; Julia Eichenberg, ‘The dark side of independence: Paramilitary violence in Ireland and Poland after the First World War’, Contemporary European History, 19:3 (2010), 237–48; Michael Silvestri, ‘“An Irishman is specially suited to be a policeman”: Sir Charles Tegart and revolutionary terrorism in Bengal’, History Ireland, 8:4 (2000), 40–4.
98. The Spanish Moroccan protectorate, a narrow coastal strip of territory opposite Gibraltar, was enshrined in the 1906 Act of Algeciras.
99. MAE, Série M: Maroc, 1917–1940, vol. 89, Direction des affaires indigènes, ‘Rapport mensuel, mars 1925’; C. R. Pennell, A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco (Wisbech: Middle East and North African Studies Press, 1986), 186–91.
100. SHD-DAT, 3H602, Pétain Moroccan inspection mission report, 4 Aug. 1925.
101. TNA, FO 371/11078, W6433/39/28, Marquess of Crewe (Paris) to FO, 6 July 1925.
102. TNA, FO 413/69, W1288/39/28 and W5092/186/28, both Assistant Military Attaché Graham to Marquess of Crewe (Paris), 12 Feb. and 29 May 1925.
103. TNA, FO 371/11083, W9934/4011/28, Consul Ryan (Rabat) to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 13 Oct. 1925.
104. William A. Hoisington Jr, Lyautey and the French Conquest of Morocco (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995), 196–204.
105. TNA, FO 371/11081, W10017/186/28, Marquess of Crewe to FO, 23 Oct. 1925.
106. SHD-DAT, 3H101/Périodiques M. Pétain, no. 319, Pétain report, ‘Bulletin périodique du 30 septembre au 4 octobre 1925’; C. R. Pennell, ‘Women and resistance to colonialism in Morocco: The Rif 1916–1926’, JAH, 28 (1987), 107–18.
107. The best study of the Syrian revolt is Michael Provence, The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2005).
108. N.E. Bou-Nacklie, ‘Tumult in Syria’s Hama in 1925: The failure of a revolt’, Journal of Contemporary History, 33:2 (1998), 273–90; James Barr, A Line in the Sand: The Anglo-French Struggle for the Middle East (New York: Norton, 2012), 127–9, 136–8.
109. Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945 (London: I. B. Taurus, 1987), 175.
110. Khoury, Syria, 163–4.
111. Khoury, Syria, 176–7; TNA, AIR 23/91, Major J. Codrington to GHQ Amman, 8 Nov. 1926.
112. Khoury, Syria, 178–9. French official reports admitted only 150 civilian deaths.
113. SHD-DAT, 4H67/D2, no. 936/2, Gamelin to Cabinet du Ministre (Guerre), 1 July 1926.
114. Jan Karl Tanenbaum, General Maurice Sarrail 1856–1929: The French Army and Left-Wing Politics (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1974), 191–206 passim.
115. Michael Provence, ‘An investigation into the local origins of the Great Revolt’, in Nadine Méouchy, ed., France, Syrie et Liban 1918–1946 (Damascus: IFEAD, 2002), 378–93; Khoury, Syria, 237–8.
116. Key works covering the earlier colonial period include Nicola Cooper, France in Indochina: Colonial Encounters (Oxford: Berg, 2001); Daniel Hémery, Révolutionnaires vietnamiens et pouvoir colonial en Indochine (Paris: Maspero, 1975); David G. Marr, Vietnamese Anticolonialism, 1885–1925 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1971); Mark W. McLeod, The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–74 (New York: Praeger, 1991); Milton E. Osborne, The French Presence in Cochinchina and Cambodia: Rule and Response (1859–1905) (Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press, 1969); Hue-Tam Ho Tai, Radicalism and the Origins of the Vietnamese Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). Among the welter of books on the Indochina War of 1946–54, three distinctive treatments are Christopher Goscha, Thailand and the Southeast Asian Networks of the Vietnamese Revolution (1885–1954) (London: Curzon Press, 1999); Hugues Tertrais, La Piastre et le fusil: Le Coût de la guerre d’Indochine 1945–1954 (Paris: CHEF, 2002); Stein Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946: How the War Began (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2010).
117. Pierre Brocheux, ‘L’Implantation du mouvement communiste en Indochine française: Le Cas du Nghe-Tinh (1930–1931)’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 24:1 (1977), 49–74; Martin Bernal, ‘The Nghe-Tinh Soviet Movement, 1930–1931’, PP, 92:1 (1981), 148–68; Tobias Rettig, ‘French military policies in the aftermath of the Yên Bay Mutiny, 1930: Old Security Dilemmas Return to the Surface’, South East Asia Research, 10:3 (2002), 309–31; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976), 118–48.
118. David G. Marr, Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1981), 15–20; Luong, ‘Agrarian Unrest’, 165. Luong points out that the majority of the ICP’s national leadership came from Confucian scholar families of the mandarin elite in Nghe-An and Ha-Tinh.
119. Irene Nørlund, ‘Rice and the colonial lobby: The economic crisis in French Indo-China in the 1920s and 1930s’, in Peter Boomgaard and Ian Brown, eds, Weathering the Storm: The Economies of South East Asia in the 1930s Depression (Singapore: I.S.E.A.S., 2000), 201–11; Kham Vorapheth, Commerce et colonisation en Indochine 1860–1945 (Paris: Les Indes savantes, 2004), 371–90.
120. For parallels with another marginalized community treated as inherently rebellious, see Greg Grandin’s analysis of state violence against Guatemala’s Mayans, The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 171–2.
121. Thomas, ‘Fighting “Communist banditry”’, 615–27.
122. ANOM, Fonds Ministériels Indochine (FM/INDO), Nouveaux Fonds (NF), FM/INDO/NF 2634, Etat-Major 3e Bureau, ‘Troupes de l’Indochine, rapport spécial no. 286’, n.d., Oct. 1930.
123. Huynh Kim Khánh, Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 96; Stephen A. Toth estimates seven to eight executions per year in the bagne penal colonies of New Caledonia and French Guiana in the decades prior to Yen Bay, see his Beyond Papillon: The French Overseas Penal Colonies, 1854–1952 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2006), 113.
124. ‘Les Treize Assassinés de Yen Bay sont morts en révolutionnaires’, L’Humanité, 19 June 1930, in Alain Ruscio, La Question coloniale dans L’Humanité (1904–2004) (Paris: La Dispute, 2005), 128–31. Earlier beheadings of bandit leaders were not concealed, but celebrated on tourist postcards sold in Hanoi and elsewhere, see Michael G. Vann, ‘Of Pirates, Postcards, and Public Beheadings: The Pedagogic Execution in French Colonial Indochina’, Historical Reflections, 36:2 (2010), 39–58.
125. SHD-DAT, 6N503/D3, EMA Section d’études, ‘Note pour le secrétariat général’, 20 June 1931. The six French soldiers killed all died during the original Yen Bay mutiny.
126. ADA, Sarraut papers, 12J301, ‘La Propagande communiste dans les milieux coloniaux’, 27 Apr. 1922; William D. Irvine, Between Justice and Politics: The Ligue des droits de l’homme, 1898–1945 (Stanford University Press, 2007); 57, 144; Peter Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille: A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2001), 269–70.
127. Norman Ingram, ‘Selbstmord or euthanasia? Who killed the Ligue des Droits de l’Homme?’, FH, 22:3 (2008), 339.
128. Daniel Hémery, ‘L’Indochine, les droits humains entre colonisateurs et colonisés: La Ligue des droits de l’homme’, Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 88:330–1 (2001), 223–39.
129. Zinoman, The Colonial Bastille, 269. Hundreds more received lengthy terms of forced labour.
130. Claude Liauzu, Histoire de l’anticolonialisme, 166, 169.
131. Jennings, Revolution and the Republic, 492–4, manifesto quotation at 492.
132. Purnima Bose, Organizing Empire: Individualism, Collective Agency, and India (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 31–7.
133. Susan Kingsley Kent, Aftershocks: Politics and Trauma in Britain, 1918–1931 (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2009), 67.
134. Derek Sayer, ‘British reaction to the Amritsar massacre, 1919–1920’, PP, 131 (1991), 130–64; Helen Fein, Imperial Crime and Punishment: Massacre at Jallianwala Bagh and British Judgement, 1919–20 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986).
135. Robert L. Soloman, ‘Saya San and the Burmese rebellion’, MAS, 3:3 (1969), 209–23. Saya San was a pretender to the Burmese throne.
136. G. H. Bennett, British Foreign Policy during the Curzon period, 1919–1924 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995), 176.
137. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 50–4, quotation at 54.
138. Jacob Metzer, The Divided Economy of Mandatory Palestine (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 1–27; Zachary Lochman, Comrades and Enemies: Arab and Jewish Workers in Palestine, 1906–1948 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1996), 116–45.
139. Joseph Nevo, ‘Palestinian-Arab violent activity during the 1930s’, in Michael J. Cohen and Martin Kolinsky, eds, Britain and the Middle East in the 1930s (Paris: Armand Colin, 2007), 169–89; Martin Kolinsky, Law, Order and Riots in Mandatory Palestine, 1928–1935 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994), 40–2.
140. TNA, Ramsey MacDonald Private Office papers, PRO 30/69/276, ‘Recent Palestine disturbances’, 25 Sept. 1929; CO 638(29), ‘Wailing Wall of Jerusalem—Appointment of Commission’, 8 Oct. 1929.
141. Mary Ellen Lundsten, ‘Wall politics: Zionist and Palestinian strategies in Jerusalem, 1928’, Journal of Palestine Studies, 8:1 (1978), 3n.2, 7–12, 22–4.
142. Matthew Hughes, ‘The Banality of Brutality: British Armed Forces and the Repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39’, EHR, 124:507 (2009), 313–54.
143. Barr, A Line in the Sand, 162.
144. Matthew Hughes, ‘Lawlessness and the law: British armed forces, the legal system and the repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–1939’, in Miller, Britain, Palestine, 141–56.
145. As Congress President Subhas Chandra Bose noted drily that Indians were expected to fight against Germany and Italy while providing ‘a certificate of good conduct’ for British and French imperialism. Cited in Nicholas Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission of 1942: A Reinterpretation’, JICH, 30:1 (2002), 63, 68.
146. Ted Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt: The 1936–1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2003), xxii.
147. Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt, 3–12.
148. Yoshua Porath, The Palestinian Arab National Movement, 1929–1939: From Riots to Rebellion (London: Frank Cass, 1977); Charles Townshend, ‘The defence of Palestine: Insurrection and public security, 1936–1939’, EHR, 103 (1988), 919–49.
149. Tom Bowden, ‘The politics of the Arab rebellion in Palestine, 1936–39’, MES, 11:2 (1975), 147–74; Yuval Arnon-Ohanna, ‘The bands in the Palestinian Arab Revolt, 1936–1939: Structure and organization’, Asian and African Studies, 15:2 (1981), 229–47.
150. Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt, xx–xxi, 35, 94–7.
151. S. Klieman, ‘The divisiveness of Palestine: Foreign Office vs. Colonial Office on the issue of partition, 1937’, HJ, 22 (1979), 423–42; Michael J. Cohen, ‘Appeasement in the Middle East: The British White Paper on Palestine, May 1939’, HJ, 16:3 (1973), 571–96.
152. TNA, WO 106/2018B, COS847(JIC), ‘Attitude of the “Arab world” to G.B.’, 20 Feb. 1939; CO 831/51/8, ‘Secret report on the political situation, Apr. 1939’.
153. TNA, MacDonald papers, PRO 30/69/338, Sir Robert Lindsay Downing Street memo, 10 Sept. 1929; Pedersen, ‘Getting out of Iraq’, 998–9.
154. Israel Gershoni and James P. Jankowski, Redefining the Egyptian Nation, 1930–1945 (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 152–7.
155. TNA, FO 1011/170: Egypt 1934–1944 correspondence, Sir Percy Loraine letter to Lt. Colonel P.G. Elgood, 26 Jan. 1937.
156. Michael T. Thornhill, ‘Informal Empire, independent Egypt and the accession of King Farouk’, JICH, 38:2 (2010), 279–302.
157. RHL, Mss. Ind. Ocn. s. 352: Sir Cecil Clementi papers, Malaya papers, box 29/file 1, Letter from I. Hall to Clementi, 12 Mar. 1931.
158. Lynn Hollen Lees, ‘Being British in Malaya, 1890–1940’, Journal of British Studies, 48:1 (2009), 76–101; Anthony C. Milner, The Invention of Colonial Malaya: Contesting Nationalism and the Expansion of the Public Sphere (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 282.
159. John Lonsdale, ‘Kenya: Home county and African frontier’, in Robert Bickers, ed., Settlers and Expatriates: Britons over the Seas (Oxford University Press, 2010), 76.
160. Elspeth Joscelin Grant Huxley, White Man’s Country: Lord Delamere and the Making of Kenya, 2 vols. (London: Chatto & Windus, 1953), 82, cited in Lorcin, Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia, 118.
161. RHL, Mss. Afr. s. 1120, Sir Robert Brooke-Popham papers, Kenya correspondence, box III/2, William Ormsby-Gore private letter to Brooke-Popham, 21 Oct. 1936. Regarding the high social status of Kenya’s settlers, see C.J. Duder, ‘“Men of the officer class”: The participants in the 1919 soldier settlement scheme in Kenya’, African Affairs, 92:366 (1993), 69–87.
162. Brooke-Popham papers, Kenya correspondence, box III/2, Ormsby-Gore to Brooke-Popham, 6 Dec. 1937.
163. John Darwin, ‘An undeclared empire: The British in the Middle East, 1918–39’, JICH, 27:2 (1999), 159–76; Wilder, French Imperial Nation-State, introduction and ch. 1.
1. Capitaine Couet, ‘De Paris à Dakar à motocyclette’, Le Monde Colonial Illustré, 190 (avril 1939), 78–9.
2. Julien Maigret, ‘Quinzaine impériale de Paris’, Le Monde Colonial Illustré, 190 (avril 1939), 81–3.
3. Marc Michel, ‘“Mémoire officielle”, discours et pratique coloniale’, Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 77 (1990), 145–58; Martin Thomas, ‘Economic conditions and the limits to mobilisation in the French Empire, 1936–39’, HJ, 48:2 (2005), 471–2.
4. Historians George Peden and Zara Steiner argue that the British Empire fell short in this regard: George C. Peden, ‘The burden of imperial defence and the continental commitment reconsidered’, HJ, 27:2 (1984), 405–23; Zara Steiner, The Triumph of the Dark: European International History, 1933–1939 (Oxford University Press, 2011), 803–4. The term ‘imperial nation-state’ was coined by Gary Wilder, The French Imperial Nation-State.
5. Darwin, The Empire Project, 482–3, 491–2; George C. Peden, Arms, Economics and British Strategy: From Dreadnoughts to Hydrogen Bombs (Cambridge University Press, 2007), 156–62.
6. Arrested by the Vichy authorities in 1941, Mandel was murdered by the paramilitary Milice on 7 July 1944 in reprisal for the killing by Communist resisters of the Vichy Propaganda Minister Philippe Henriot.
7. Bertrand Favreau, Georges Mandel ou la passion de la République 1885–1944 (Paris: Fayard, 1996), 337–40; Christine Levisse-Touzé, ‘La Préparation économique, industrielle et militaire de l’Afrique du Nord à la veille de la guerre’, Revue d’Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, 142:1 (1986), 1–18.
8. Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1996), 124–66; David Anderson and David Throup, ‘Africans and agricultural production in colonial Kenya: The myth of the war as a watershed’, JAH, 26 (1985), 327–45. For a lively, positive assessment of empire contributions to Britain’s war effort, see Ashley Jackson, The British Empire and the Second World War (London: Hambledon, 2006).
9. Siân Nicholas, ‘“Brushing up your empire”: Dominion and colonial propaganda on the BBC’s Home Service, 1939–1945’, JICH, 31:2 (2003), 207–8, 213; Rosaleen Smyth, ‘Britain’s African colonies and British propaganda during the Second World War’, JICH, 14:1 (1985), 65–82.
10. TNA, AIR 2/4128, Reports on Anglo-French Staff conference, Singapore, June 1939; AIR 9/112, AFC(J) 25, 26, and 45: June 1939 staff conversations—French delegation papers.
11. Brock Millman, The Ill-Made Alliance: Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1934–1940 (Montreal: McGill University Press, 1998), 294–300; Elisabeth du Réau, ‘Les Balkans dans la stratégie méditerranéenne de la France, avril 1939–mai 1940’, Balkan Studies, 29:1 (1988), 77–8.
12. SHD-DAT, 7N2837/D2, SHA-2, ‘Singapour—La Conférence franco-britannique’, n.d. June 1939; DDF, 2nd series, vol. XVII, final report of Singapore talks, 42–55.
13. David Edgerton questions the affordability of British imperial defence commitments in Warfare State: Britain, 1920–1970 (Cambridge University Press, 2005); and see Phillips O’Brien, ‘The Titan refreshed: Imperial overstretch and the British Navy before the First World War’, PP, 172:1 (2001), 146–69.
14. SHM, TTD 821/Dossier FNEO, ‘Conférence anglo-française, Aden, 29 mai au 3 juin 1939’.
15. TNA, Treasury files, T160/987, Reciprocal treatment of imports, 1939–40.
16. Edward Louis Spears’ papers, Churchill College, Cambridge, SPRS 1/134/3, ‘French volunteer force’, Sept. 1940; SPRS 1/137/26, Bank of England, ‘Inflation in Syria’, 24 Feb. 1942.
17. Edward Louis Spears’ papers, Middle East Centre archive, Oxford, box II/6, Note by Major Morton on relations with the Free French, 6 Jan. 1942.
18. Gloria Maguire, Anglo-American Relations with the Free French (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1995), 118–19; Martin Thomas, The French Empire at War, 1940–45 (Manchester University Press, 1998), 159–64.
19. The indispensable treatment of Free France and its followers is Jean-Louis Crémieux-Brilhac, La France libre: De l’appel du 18 juin à la libération (Paris: Gallimard, 1998). De Gaulle’s and Pétain’s military careers had been entwined since 1914 when the former served as a young Lieutenant in the 33rd Infantry Regiment commanded by, then, Colonel Pétain. The link resumed in 1927 when, after Pétain’s appointment as the French Army’s chief of staff, de Gaulle became his aide-de-camp.
20. Nancy Ellen Lawler, Soldiers of Misfortune: Ivoirien Tirailleurs of World War II (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1992). Losses among French African servicemen in the 1940 battle for France are discussed by Myron Echenberg, ‘“Morts pour la France”: The African soldier in France during the Second World War’, JAH, 26 (1985), 263–80; Martin S. Alexander, ‘Colonial minds confounded: French colonial troops in the battle of France, 1940’, in Thomas, French Colonial Mind, ii: Violence, Military Encounters, and Colonialism (Lincoln, NE.: University of Nebraska Press, 2012), 263–80; 248–82; Raffael Scheck, Hitler’s African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940 (Cambridge University Press, 2006).
21. Pieter Lagrou, ‘The nationalization of victimhood: Selective violence and national grief in western Europe, 1940–1960’, in Richard Bessel and Dirk Schumann, eds, Life after Death: Approaches to a Cultural and Social History of Europe during the 1940s and 1950s (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 249.
22. Hanna Diamond, Fleeing Hitler: France, 1940 (Oxford University Press, 2008); Yves Durand, La Captivité: Histoire des prisonniers de guerre français, 1939–45 (Paris: FNCPG, 1980).
23. Richard H. Weisberg, Vichy Law and the Holocaust in France (London: Routledge, 1997), ch. 6; Lagrou, ‘The nationalization of victimhood’, 248–9. Nearly 55,000 French Jews were sent to concentration camps during 1942 alone.
24. Lindsey Dodd and Andrew Knapp, ‘“How many Frenchmen did you kill?”, British bombing policy towards France (1940–1945)’, FH, (2008), 469–92, at 469.
25. Julian Jackson, The Fall of France: The Nazi Invasion of 1940 (Oxford University Press, 2003), 232–3; Nicholas Atkin, Pétain (Harlow: Longman, 1998), 92–4.
26. Alice L. Conklin, Sarah Fishman, and Robert Zaretsky, France and its Empire since 1870 (Oxford University Press, 2011), 215–17; Stanley Hoffman, ‘The Trauma of 1940: A Disaster and its Traces’, in Joel Blatt, ed., The French Defeat of 1940: Reassessments (Oxford: Berghahn, 1998), 354–63.
27. AN, F60/307: Ministère des Colonies, Vichy: Organisation/administration, 1940–41.
28. Shannon Fogg, The Politics of Everyday Life in Vichy France: Foreigners, Undesirables, and Strangers (Cambridge University Press, 2009), 19–55; Kenneth Mouré, ‘Food rationing and the black market in France (1940–1944)’, FH, 24:2 (2010), 262–82.
29. Peter Jackson, ‘Recent journeys along the road back to France, 1940’, HJ, 39:2 (1996), 497; Patrick Finney, Remembering the Road to World War Two: International History, National Identity, Collective Memory (London: Routledge, 2011), 150–5.
30. David Wingeate Pike, ‘Between the Junes: The French Communists from the Collapse of France to the Invasion of Russia’, Journal of Contemporary History, 28:3 (1993), 465–85.
31. Olivier Wieviorka, Une certaine idée de la Résistance: Défense de la France, 1940–1949 (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1995), 20–3; Rod Kedward, La Vie en bleu: France and the French since 1900 (London: Penguin, 2005), 272–4.
32. Conklin et al., France and its Empire, 228–9; Francine Muel-Dreyfus, Vichy and the Eternal Feminine (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 97–124.
33. Martin Thomas, ‘Resource war, civil war, rights war: Factoring empire into French North Africa’s Second World War’, War in History, 18:2 (2011), 225–48.
34. Martin Thomas, ‘After Mers el-Kébir: The armed neutrality of the Vichy French Navy, 1940–1943’, EHR, 112:447 (1997), 643–7. For Vichy propagandist responses, see: Brett C. Bowles, ‘“La Tragédie de Mers el-Kébir” and the politics of filmed news in France, 1940–1944’, JMH, 76:2 (2004), 347–88.
35. TNA, FO 892/65, Note by Spears, ‘Weygand, Darlan and the French fleet’, 29 Jan. 1941.
36. Jean-Marie Abrail supervised the naval defence of Dunkirk after which he was appointed Governor-General of Algeria. At much the same time, Admiral Jean Decoux, naval commander in the Far East, became Governor of the Indochina Federation, a post he would hold until Mar. 1945. Jean-Pierre Esteva served as Vichy Resident-Minister in Tunisia and received a life sentence in Mar. 1945 for collaboration. Charles Platon became Vichy’s Minister for Colonies. Jean-François Darlan rose furthest, becoming Vichy deputy-premier, then prime minister and commander of Vichy armed forces before his assassination by Gaullist resisters in Algiers on Christmas Eve, 1942.
37. Darwin, The Empire Project, 496–7. Akrikaners did, however, enlist in large numbers during the war years, drawn by appeals to their masculinity and martial past. See Albert Grundlingh, ‘The King’s Afrikaners? Enlistment and ethnic identity in the Union of South Africa’s defence force during the Second World War, 1939–1945’, JAH, 40:3 (1999), 351–65, especially 353–61.
38. Keith Jeffery, ‘The Second World War’, in Brown and Louis, eds, OHBE, iv, 306–28.
39. Margaret Barrett, ‘Tug of war: The Free French movement in Australia, 1940–1944’, MPhil thesis, University of Sydney, 2012, 1.
40. Kent Fedorowich, ‘Doomed from the outset? Internment and civilian exchange in the Far East: The British failure over Hong Kong, 1941–45’, JICH, 25:1 (1997), 113–40; ‘The evacuation of European civilians from Hong Kong and Malaya/Singapore, 1939–1942’, in B. Farrell and S. Hunter, eds, Sixty Years On: The Fall of Singapore Revisited (Singapore: Eastern Universities, 2002), 122–55.
41. Ian Cowman, ‘Main fleet to Singapore? Churchill, the Admiralty and Force Z’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 18:1 (1995), 79–93; Christopher Bell, ‘The “Singapore strategy” and the deterrence of Japan: Winston Churchill, the Admiralty and the dispatch of Force Z’, EHR, 116:467 (2001), 604–34.
42. Richard Toye, ‘An imperial defeat? The presentation and reception of the fall of Singapore’, in Brian Farrell, ed., Churchill and the Lion City: Shaping Modern Singapore (Singapore: N. U. S., 2011), 108, 111–12, 119–20.
43. Kosmas Tsokhas, ‘Dedominionization: The Anglo-Australian experience, 1939–1945’, HJ, 37:4 (1994), 861–83; Darwin, The Empire Project, 502–3.
44. One of Canada’s most remarkable contributions was approximately one billion dollars in munitions for which no payment was sought, see: Hector Mackenzie, ‘Transatlantic generosity: Canada’s “billion dollar gift” to the United Kingdom in the Second World War’, IHR, 34:2 (2012), 293–314.
45. Darwin, The Empire Project, 495, 522–3. The commitment to avoid conscription was diluted by the outcome of a 1942 referendum, popular in English-speaking Canada, which permitted the government to introduce the measure ‘if necessary’.
46. Douglas E. Delaney, ‘Cooperation in the Anglo-Canadian armies, 1939–1945’, in Neilson and Kennedy, The British Way in Warfare, 216
47. Delaney, ‘Cooperation’, 197–217; Paul Dickson, ‘Politics of army expansion: General H.D.G. Crerar and the creation of the First Canadian Army, 1941’, Journal of Military History, 60:2 (1996), 271–9.
48. Nicholas, ‘“Brushing Up”’, 210–11.
49. Philip Buckner, ed., Canada and the British Empire: OHBE Companion Volume (Oxford University Press, 2008), 107–9; Kent Fedorowich, ‘“Cocked hats and small, little garrisons”: Britain, Canada and the fall of Hong Kong, 1941’, MAS, 37:1 (2003), 111–58.
50. Anguished about his captured son, Vincent Massey helped devise British policy-making on British and imperial POWs, see Neville Wylie, Barbed Wire Diplomacy: Britain, Germany, the Politics of Prisoners of War, 1939–1945 (Oxford University Press, 2010), 1–2, 197, 221–2.
51. The importance of Dominion and, especially, Canadian support for Britain is examined in David Edgerton, Britain’s War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War (London: Allen Lane 2011), 47–85; Buckner, ‘Canada and the end of Empire, 1939–1982’, 113–27.
52. TNA, WO 193/545, MO5/A, ‘India as a war arsenal’, signed by ‘L. C. R.’, n.d., 1940. Aside from its economic and financial contributions, India raised a military force of 2.5 million of whom 24,338 were killed and 79,489 taken prisoner, mostly by the Japanese, see: Pradeep Barua, ‘Strategies and doctrines of imperial defence: Britain and India, 1919–45’, JICH, 25:2 (1997), 253–61.
53. Nicholas Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission of 1942’, 69–70.
54. Yasmin Khan, ‘Sex in an imperial war-zone: Transnational encounters in Second World War India’, History Workshop Journal, 73:1 (2012), 240.
55. Chandar S. Sundaram, ‘Seditious letters and steel helmets: Disaffection among Indian troops in Singapore and Hong Kong, 1940–1, and the formation of the Indian National Army’, in K. Roy, ed., War and Society in Colonial India 2nd edition (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2006), 126–49.
56. Indevar Kamtekar, ‘The shiver of 1942’, in Roy, War and Society, 330–6.
57. Madhusree Mukerjee, Churchill’s Secret War: The British Empire and the Ravaging of India during World War II (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 76–98.
58. Khan, ‘Sex’, 242–52.
59. Mark Harrison, Medicine & Victory: British Military Medicine in the Second World War (Oxford University Press, 2004), 198.
60. Cited in Martin Francis, ‘Men of the Royal Air Force, the cultural memory of the Second World War and the twilight of the British Empire’, in Philippa Levine and Susan Grayzel, eds, Gender, Labour, War, and Empire: Essays on Modern Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2009), 186–7. At least 422 men of Caribbean, West African, and Indian subcontinent origin served as aircrew; almost 4,000 as supporting ground-crew. Discrimination seemed less marked in fighter command, whose pilot ranks were always cosmopolitan.
61. Information in this paragraph draws heavily from Jeffery, ‘The Second World War’, 311–13.
62. Sonya O. Rose, Which People’s War? National Identity and Citizenship in Wartime Britain, 1939–1945 (Oxford University Press, 2003), 247–50.
63. TNA, FO 892/84, Ministry of Information French section advisory committee, intelligence report 39, 17 June 1941; Journal Officiel no 197, 17 July 1941; Kenneth Mouré, ‘Economic choice in dark times: The Vichy economy’, FPCS, 25:1 (2007), 108–30.
64. Eric Jennings, Vichy in the Tropics: Pétain’s National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944 (Stanford University Press, 2001).
65. Eric Jennings, Imperial Heights: Dalat and the Making and Undoing of French Indochina (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2011), 210–13; ‘Conservative confluences, “nativist” synergy: Reinscribing Vichy’s National Revolution in Indochina, 1940–1945’, FHS, 27:4 (2004), 601–35.
66. Brocheux and Hémery, Indochina, 344–8.
67. TNA, FO 892/172, undated memo on functions of the British mission to the FNC.
68. Mario Rossi, ‘United States military authorities and Free France’, Journal of Military History, 61:1 (1997), 49–64, especially 49–53.
69. TNA, Political Warfare Executive files, FO 892/127, Maurice Dejean memo, ‘Washington et Vichy’, 4 Feb. 1942.
70. Fredrik Logevall, Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam (New York: Random House, 2012), 51–2.
71. MAE, Guerre, 1939–1945, Londres CNF, vol. 299, FFL 2ème bureau, ‘Projet d’accord franco-américain’, 8 Mar. 1941.
72. Arthur L. Funk, ‘Negotiating the “deal with Darlan”’, Journal of Contemporary History, 8:2 (1973), 81–117; Thomas, The French Empire at War, 159–90.
73. MAE, AP288, Maurice Dejean papers, vol. 24, Adrien Tixier to de Gaulle, 1 June 1942.
74. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 25, Dejean (Beirut) to de Gaulle, 22 Aug. 1942.
75. TNA, FO 892/174, Free French press service, de Gaulle communiqué, 2 Jan. 1943.
76. Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), Conferences at Washington 1941–1942, and Casablanca, 1943, CCOS meeting, 15 Jan. 1943, p. 573; John Charmley, ‘Harold Macmillan and the making of the French Committee of National Liberation’, IHR, 4:4 (1982), 557.
77. Robert E. Sherwood, ed., The White House Papers of Harry L. Hopkins, ii: Jan. 1942–July 1945 (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1949), 682–3.
78. TNA, WO 204/239, Allied civil affairs memo, ‘Dollar-franc rate of exchange’, 16 Jan. 1943.
79. SHD-DAT, 2P12/D2, Vichy Secrétariat à la Guerre, bulletin de renseignements 64, 14 Jan. 1943; James J. Dougherty, The Politics of Wartime Aid: American Economic Assistance to France and French Northwest Africa, 1940–1946 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1978), 4–5; Maguire, Anglo-American Relations, 120–2. The French Committee of National Liberation (FCNL) negotiated a currency stabilization agreement with the British government that altered franc values throughout the African Empire from 176.6 to 200 per pound in Feb. 1944: TNA, FO 371/40299, E1126/23/89, Spears mission summary 97, 19 Feb. 1944.
80. Jean-Charles Jauffret, ed., La Guerre d’Algérie par les documents I (Vincennes: SHAT, 1990); ‘Manifeste du peuple algérien’, 31–8; AN, F60/837, no. 685; Istiqlal executive memo, ‘Au sujet des récentes réformes marocaines’, 1 Dec. 1944.
81. Jacques Simon, ed., Messali Hadj par les textes (Paris: Editions Bouchène, 2000), doc. 17, Interview à Combat, 26 July 1946.
82. Messali Hadj, doc. 14. Lettre aux membres du Comité de libération, 11 Oct. 1943.
83. SHD-DAT, Fonds privés/Vichy, 1K592/1, Charles-Robert Ageron draft paper, ‘Les Mouvements nationalistes dans le Maghreb pendant la deuxième guerre mondiale’; AN, F60/883, no. 1890, General Charles Mast to Georges Bidault, 4 Dec. 1945.
84. SHD-DAT, Fonds privés/Vichy, 1K592/1, Ageron draft paper, ‘Les Mouvements nationalistes’.
85. AN, Secrétariat Général du Gouvernement, F60/835, Spillman, Directeur du Cabinet, Ministère en A.F.N., to Catroux, 12 Dec. 1944.
86. SHD-DAT, Fonds privés, 1K650/D1, General Jean Richard papers, ‘Vue d’ensemble sur la répartition des effectifs mobilisés en Afrique du Nord’, n.d. Feb. 1945; Claude d’Abzac-Epezy, ‘Épuration, dégagements, exclusions: Les Réductions d’effectifs dans l’armée française (1940–1947)’, Vingtième Siècle, 59 (1998), 66–9.
87. Gallissot, La République française et les indigènes, 156. For fuller details of North African troop recruitment and moral in 1943–5 see: Belkacem Recham, Les Musulmans algériens dans l’armée française (1919–1945) (Paris, L’Harmattan, 1996), 236–72.
88. MAE, série Asie-Océanie 1944–1955, sous-série Indochine, vol. 30, ‘Notes prises à la conférence de M. le Gouverneur-Général Laurentie sur l’Indochine’, n.d. Aug. 1945.
89. TNA, PREM 3/178/2, COS sub-committee, ‘Events in Indo-China since 1939’, n.d. Mar. 1945.
90. Kiyoko Kurusu Nitz, ‘Japanese military policy towards French Indochina during the Second World War: The road to the Meigo Sakusen (9 Mar. 1945)’, JSEAS, 14:2 (1983), 334–8.
91. Martin Thomas, ‘Free France, the British Government and the future of French Indo-China, 1940–45’, JSEAS, 28:1 (1997), 141–4.
92. SHD-DAT, 4Q78/D5, no. 95, ‘Perspectives d’évolution du conflit extrême-orient’, 5 Aug. 1944.
93. Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, 21–2.
94. Logevall, Embers, 84–7.
95. Pierre L. Lamant, ‘Le Cambodge et la décolonisation de l’Indochine: Les Caractères particuliers du nationalisme Khmer de 1936 à 1945’, in Charles-Robert Ageron, ed., Les Chemins de la décolonisation (Paris: CNRS, 1986), 189–99.
96. Ralph B. Smith, ‘The Japanese period in Indochina and the coup of 9 Mar. 1945’, JSEAS, 9:2 (1978), 290–1; Sugata Bose, ‘Starvation amidst plenty: The making of famine in Bengal, Honan and Tonkin, 1942–45’, MAS, 24:4 (1990), 699–727.
97. David G. Marr, Vietnam 1945: The Quest for Power (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1995), 96–107, quotation at 101.
98. Nicholas, ‘“Brushing Up”’, 218–19.
99. Memo by Secretary of State for the Colonies Oliver Stanley, ‘Staffing of the Colonial Service in the post-war period’, 26 Aug. 1944, in S. R. Ashton and S.E. Stockwell, eds, BDEEP, Series A, Volume 1: Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, 1925–1945 (London: HMSO, 1996), doc. 6.
100. Joanna Lewis, Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Kenya, 1925–52 (Oxford: James Currey, 2000), 79–81; ‘“Tropical East Ends”’, 42–66; L. J. Butler, Industrialization and the British Colonial State: West Africa, 1939–1951 (London: Routledge, 1997), chs 2–4.
101. Memo by Charles Jeffries, ‘A plan for the Colonial Office’, n.d., Nov. 1942, in Ashton and Stockwell, BDEEP, A/1, doc. 4; Charles Jeffries, Whitehall and the Colonial Service: An Administrative Memoir, 1939–1956 (London: Athlone Press, 1972), 18–19.
102. Catherine R. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling: Managing the Retreat of an International Currency, 1945–1992 (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 38–9.
103. Anderson and Throup, ‘Africans and agricultural production’, 336.
104. Sabine Clarke, ‘A technocratic imperial state? The Colonial Office and scientific research, 1940–1960’, Twentieth Century British History, 18:4 (2007), 453–9.
105. Jeffery Cox, ‘From the Empire of Christ to the Third World: Religion and the experience of empire in the twentieth century’, in Thompson, ed., Britain’s Experience of Empire, 76–119 passim.
106. Anderson and Throup, ‘Africans and agricultural production’, 333–42.
107. T.N. Harper, ‘The politics of disease and disorder in post-war Malaya’, JSEAS, 21:1 (1990), 89–90.
108. A. J. Stockwell, ‘Colonial planning during World War Two: The case of Malaya’, JICH, 2:3 (1974), 333–51; ‘The formation and first years of the United Malays National Organization (U.M.N.O.)’, MAS, 11:4 (1977), 481–3.
109. Harper, ‘The politics of disease’, 89.
110. Quoted in Toye, ‘An imperial defeat?’, 113.
111. Clement Attlee, ‘Memorandum on the Indian Situation’, 2 Feb. 1942’, in B. N. Pandey, ed., The Indian Nationalist Movement, 1885–1947: Select Documents (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), 175–8; Nicholas Owen, The British Left and India: Metropolitan Anti-Imperialism, 1885–1947 (Oxford: Oxford Historical Monographs, 2007), 277–8.
112. Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission’, 75–9, quotation at 79.
113. Owen, ‘The Cripps Mission’, 61–83, quotation at 62.
114. Peter Clarke, The Cripps Version: The Life of Sir Stafford Cripps, 1889–1952 (London: Allen Lane, 2002), 292–322.
115. Nicholas Owen, ‘War and Britain’s political crisis in India’, in Brian Brivati and Harriet Jones, eds, What Difference Did the War Make? (Leicester University Press, 1993), 114–20; Bose, ‘Starvation’, 699–727.
116. For an indictment of British maladministration of India’s grain and rice reserves, which were exported to Europe throughout Bengal’s famine, see: Mukerjee, Churchill’s Secret, chs 6–10.
117. Sunil S. Amrith, ‘Food and welfare in India, c.1910–1950’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 50:4 (2008), 1018–28.
118. IOR, Mss Eur F164/8: Sir Francis Mudie papers, Bengal famine inquiry commission report, 1945.
119. This turn was consistent with a broader transformation of policy-making, see: Kevin Jefferys, ‘British politics and social policy during the Second World War’, HJ, 30:1 (1987), 123–44.
120. Suke Wolton, Lord Hailey, the Colonial Office and the Politics of Race and Empire in the Second World War (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2000); J. M. Lee and M. Petter, The Colonial Office: War and Development Policy (London: Ashgate, 1982).
121. Robert D. Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy, 1938–1948 (London: Routledge, 1982), 158–9; Ina Zweiniger-Barqielowska Austerity in Britain: Rationing, Controls, and Consumption, 1939–1955 (Oxford University Press, 2002), 45–59, 209–25.
122. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘The dissolution of the British Empire’, in Brown and Louis, OHBE, iv, 331.
123. Richard J. Aldrich, Intelligence and the War against Japan: Britain, America and the Politics of Secret Service (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 302–6; Michael H. Hunt, ‘The decolonization puzzle in US Policy: Promise versus performance’, in David Ryan and Victor Pungong, eds, The United States and Decolonization (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000), 207–29; Wm. Roger Louis and Ronald Robinson, ‘The imperialism of decolonization’, JICH, 22:3 (1994), 462–511.
124. Quoted in Aldrich, Intelligence, 330.
125. Aldrich, Intelligence, 330–4; Stockwell, ‘The formation’, 485–6.
126. The following paragraphs draw from my article ‘Divisive decolonization: The Anglo-French withdrawal from Syria and Lebanon, 1944–46’, JICH, 28:3 (2000), 71–93, at 71–2.
127. AN, René Pleven papers, box 560AP/27, ‘Commerce extérieur des premiers mois 1944’, n.d., Aug. 1944; ‘Situation économique du Sénégal en 1943 et 1944’, n.d., 1944.
128. Martin Shipway, The Road to War: France and Vietnam, 1944–1947 (Oxford: Berghahn, 1996), 90.
129. AN, F60/889, CFLN Secretariat note for de Gaulle, ‘Conférence de Brazzaville’, 5 Jan. 1944.
130. Shipway, The Road, 21–37.
131. Charles-Robert Ageron, ‘La Survivance d’un mythe: La Puissance par l’Empire colonial, 1944–1947’, Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 72 (1985), 388–97; D. Bruce Marshall, The French Colonial Myth and Constitution-Making in the Fourth Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973).
132. Indispensable studies include Wm. Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism (Oxford University Press, 1984); Philip S. Khoury, Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945 (Princeton University Press, 1987); Aviel Roshwald, Estranged Bedfellows: Britain and France in the Middle East during the Second World War (Oxford University Press, 1990).
133. Haifa and Jaffa/Tel Aviv were hit, much as they had been by earlier Italian bombing raids between June and Oct. 1940: see Nir Arielli, ‘“Haifa is still burning”: Italian, German and French air raids on Palestine during the Second World War’, MES, 46:3 (2010), 333–42.
134. MEC, Spears’ papers, box III/5, Sir J. Glubb, ‘A further note on peace terms’, 25 May 1943.
135. Gaullist suspicions are expertly examined by Meir Zamir, ‘The “missing dimension”: Britain’s secret war against France in Syria and Lebanon, 1942–45—Part II’, MES, 46:6 (2010), 791–812.
136. Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de Guerre, iii: Le Salut, 1944–1946 (Paris, 1959), 781–95.
137. Barr, A Line in the Sand, 253–97 passim. The French security services were already funding the Stern Gang when two of its members assassinated Lord Moyne, Britain’s Minister of State in the Middle East, on 6 Nov. 1944.
138. Shields, Fezzes in the River, 20–2, 114–24, 231–5.
139. SHD-DAT, 4H377/D6, Conférence de Chtaura, 22 Feb. 1945.
140. TNA, FO 371/45605, E9747/420/89, Lord Halifax to Bevin, 13 Dec. 1945 and FO minutes; CAB 128/2, JP(45)315, Joint Planning Staff report on Levant evacuation, 16 Dec. 1945.
141. Barr, A Line in the Sand, 291.
142. SHD-DAT, 4H360/D1, no. 1591/2S, Commandement Supérieur des Troupes du Levant memo, 1 June 1945; TNA, FO 371/45580, E5800/8/89, War Office Historical Record—Levant 29 May–11 June 1945. Estimates of the numbers killed range from 400 to 700.
143. SHD-DAT, 4H276/D3 EM-1, Instructions to Damascus units, 29 July 1945; TNA, WO 201/1016, Brigadier J.G. Frere reports to GHQ Middle East, 17–30 Sept. 1945.
144. Barr, A Line in the Sand, 295–7.
145. Thomas, ‘Divisive Decolonization’, 89–91.
146. Darwin, The Empire Project, 493.
147. Jeffery, ‘The Second World War’, 327.
148. MAE, série Asie-Océanie 1944–1960, sous-série Indochine, vol. 31, Comité d’Indochine secrétariat notes 21 Apr. 1945.
1. Ronald Hyam, ‘The political consequences of Seretse Khama: Britain, the Bangwato and South Africa, 1948–1952’, HJ, 24:4 (1986), 921–47; Susan Williams, Colour Bar: The Triumph of Seretse Khama and His Nation (London: Allen Lane, 2006).
2. John Stuart, ‘Empire and Religion in Colonial Botswana: The Seretse Khama controversy, 1948–1956’, in Hilary M. Carey, ed., Empires of Religion (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2008), 311–26.
3. Stephen Howe, Anticolonialism in British Politics: The Left and the End of Empire, 1918–64 (Oxford University Press, 1993), 196–7, also cited in Stuart, ‘Empire and Religion’, 27.
4. The 1953 marriage of Stafford Cripps’ daughter, Peggy to the Ghanaian lawyer Joe Appiah, a high-born Ashante and close friend of Kwame Nkrumah, made the Attlee government’s pronouncements about Ruth Williams’ choice of partner seem even more hypocritical.
5. Indispensable is Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment.
6. Westad, The Global Cold War, 78, 86.
7. Roger Normand and Sarah Zaidi, Human Rights at the UN: The Political History of Universal Justice (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2008), 212–20; cited in Simpson, ‘The United States and the curious history’, 679.
8. Shipway, The Road to War, 51–6, 66–74.
9. Simpson, ‘The United States and the curious history’, 678–81; Mark Mazower, No Enchanted Palace: The End of Empire and the Ideological Origins of the United Nations (Princeton University Press, 2009), ch. 4.
10. Stephen Broadberry and Peter Howlett, ‘The United Kingdom: “Victory at all costs”’, in Mark Harrison, ed., The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison (Cambridge University Press, 1998), 43–80; Julian Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–44 (Oxford University Press, 2001).
11. Marr, Vietnam 1945, 104; Brocheux and Hémery, Indochina, 274, 348. The famine’s death toll was hotly contested by the French and their Vietnamese political opponents. Recent histories concur that one million deaths is a ‘credible estimate’.
12. Todd Shepard, The Invention of Decolonization, 57.
13. Key examples include Irwin M. Wall, The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1944–54 (Cambridge University Press, 1991); Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993); William I. Hitchcock, France Restored: Cold War Diplomacy and the Quest for Leadership in Europe, 1944–1954 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Michael Creswell, A Question of Balance: How France and the United States Created Cold War Europe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Gérard Bossuat, Les Aides américaines économiques et militaires à la France, 1938–1960 (Paris: CHEFF, 2001); Brian Angus McKenzie, Remaking France: Americanization, Public Diplomacy, and the Marshall Plan (New York: Berghahn, 2008); Claire Sanderson, L’Impossible alliance? France, Grande-Bretagne et défense de l’Europe, 1945–1958 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2003). A commendable, recent exception to the rule is Mark Atwood Lawrence, Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2007).
14. Giacobbi, a lawyer by training, became the youngest mayor in France when elected to office in his home town of Bastia in 1922. One of the eighty French parliamentarians who refused to vote plenary powers to Marshal Pétain in July 1940, he was stripped of office and later jailed by Corsica’s Italian occupiers. Creech-Jones’ Methodist upbringing and Independent Labour Party activism underpinned his pacifism, which led to his imprisonment between 1916 and 1919.
15. The limited capacity of Colonial Office reformers to extend African welfare provision is discussed by Joanna Lewis in her Empire State-Building, especially 300–5.
16. Pat Thane, ‘Family life and “normality” in postwar British culture’, in Bessel and Schumann, Life after Death, 193–4; Philip Nord, France’s New Deal: From the Thirties to the Postwar Era (Princeton University Press, 2010), 173–5.
17. Quoted in Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 142.
18. Darwin, ‘Was there a fourth British Empire?’ 16, 23–4.
19. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 38–61.
20. Hopkins, ‘Rethinking decolonization’, 224–5; Tim Rooth, ‘Britain’s other dollar problem: Economic relations with Canada, 1945–50’, JICH, 27:1 (1999), 81–108. The partial exception here was Canada, whose economic connections with the USA grew rapidly after 1945.
21. Darwin, The Empire Project, 17.
22. Robert J. Macmahon, Colonialism and Cold War: The United States and the Struggle for Indonesian Independence (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981); Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States and the Transfer of Power in the Middle East, 1945–1962 (Leicester University Press, 1996); Lawrence, Assuming the Burden, ch. 1.
23. An argument most often put in relation to Roosevelt’s hostility to any resumption of French control in post-war Indochina: Walter LaFeber, ‘Roosevelt, Churchill, and Indochina, 1942–45’, AHR, 80 (1975), 1277–95; Stein Tønnesson, ‘Franklin Roosevelt, trusteeship, and Indochina: A reassessment’, in Mark Atwood Lawrence and Fredrik Logevall, eds, First Vietnam War: Colonial Conflict and Cold War Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 56–73.
24. Mark Atwood Lawrence, ‘Explaining the early decisions: The United States and the French War, 1945–1954’, in Mark Philip Bradley and Marilyn B. Young, eds, Making Sense of the Vietnam Wars: Local, National and Transnational Perspectives (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 25–9; more generally: William Roger Louis, Imperialism at Bay: The United States and the Decolonization of the British Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977).
25. Mary Ann Heiss, ‘The evolution of the imperial idea and U.S. national identity’, DH, 26:4 (2002), 533–8.
26. Victor Pungong, ‘The United States and the international trusteeship system’, in Ryan and Pungong, The United States and Decolonization, 85–95.
27. For background, see: Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: Race Relations and American Foreign Policy since 1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001); Carol Anderson, Eyes off the Prize: The United Nations and the African American Struggle for Human Rights, 1944–1955 (Cambridge University Press, 2003); Jason Parker, Brother’s Keeper: The United States, Race, and Empire in the British Caribbean, 1937–1962 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 51–74 passim.
28. Louis and Robinson, ‘The imperialism of decolonization’, 462–511.
29. Simpson, ‘The United States and the curious history’, 680.
30. Dane Kennedy, ‘Essay and reflection: On the American Empire from a British imperial perspective’, IHR, 29:1 (2007), 83–108.
31. Hunt, ‘The decolonization puzzle in US policy’, in Ryan and Pungong, The United States and Decolonization, 207–14.
32. Amrith, ‘Food and welfare’, 1026.
33. Harper, ‘Disease and disorder’, 90–102, 109–13; Stockwell, ‘The formation’, 485–90.
34. Richard Stubbs, Hearts and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare: The Malayan Emergency, 1948–1960 (Oxford University Press, 1989), 35–7; A. J. Stockwell, ‘“A widespread and long-concocted plot to overthrow government in Malaya”? The origins of the Malayan Emergency’, JICH, 21:3 (1993), 68, 73.
35. Simon Kitson, ‘Creating “a nation of resisters”? Improving French self-image, 1944–6’, in Monica Riera and Gavin Schaffer, eds, The Lasting War: Society and Identity in Britain, France and Germany after 1945 (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2008), 72–9.
36. For background, see: Hilary Footitt, War and Liberation in France: Living with the Liberators (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2004); Patrice Virgili, Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France (Oxford: Berg, 2002).
37. The workaday problems and political uncertainties of the post-liberation years are examined by the contributors to Andrew Knapp, ed., The Uncertain Foundation: France at the Liberation, 1944–1947 (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2007).
38. Hitchcock, France Restored, 14–22; Andrew Shennan, Rethinking France: Plans for Renewal, 1940–46 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1989), 77–92.
39. Guy Pervillé, ‘Le RPF et l’Union Française’, in De Gaulle et le RPF, 1947–1955, ed. Fondation Charles de Gaulle (Paris, Armand Colin,1998), 521–3.
40. AN, Fonds MRP, 350AP76, Dossier: 4MRP8/Dr 4, ‘Renseignements communiqués par les fédérations sur le R. P. F. Note schématique’, 23 Apr. 1947.
41. The fullest accounts of right-wing politics in post-war France are Richard Vinen, Bourgeois Politics in France, 1945–1951 (Cambridge University Press, 1995); Philip Williams, Crisis and Compromise: Politics in the Fourth Republic (Oxford University Press, 1964).
42. Paul Smith, ‘Political parties, parliament and women’s suffrage in France, 1919–1939’, FH, 11:3 (1997), 342–50.
43. Christian Bougeard, René Pleven: Un Français en politique (Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 1994), 168, 182–91.
44. AN, René Pleven papers, 560AP/27/D1, Commissaire aux Colonies, ‘Rapports et notes’, 1943–44.
45. Bougeard, René Pleven, 90–2, 95, 130–1, 140–5. Pleven spent much of the 1930s working in Britain.
46. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP32/D1, Marcel Delrieu to René Mayer, 20 Dec. 1950.
47. MAE, série Z: Europe, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 39, René Massigli to Foreign Ministry, 20 July 1947. Massigli, the Anglophile French Ambassador in London, reported that Attlee’s Cabinet was ‘stupefied’ by the fall of Robert Schuman’s government as the Berlin blockade crisis intensified.
48. David Hanley, ‘From co-operation to conflict: The French political system and the onset of the Cold War’, French Cultural Studies, 8:1 (1997), 7–15. Under the Fourth Republic the Chamber of Deputies counted six major party groupings: Socialists (SFIO), Communists (PCF), Christian Democrats (MRP), Radicals, Gaullists (RPF), and the non-Gaullist right (PRL). In practice, the Socialists, Radicals, and Christian Democrats became the new Republic’s archetypical parties of government.
49. Jean-Jacques Becker, ‘La Scéne intérieure’, in Maurice Vaïsse, Pierre Mélandri, and Frédéric Bozo, eds, La France et l’OTAN 1949–1996 (Vincennes: CEHD, 1996), 103–4.
50. Jennings, Revolution and the Republic, 437; Kuisel, Seducing, chs 1–3; Charles S. Maier, ‘The Marshall Plan and the division of Europe’, Journal of Cold War Studies 7:1 (2005), 168–74.
51. Jon Cowans, ‘French public opinion and the founding of the Fourth Republic’, FHS, 17:1 (1991), 68–71, 75–91.
52. Successive Fourth Republic governments laid the groundwork for European integration despite the fact that the relationship between French Union territories and a European Community remained unresolved before 1955, see: Seung-Ryeol Kim, ‘France’s agony between vocation européenne et mondiale: The Union Française as an obstacle in the French policy of supranational European integration’, Journal of European Integration History, 8:1 (2002), 61–84.
53. Jean-Pierre Rioux, The Fourth Republic, 1944–1958 (Cambridge University Press, 1987), 446–9.
54. John Gillingham, Coal, Steel, and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945–1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to Economic Community (Cambridge University Press, 1991), 137–47, 364–72; Hitchcock, France Restored, 4–6, 204–7.
55. Vinen, Bourgeois Politics in France, 265–9.
56. Kristen Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Boston: MIT Press, 1996), chs 1–3.
57. Shepard, Invention of Decolonization, 40–6.
58. AN, Union Démocratique et Socialiste de la Résistance (UDSR) papers, 412AP/1/D1, ‘Tracts et circulaires MLN—UDSR, 1945–46’; AN, 350/AP1/D2, ‘Programme du MRP’, 8 Nov. 1945.
59. Lagrou, ‘The nationalization of victimhood’, 243–52; d’Abzac-Epezy, ‘Épuration’, 62–75.
60. Danièle Zeraffa, ‘La Perception de la puissance dans la formation Démocrate Chrétienne’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 31 (1984): 644–5; Ageron, ‘La Survivance’, 388–97.
61. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, 184–93; Conklin et al., France and its Empire, 250–1.
62. AN, F60/308, Direction du plan de développement économique et sociale, decree, 6 Apr. 1945.
63. SHD-DAT, 4Q119/D8, ‘Séances tenues au Comité de Afrique du Nord en octobre 1946’.
64. Steiner, ‘On writing international history’, 536.
65. The most trenchant recent critic is Martin Shipway, Decolonization, 89–90, 127–8.
66. Emmanuelle Saada, ‘The absent empire: The colonies in French constitutions’, in McCoy, Fradera, and Jacobson, Endless Empire, 213–14.
67. Shepard, Invention of Decolonization, 40–6.
68. Vincent Auriol, Journal du Septennat, 1947–1954, ii: 1948 (Paris: Armand Colin, 1974), entry for 12 Feb. 1948.
69. AN, F60 888: Union française, ‘Note sur la nécessité d’une constitution de l’Union française’. Laurentie’s title was political affairs director.
70. MAE, série Asie-Océanie 1944–1960, sous-série Indochine, vol. 30, no. 3316, Laurentie to Commission d’études et d’information pour l’Indochine’, 16 Mar. 1945.
71. AN, F60 888: Union française, Commission d’étude de la représentation des territoires d’Outre-Mer à l’Assemblée Constituante, ‘Procès-verbal, séance du 11 avril 1945’, statement by Laurentie.
72. Gregory Mann and Baz Lecocq, ‘Between empire, umma, and the Muslim Third World: The French Union and African pilgrims to Mecca, 1946–1958’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 27 (2007), 167–81.
73. The terms of the French Union required Associated States to determine answers to these questions, but did not offer specific solutions. Full members of the Union were, however, expected to place their security forces in the hands of a ‘French Union high command’ under French direction, see: SHD-T, 4Q119/D8, ‘Compte-rendu analytique des séances d’études tenues au Comité de l’Afrique du Nord en octobre 1946’.
74. Richard A. Joseph, ‘Settlers, strikers and sans-travail: The Douala riots of September 1945’, JAH, 15:4 (1974): 669–87; Frederick Cooper, ‘The Senegalese general strike of 1946 and the labor question in post-war French Africa’, CJAS 24:2 (1990), 165–215; ‘“Our strike”: Equality, anticolonial politics, and the 1947–48 railway strike in French West Africa’, JAH, 37:1 (1996), 81–118; Tony Chafer, The End of Empire in French West Africa: France’s Successful Decolonization? (Oxford: Berg, 2002), 68–70, 121–6.
75. Shipway, ‘Thinking like an empire: Governor Henri Laurentie and postwar plans for the late colonial French “empire-state”’, in Thomas, French Colonial Mind, I, 219–50.
76. Shipway, Decolonization, 129–30; Chafer, The End of Empire, 61–6.
77. Frederick Cooper, ‘Alternatives to nationalism in French Africa, 1945–60’, in Jost Düllfer and Marc Frey, eds, Elites and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan 2011), 113–15.
78. Paul Isoart, ‘L’Élaboration de la constitution de l’Union française: Les Assemblées constituantes’, in Ageron, Les Chemins, 27; Christian Bidegaray, ‘Le Tabou de l’indépendance dans les débats constituants sur les pays de l’outremer français: 1945–1958’, in Charles-Robert Ageron and Marc Michel, eds, L’Afrique noire française: L’Heure des indépendances (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 1992), 195.
79. USNA, RG 59, 851T.00, FWA, Political 1945–49, box 6326, AMCONGEN, Dakar, to State, 3 Nov. 1945.
80. James I. Lewis, ‘The MRP and the genesis of the French Union, 1944–1948’, FH, 12 (1998): 276–314.
81. MAE, Algérie, vol. 2, ‘Statut de l’Algérie’, 3 June 1947; James I. Lewis, ‘French politics and the Algerian Statute of 1947’, Maghreb Review, 17 (1992): 147–72; Odile Rudelle, ‘Le Vote du statut de l’Algérie’, in Serge Berstein and Pierre Milza, eds, L’Année 1947 (Paris, 2000), 317.
82. Cooper, ‘Alternatives to nationalism’, 112, 118.
83. Shipway, ‘Thinking like an empire’, 231–5, 240–4.
84. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, ‘Émeutes urbaines, grèves générales et décolonisation en Afrique française’, in Ageron, Les Chemins, 494–6.
85. Frederick Cooper, ‘The dialectics of decolonization: Nationalism and labor movements in postwar French Africa’, in Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997), 406–35.
86. Kim, ‘France’s agony’, 61–84.
87. Frédéric Turpin, ‘Le Mouvement Républicain Populaire et la guerre d’Indochine (1944–1954)’, Revue d’Histoire Diplomatique, 110 (1996): 157–90; ‘Le Mouvement Républicain Populaire et l’avenir de l’Algérie (1947–1962)’, Revue d’Histoire Diplomatique, 113 (1999): 171–203.
88. Pierre Letamendia, Le Mouvement Républicain Populaire: Histoire d’un grand parti français (Paris: Beauchesne, 1995), 98–101; Henri Descamps, La Démocratie Chrétienne et le MRP: De 1946 à 1959 (Paris, 1981), livre 3, 171–223.
89. Neville Kirk, Labour and the Politics of Empire: Britain and Australia, 1900 to the Present (Manchester University Press, 2011), 160–6.
90. Rose, Which People’s War?, 244, citing Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, 57.
91. Joseph M. Hodge, ‘Colonial experts, developmental and environmental doctrines, and the legacies of late British colonialism’, in Christina Folke Ax, Niels Brimnes, Niklas Thode Jensen, and Karen Oslund, eds, Cultivating the Colonies: Colonial States and their Environmental Legacies (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2011), 304–5.
92. Jeff D. Grischow, ‘Late colonial development in British West Africa: The Gonja development project in the northern territories of the Gold Coast, 1948–57’, CJAS, 35:2 (2001), 282–3, 287–92.
93. Harper, ‘Disease and disorder’, 90–5; Paul Kelemen, ‘Modernising colonialism: The British Labour Movement and Africa’, JICH, 34:2 (2006), 223–44; Rahul Nair, ‘The construction of a “population problem” in colonial India, 1919–1947’, JICH, 39:2 (2011), 240–2.
94. Sabine Clarke, ‘“The chance to send their first-class men out to the colonies”: The making of the Colonial Research Service’, in Brett M. Bennett and Joseph M. Hodge, eds, Science and Empire: Knowledge and Networks of Science Across the British Empire, 1800–1970 (London: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2011) 187–208; Hodge, ‘Colonial experts’, 300–2.
95. Frederick Cooper, ‘Modernizing bureaucrats, “backward Africans”, and the development concept’, in Frederick Cooper and Randall Packard, eds International Development and the Social Sciences (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998), 64–92.
96. Andrew S. Thompson, introduction to Britain’s Experience of Empire, 8.
97. Scott Newton, ‘J.M. Keynes and the postwar international economic order’, History Compass, 4:2 (2006), 308–12; ‘A “visionary hope” frustrated: J. M. Keynes and the origins of the international monetary order’, DS, 11:1 (2000): 189–210.
98. Havinden and Meredith, Colonialism and Development, 267; also cited in Philip Murphy, Alan Lennox Boyd: A Biography (London: I.B. Tauris, 1999), 108.
99. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 90. During the Korean War boom, Malaya and Singapore’s balance of trade with Britain went from a £92 million deficit before the war began in 1949 to a £431 million surplus at the War’s peak in 1951.
100. J. S. Hogendorn and K. M. Scott, ‘The East African groundnut scheme: Lessons of a large-scale agricultural failure’, African Economic History, 10:1 (1981), 108; also cited in Timothy H. Parsons, The Rule of Empires: Those Who Built Them, Those Who Endured Them, and Why They Always Fall (Oxford University Press, 2010), 335.
101. University of Sussex, Mass Observation Online Archive, file report, ‘British Empire and Commonwealth’: ‘Lincs a Colony Shocks Quizzers’, Daily Mail, 21 Dec. 1948. Three per cent of respondents thought that the United States was still a British colony; one suggested that Lincolnshire was a British colonial territory.
102. TNA, CAB 129/19, CP(47)191, ‘Anglo-French-Belgian Collaboration in Africa’, 30 June 1947.
103. Barr, A Line in the Sand, part IV.
104. AN, Georges Bidault papers, box 57, Sous-direction du Levant, ‘Valise du 15 novembre 1946: Syrie’; MAE, série Y: Syrie-Liban, vol. 36, SDECE intell. report, 27 Sept. 1946.
105. MAE, Nations Unies et Organisations Internationales, vol. 573, Rabat tel. 324, 22 Mar. 1945.
106. AN, Bidault papers, box 112, Residency report, ‘Situation politique en Tunisie’, 1 Feb. 1946.
107. MAE, Nations Unies et Organisations Internationales, vol. 573, Parodi to Foreign Ministry, 9 July 1947; Foreign Ministry tel. 1202, 17 July 1947; Service d’information memo, 16 Apr. 1951.
108. MAE, série Z: Europe, sous-série Grande-Bretagne, vol. 39, Bevin letter to Robert Schuman and reply, 29 Dec. 1948 and 6 Jan. 1949; Gérard Bossuat, France, l’aide américaine et la construction européenne 1944–1954 (Paris: CHEFF, 1992), Vol. II.
109. Anne Deighton, ‘Entente néo-coloniale?: Ernest Bevin and the proposals for an Anglo-French Third World power, 1945–1949’, DS, 17:4 (2006), 835–52; Marc Michel, ‘La Coopération intercoloniale en Afrique noire, 1942–1950: Néocolonialisme éclairé?’, Relations Internationales, 34:1 (1983), 155–71; John Kent, The Internationalization of Colonialism: Britain, France and Black Africa, 1939–1956 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
110. Louis, ‘The dissolution of the British Empire’, in Brown and Louis, OHBE, iv, 330.
111. Anne Deighton, ‘Britain and the Cold War, 1945–1955’, in Leffler and Westad, Cambridge History of the Cold War, i, 114.
112. Mass Observation was a left-leaning social survey group founded in 1937 by poet and journalist Charles Madge and the documentary film-maker Humphrey Jennings. It employed panels of volunteers to conduct surveys of public attitudes, principally in London.
113. University of Sussex, Mass Observation Online Archive, ‘Interim report by Mass Observation describing peoples’ hopes and expectations for the future of the world as they were during the UNO sessions at Westminster, 1946’, fo. 403.
114. Todd Shepard, ‘“History is past politics”? Archives, “tainted evidence”, and the return of the state’, AHR, 115:2 (2010), 479–81.
115. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘Public enemy number one: The British Empire in the dock at the United Nations, 1957–71’, in Lynn, ed., The British Empire in the 1950s, 188.
116. AN, F60/889, ‘Programme général de la conférence de Brazzaville (janvier 1944)’.
117. Chafer, The End of Empire, 56–7.
118. Shepard, ‘“History is past politics”?’ 480–1, quotation at 481.
1. Stockwell, ‘Ends of Empire’, 273.
2. Fred Logevall, ‘The Indochina Wars and the Cold War, 1945–1975’, in Leffler and Westad, Cambridge History of the Cold War, ii, 281; Logevall, Embers, parts II–VI.
3. An idea best explained in Odd Arne Westad, The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times (Cambridge University Press, 2005).
4. Christopher Goscha, Vietnam: Un état né de la guerre (Paris: Armand Colin, 2011), 464–7.
5. Mark Philip Bradley, Imagining Vietnam and America: The Making of Postcolonial Vietnam, 1919–1950 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 177–89; Mark Atwood Lawrence, ‘Universal claims, local uses: Reconceptualizing the Vietnam conflict, 1945–1960’, in A. G. Hopkins, ed., Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2006), 229–56.
6. Joya Chatterji, The Spoils of Partition: Bengal and India, 1947–1967 (Cambridge University Press, 2007), 19–33; ‘The fashioning of a frontier: The Radcliffe line and Bengal’s border landscape, 1947–52’, MAS, 33 (1999), 188–9, 199–213.
7. Lucy P. Chester, Boundaries and Conflict in South Asia: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission and the Partition of Punjab (Manchester University Press, 2009), 25–40.
8. Chester, Boundaries, 41–3; Chatterji, ‘The fashioning of a frontier’, 193–7.
9. The surgical metaphor is brilliantly deployed by Joya Chatterji in ‘The fashioning of a frontier’, 185–7; Chester, Boundaries, 51–70, 83–8.
10. Stanley Wolpert, Shameful Flight: The Last Years of the British Empire in India (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 183.
11. Patrick French, Liberty or Death: India’s Journey to Independence and Division (London: Harper Collins, 1997), 372–5.
12. IOR, Private Office papers, L/PO/12/12, Sir Terence Shone to Sir Archibald Carter, 14 Jan. 1948.
13. Yasmin Khan, The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 1–4.
14. David Gilmartin, ‘Partition, Pakistan, and South Asian history: In search of a narrative’, Journal of Asian Studies, 57:4 (1998), 1089–91.
15. Chester, Boundaries and Conflict, 128–38, 150–70.
16. Gilmartin, ‘Partition, Pakistan’, 1068–73. Ian Copland makes the point that Indians were so traumatized by partition violence, and so shocked by Gandhi’s assassination, that a mood of reconciliation developed, temporarily burying the horrors of the recent past: ‘The further shores of partition: Ethnic cleansing in Rajasthan 1947’, PP, 160 (Aug. 1998), 238–9.
17. French, Liberty, 227–34; R. J. Moore, ‘Jinnah and the Pakistan demand’, in Mushiral Hasan, ed., India’s Partition: Process, Strategy and Mobilization (Oxford University Press, 1993), 190–2.
18. Ian Talbot, ‘The growth of the Muslim League in the Punjab, 1927–46’, in Hasan, India’s Partition, 238–54.
19. Farzana Shaikh, ‘Muslims and political representation in colonial India: The making of Pakistan’, in Hasan, India’s Partition, 83–99.
20. Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 8–9, 182–260 passim; Nicholas Owen, The British Left, 297.
21. Mithi Mukherjee, ‘Transcending identity: Gandhi, nonviolence, and the pursuit of a “different” freedom in modern India’, AHR, 115:2 (2010), 461–2, 466–71.
22. Owen, ‘Critics of empire in Britain’, in Brown and Louis, OHBE, iv, 200.
23. Sir Harry Haig [Governor United Provinces] to Lord Linlithgow, 4 Dec. 1939, in Pandey, The Indian Nationalist Movement, 172–5; Jalal, The Sole Spokesman.
24. IOR, L/PO/12/15, Sir A. Henderson meeting with V. P. Menon, 16 Jan. 1947.
25. IOR, MSS EUR, F164/10, Sir Francis Mudie papers, Mudie forecast memorandum on possible political developments, n.d., July 1945.
26. Khan, The Great Partition, 15–17.
27. Sumit Sarkar, ‘Popular movements and national leadership, 1945–47’, Economic and Political Weekly, 17:14/16 (1982), 677–89.
28. Khan, The Great Partition, 63–8.
29. Gyanendra Pandey, Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism and History in India (Cambridge University Press, 2001), 45, also cited in Ian Talbot, ‘The 1947 violence in the Punjab’, in Ian Talbot, ed., Deadly Embrace: Religion, Politics and Violence in India and Pakistan, 1947–2002 (Oxford University Press, 2007), 1–3.
30. Kavita Daiya, Violent Belongings: Partition, Gender, and National Culture in Post-colonial India (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), especially ch. 3.
31. Catherine Coombs, ‘Partition narratives: Displaced trauma and culpability among British civil servants in 1940s Punjab’, MAS, 45:1 (2011), 207–17.
32. IOR, MSS EUR, Mudie papers, F164/20C: ‘Disturbances in East Punjab and contiguous areas during and after Aug. 1947. Part II’.
33. IOR, MSS EUR, Mudie papers, F164/16, West Punjab government instruction to police inspector-generals, 16 Sept. 1947.
34. IOR, MSS EUR, Mudie papers, F164/16, Colonel, Advanced HQ/ME Pakistan, Amritsar, ‘Report on East Punjab Situation’, 24 Sept. 1947.
35. Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali Zamindar, The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories (New Delhi: Penguin, 2008), 22.
36. Copland, ‘The further shores’, 208–27.
37. Ian Talbot, ‘Punjabi refugees’ rehabilitation and the Indian state: Discourses, denials and dissonances’, MAS, 45:1 (2011), 110–12, 125–30.
38. Mahbubar Rahman and Willem van Schendel, ‘“I am not a refugee”: Rethinking partition migration’, MAS, 37:3 (2003), 551–75.
39. For differing regional levels of violence, see: Ian Talbot, ‘The 1947 violence in the Punjab’, Pippa Verdee, ‘Partition and the absence of communal violence in Malerkotla’, and Yasmin Khan, ‘Out of control? Partition violence and the state in Uttar Pradesh’, all in Talbot, Deadly Embrace, 1–59.
40. IOR, MSS EUR, Mudie papers, F164/18: The Tragedy of Delhi’, by D.M. Malik, Chairman, Provincial Muslim League, Delhi. This account, although valuable to the historian, is highly partial.
41. Zamindar, The Long Partition, 5–8.
42. Robert Holland, Carl Bridge, and H. V. Brasted, ‘Counsels of despair or withdrawals with honour? Partitioning in Ireland, India, Palestine and Cyprus 1920–1960’, Round Table, 86:342 (1997), 257–68; Radha Kumar, ‘The troubled history of partition’, Foreign Affairs, 76:1 (1997), 23–34.
43. Benny Morris, ‘Revisiting the Palestinian exodus of 1948’, in Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shlaim, eds, The War for Palestine: Rewriting the History of 1948 (Cambridge University Press, 2001), 37–59, and, more searing still: Ilan Pappé, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (London: Oneworld, 2006).
44. Penny Sinanoglou, ‘British plans for the partition of Palestine, 1929–1938’, HJ, 52:1 (2009), 131–52.
45. Lucy P. Chester, ‘Boundary commissions as tools to safeguard British interests at the end of empire’, Journal of Historical Geography, 34:3 (2008), 507–10; Chatterji, ‘The fashioning’, 185–242.
46. John Kent, British Imperial Strategy and the Origins of the Cold War, 1944–49 (Leicester University Press, 1993), 98, 110.
47. TNA, DEFE 7/957, W.N. Hillier-Fry to Tom Barker, 12 Mar. 1955; Nigel John Ashton, ‘The hijacking of a pact: The formation of the Baghdad Pact and the Anglo-American tensions in the Middle East, 1955–1958’, Review of International Studies, 19:2 (1993), 123–37.
48. TNA, CAB 158/1, JIC(47)4, Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee report, ‘Role of the Colonies in War’, 30 Jan. 1947; Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 98, 106–11.
49. TNA, CO 537/3362, Burma Office Information Department memo, n.d. Mar. 1947.
50. Harrison, Medicine & Victory, 203.
51. IOR, Mss EUR D545, Sir John Walton collection, D545/17, Report on Burma visit, Nov.–Dec., 1945.
52. TNA, FO 371/62419, UE170/170/53, Economic Department paper, ‘Economic effects of loss of India and Burma’, 1 Jan. 1947.
53. Some British officials never forgave Aung San for initially aligning with the Japanese to cast off British colonialism. His Burma National Army switched allegiance only in Aug. 1944 when it joined with Burma’s Communists to form the AFPFL, see A.J. Stockwell, ‘Imperialism and nationalism in South-East Asia’, in Louis and Brown, OHBE, iv, 482.
54. Hugh Tinker, ed., Burma: The Struggle for Independence, 1944–1948, ii: From General Strike to Independence, 31 Aug. 1946 to 4 Jan. 1948 (London: HMSO: 1984), doc. 83: ‘AFPFL and Communists part as friends’, The Burman, 3 Nov. 1946.
55. IOR, Mss EUR D545, Sir John Walton collection, D545/17, Report on Burma visit, Nov.–Dec., 1945.
56. IOR, Mss EUR MSS EUR F169/1: Sir Hubert Rance papers, file 33/GS47, ‘Prosecution of Aung San’, Sir Reginald Dorman-Smith to Burma Office, London, 4 June 1946.
57. IOR, Mss Eur MSS EUR F169/2: Rance papers, file 24, Rance to Lord Listowel, 19 Nov. 1947.
58. Tinker, Burma: The Struggle for Independence, ii, doc. 105: Sir Hubert Rance to Lord Pethick-Lawrence, 13 Nov. 1946.
59. IOR, Mss EUR, F169/5, Rance papers, file 23/GS47: GOC Burma Command, ‘Situation in the immediate future’, 28 Mar. 1947.
60. Tinker, Burma, ii, doc. 7: Rance to Pethick-Lawrence, 9 Sept. 1946.
61. Tinker, Burma, ii, doc. 105 encl.: Sir Raibeart MacDougall, ‘Memo on the need to accelerate the programme of constitutional advance for Burma set out in the White Papers of May 1945’.
62. TNA, CO 537/3362, ‘Political situation in Burma’, n.d., Mar. 1947.
63. TNA, CO 537/3362, F/4795/1371/79, ‘Burma—Communist-inspired strikes’, 1 Apr. 1948.
64. TNA, CAB 121/684, tels. 691 & 760, reports on army mutinies, 10 & 21 Aug. 1948.
65. TNA, CO 537/3362, XS/14/79(1/47), FO South East Asia Department, ‘Future British interests and representation in Burma’, 14 Oct. 1947; F8826/17/79, ‘Anglo-Burmese Relations’, 28 June 1948.
66. Schenk, The Decline of Sterling, 65.
67. Louis, ‘The dissolution of the British Empire’, in Brown and Louis, OHBE, iv, 334–9.
68. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 120–2.
69. ‘Ceylon: New Dominion’, by Tom Reid, M.P., The Listener, 19 Feb. 1948, p. 285.
70. Michael J. Cohen, ‘The Zionist perspective’, and Walid Khalidi, ‘The Arab perspective’, both in Wm. Roger Louis and Robert W. Stookey, eds, The End of the Palestine Mandate (London: I. B. Tauris, 1986), 83–5 and 109–10. Division between the Arab League and the Palestinian Higher Arab Committee also weakened their case: Haim Levenberg, Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine, 1945–1948 (London: Frank Cass, 1993), 9–17, 43–5.
71. Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt, 85–93; for similar divisions in the Palestinian women’s movement, see: Ellen L. Fleischmann, ‘Memory, gender and nationalism: Palestinian women leaders of the Mandate period’, History Workshop Journal, 47 (1999), 149–55.
72. Hillel Cohen, Army of Shadows: Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism, 1917–1948 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2008), 202–13.
73. Cohen, ‘Appeasement in the Middle East’, 571–96.
74. The repression’s ferocity is examined in Hughes, ‘The Banality of Brutality’, 313–54.
75. TNA, CAB 129/006, CP(46)17, FO memo, ‘Revision of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936’, 18 Jan. 1946; Wilson, King Abdullah, 151–67; Avi Shlaim, The Politics of Partition: King Abdullah, the Zionists and Palestine, 1921–1951 (Oxford University Press, 2004), 126–36.
76. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘British imperialism and the end of the Palestine Mandate’, in Louis and Stookey, End, 2–11.
77. Louis, ‘British Imperialism and the end’, 19–21.
78. Peter Grose, ‘The President versus the diplomats’, in Louis and Stookey, End, 40–4, 53–6.
79. Barr, A Line, 313–17. Zionist lobby groups in France drew equivalent parallels between Jewish freedom fighters and French resisters, winning the support of the country’s premier intellectual celebrity couple Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre.
80. Louis, ‘British Imperialism and the End’, 4–8; Richard Toye, Churchill’s Empire: The World that Made Him and the World He Made (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2010), 251, 277–8.
81. Wm. Roger Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism, 1945–1951 (Oxford University Press, 1984), 464–77.
82. On 29 Nov. 1947 the UN General Assembly defied British expectations, voting for partition by 33 to 13.
83. Levenberg, Military Preparations, 126–32.
84. Zachary Lockman, Comrades and Enemies: Arab and Jewish Workers in Palestine, 1906–1948 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 322–35; David De Vries, ‘British rule and Arab-Jewish coalescence of interest: The 1946 civil servants’ strike in Palestine’, IJMES, 36:4 (2004), 613–34; David De Vries and Shani Bar-On, ‘Politicization of unemployment in British-ruled Palestine’, in Matthias Reiss & Matt Perry, eds, Unemployment and Protest: New Perspectives on Two Centuries of Contention (Oxford University Press, 2011), 214–19.
85. Cohen, Army of Shadows, 212–21, 250–8; Mary C. Wilson, ‘King Abdullah and Palestine’, Bulletin of the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, 14:1 (1987), 37–41.
86. The potential for deal-making between Israeli leaders and King Abdullah’s regime was also critical, see: Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London: Penguin, 2000), 24–5, 28–31.
87. Lockman, Comrades and Enemies, 313–14; Louis, ‘British imperialism and the end’, 19.
88. David Ceserani, ‘The British security forces and the Jews in Palestine, 1945–48’, in Claus-Christian W. Szejnmann, ed., Rethinking History, Dictatorship and War: New Approaches and Interpretations (London: Continuum, 2009) 193, 200.
89. Ceserani, ‘The British security forces’, 194.
90. French, The British Way, 68–9, 146, 148.
91. Ceserani, ‘The British security forces’, 206–10.
92. For background to the attack, see: Calder Walton, ‘British intelligence and the Mandate of Palestine: Threats to British national security immediately after the Second World War’, INS, 23:4 (2008), 435–62; David Cesarini, ‘Remember Cable Street? Wrong battle, mate’, History and Policy, online journal paper available at http://www.historyandpolicy.org/papers/policy-paper-93.html#S3.
93. Barr, A Line, 320–5. The Colonial Office device was assembled by Stern Gang bomb-maker Yaacov Levstein, who, after escaping a Palestine prison in 1943, made contact with a Colonel Alessandri, head of the French security service Bureau Noir, and David Knout, a Russian Jewish émigré who founded the French Jewish resistance network, the Armée Juive. It was Knout’s daughter, Betty, whose stocking malfunctioned. The earlier bombing of the ex-servicemen’s Colonies Club was carried out with Stern Gang backing by Robert Misrahi, a student of Jean-Paul Sartre’s at the Sorbonne. Midway through a letter-bombing campaign directed against British politicians, both Levstein and Betty Knout were arrested in 1947, but by Belgian, not French, customs officials.
94. Barr, A Line, 336–7.
95. Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska, Austerity in Britain, 149, 225–6, 261.
96. David A. Charters, The British Army and Jewish Insurgency in Palestine, 1945–47 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989); Stuart Cohen, ‘Imperial policing against illegal immigration: The Royal Navy and Palestine, 1945–48’, JICH, 22:2 (1994), 275–93; Steven G. Galpern, Money, Oil, and Empire in the Middle East: Sterling and Postwar Imperialism, 1944–1971 (Cambridge University Press, 2009), 48–58.
97. See John Julius Norwich, ed., The Duff Cooper Diaries, 1915–1951 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005), entry for 24 Mar. 1947, p. 434.
98. Jeffery, MI6, 689–95.
99. Barr, A Line, 341, 347.
100. Levenberg, Military Preparations, 85–90; Khalidi, ‘The Arab perspective’, 126–8.
101. A process most graphically recounted in Pappé, The Ethnic Cleansing.
102. Barr, A Line, 330–2.
103. Duff Cooper Diaries, entries for 19, 23, and 30 July 1947, pp. 444–6.
104. Ellen Jenny Ravndal, ‘Exit Britain: British withdrawal from the Palestine Mandate in the early Cold War, 1947–1948’, DS, 21:3 (2010), 424–5.
105. Barr, A Line, 323–4, 329–32, quotation at 324.
106. Dispute over the planning and scale of Israeli security force killings hinges on the incidence of massacre: Benny Morris, ‘Operation Dani and the Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948’, Middle East Journal, 40:1 (1986), 82–109; Alon Kadish and Avraham Sela, ‘Myths and historiography of the 1948 Palestine War revisited: The case of Lydda’, Middle East Journal, 59:4 (2005), 617–34.
107. Ghazi Falah, ‘The 1948 Israeli–Palestinian War and Its aftermath: The transformation and de-signification of Palestine’s cultural landscape’, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 86:2 (1996), 256–85.
108. Morris, ‘Revisiting the Palestinian exodus’, 37–59; Pappé, The Ethnic Cleansing.
109. Ritchie Ovendale, Britain, the United States, and the End of the Palestine Mandate, 1942–1948 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1989), 306–7.
110. TNA, CAB 158/1, JIC(47)3, ‘Provincial autonomy and partition in Palestine’, 7 Jan. 1947.
111. Mazower, No Enchanted Palace, 150–7.
112. TNA, CO 537/3889, ‘Note on position of military forces in Palestine after 15 May 1948’.
113. Worth mentioning here is that Palestine, along with Egypt and, above all, India, was a major holder of sterling balances. These were British wartime debts run up in colonial Treasuries, whose ultimate settlement occurred after British withdrawal, see: Jacob Reuveny, ‘The financial liquidation of the Palestine Mandate’, MES, 27:1 (1991), 113–16, 125–7.
114. DDF, 1947, vol. I, doc. 340, Massigli to Bidault, 19 May 1947.
115. MAE, série Tunisie, 1944–1955, vol. 300, Bureau de centralisation de renseignements d’Algérie intelligence report, 18 May 1948. The French security service in North Africa warned that Maghreb nationalists drew inspiration from the mandate’s collapse.
116. MAE, série Asie, Indochine vol. 31, Direction Générale des Etudes et Recherche, note 221/POL, 14 June 1945; Comité de l’Indochine, ‘Compte-rendus des nouvelles 21–27 juillet 1945’; Agathe Larcher-Goscha, ‘Ambushed by history: Paul Mus and colonial France’s “forced re-Entry” into Vietnam (1945–1954)’, Journal of Vietnamese Studies, 4:1 (2009), 206–39.
117. TNA, WO 208/665, MI2 report, ‘FIC—French colonial troops’, 10 July 1945; CAB 122/495, JP(45)207, Washington Joint Staff Mission report, ‘Liaison with European Allies’, 16 Aug. 1945.
118. Goscha, Vietnam, 46–50, 66–79.
119. Marr, Vietnam 1945, 406–17; Goscha, Vietnam, ch. 2.
120. The two indispensable accounts are Stein Tønnesson, The Vietnamese Revolution of 1945: Roosevelt, Ho Chi Minh, and de Gaulle in a World at War (Oslo: International Peace Research Institute/Sage, 1991), and Marr, Vietnam 1945.
121. Vo Nguyen Giap, ‘Mot sang Ba Dinh’ in Mo Ky Nguyen Giap (Hanoi, 1980), 397, cited in Brocheux and Hémery, Indochina, 352.
122. Bradley, Imagining Vietnam, 3–4; Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, 2–3, 12–13.
123. Marr, Vietnam 1945, 523–8.
124. Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh, 103–4; Marr, Vietnam 1945, 433–5, 461; R. P. Claude Lange, ‘L’Église Catholique au Viêtnam’, in Ageron, Les Chemins, 181–7; Christopher E. Goscha, ‘A rougher side of “popular” resistance: Reflections on the rise and fall of General Nguyen Binh (1910–1951)’, in C. E. Goscha and B. de Tréglodé, eds, Le Viêt Nam depuis 1945: États, marges et constructions du passé (Paris: Les Indes savantes, 2004), 325–53.
125. Stein Tønnesson, ‘Filling the power vacuum: 1945 in French Indochina, the Netherlands East Indies and British Malaya’, in Hans Antlöv and Stein Tønnesson, eds, Imperial Policy and Southeast Asian Nationalism (London: Curzon Press, 1995), 110–43.
126. Xiaoyuan Liu, ‘China and the issue of postwar Indochina in the Second World War’, MAS, 33:2 (1999), 475–80.
127. Peter M. Dunn, The First Vietnam War (London: Hurst, 1985); Peter Dennis, Troubled Days of Peace: Mountbatten and South East Asia Command (Manchester University Press, 1987); Timothy Smith, ‘Major General Sir Douglas Gracey: Peacekeeper or peace enforcer?’ DS, 21:2 (2010), 226–39.
128. TNA, FO 959/6, Mountbatten, South Asia Command HQ, to Saigon Consulate, 26 Feb. 1946.
129. Marr, Vietnam 1945, 497–9; Goscha, Vietnam, 246–7.
130. Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh, 106–9; Lin Hua, Chiang Kai-shek, de Gaulle contre Hô Chi Minh: Viet-nam, 1945–1946 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 1994).
131. The French shelved a planned Operation Bentré, predicated on landings in the northern port city of Haiphong and an assault on Hanoi, when Chinese artillery batteries fired on ships preparing to disembark the French invasion force at Haiphong on 6 Mar.: Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, 40–54.
132. Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, 66–71.
133. Christopher E. Goscha, ‘Colonial Hanoi and Saigon at war: Social Dynamics of the Viet Minh’s ‘Underground City’, (1945–1954)’, War in History, 20:2 (2013), 222–50.
134. The Vietminh’s Tu Ve militia forces also expanded: David G. Marr, ‘Creating defense capacity in Vietnam, 1945–1947’, in Lawrence and Logevall, The First Vietnam War, 90–3.
135. Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh, 121. De Gaulle was unimpressed by Bidault’s fondness for alcohol, which caused embarrassing gaffes, as when the unfortunate Foreign Minister fell asleep on the General’s shoulder during a Nov. 1944 parliamentary debate. See, The Duff Cooper Diaries, entry for 25 Nov. 1944.
136. Duiker, The Communist Road, 122–3; Jean-Marie d’Hoop, ‘Du coup de force japonais au départ du Général de Gaulle’, in Gilbert Pilleul, ed., Le Général de Gaulle et l’Indochine, 1940–1946 (Paris: Plon, 1982), 142–3.
137. MAE, AP288, Maurice Dejean papers, ‘Organisation du Vietminh en 1946’.
138. Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh, 116–19.
139. US loathing for d’Argenlieu dated from his wartime service as de Gaulle’s Governor of New Caledonia, a nickel-rich island in the path of America’s Pacific advance against Japan, see Kim Munholland, Rock of Contention: Free French and Americans at War in New Caledonia, 1940–45 (Oxford: Berghahn, 2004), chs 3–6.
140. Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, 5–6.
141. Martin Thomas, ‘French imperial reconstruction and the development of the Indochina War, 1945–1950’, in Lawrence and Logevall, The First Vietnam War, 130–51.
142. Philippe Devillers, Paris–Saigon–Hanoi: Les Archives de la guerre, 1944–1947 (Paris: Gallimard, 1988); Shipway, Road to War, chs 7–8; Lawrence, Assuming the Burden, ch. 4. Dr Van Thinh committed suicide after a Cabinet meeting on 10 Nov. 1946 in which he conceded that the Cochin-China Republic was a sham.
143. Tønnesson, Vietnam 1946, 80–1; Brocheux, Ho Chi Minh, 120–6.
144. Jacques Valette, ‘La Conférence de Fontainebleau (1946)’, in Ageron, Les Chemins, 247–9; Lawrence, Assuming the Burden, 150–4.
145. For details of conditions in Hanoi, see: Goscha, Vietnam, 149–58.
146. DDF, 1947, vol. I, docs. 5 and 9.
147. TNA, FO 371/63547, F1969/1969/61, minute by Esler Dening, 7 Feb. 1947.
148. A. S. B. Oliver, ‘The Special Commission for South East Asia’, Pacific Affairs, 21:3 (1948) 285–6.
149. Hyam, Britain’s Declining Empire, 157–8.
150. TNA, CAB 121/400, JP(47)14, ‘Anglo-French treaty—military implication’, 7 Feb. 1947.
151. TNA, FO 371/63542, F1035/61/G, Killearn to FO, 26 Jan. 1947, and minutes by Bevin, Attlee, and Duff Cooper, 29–30 Jan. 1947.
152. Buton, ‘Le Parti communiste français et le stalinisme’, 65.
153. TNA, CAB 121/684: G/Burma/3, annex I to COS(48)122nd Meeting, 3 Sept. 1948.
1. On 4 Oct. 1936 Cable Street in Stepney, East London, witnessed Britain’s worst pre-war clashes between Mosley’s BUF supporters, members of the local Jewish community, and anti-fascist groups.
2. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II: The Communist Insurrection, 1948–1953 edited by A. J. Stockwell (London, HMSO, 1995), doc. 146.
3. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 151, 152 and 246. Lady Gurney, also in the car at the time, escaped serious injury.
4. Malaya’s then Governor, Sir Edward Gent introduced emergency measures. Unlawful possession of arms carried the death penalty, security forces could search homes without a warrant, and properties could be sequestered if deemed necessary. The High Commission and Attlee’s Cabinet bent to pressure from planters and business interests as attacks increased. Harsher regulations, including a ban on the Malayan Communist Party, followed on 23 July 1948: Stockwell, ‘A Widespread and Long-Concocted Plot’, 66, 77; BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 150 & 160.
5. Trenchant critics are T. N. Harper, The End of Empire and the Making of Malaya (Cambridge University Press, 1999), and Karl Hack, Defence and Decolonisation in Southeast Asia: Britain, Malaya and Singapore 1941–68 (Richmond: Curzon, 2000); ‘British intelligence and counter-insurgency in the era of decolonization: The example of Malaya’, INS, 14:2 (1999).
6. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, I: The Malayan Union Experiment, 1942–1948, ch. 3: ‘Constitutional conflict: From Malayan Union to Federation, Apr. 1946–Feb. 1948.
7. Misperceptions in this outlook are examined by Anthony Milner: The Invention of Colonial Malaya: Contesting Nationalism and the Expansion of the Public Sphere (Cambridge University Press, 1995).
8. Shipway, Decolonization, 95–6.
9. Wm. Roger Louis, ‘The dissolution of the British Empire in the era of Vietnam’, AHR, 107:1 (2002), 8.
10. Stockwell, ‘The formation’, 481–513.
11. Simon C. Smith, British Relations with the Malay Rulers from Decentralization to Malayan Independence, 1930–1957 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1995), 66–8. British businesses involved in rubber and tin production were more affected by wartime dislocation, capital shortages, and labour supply problems, see: Nicholas J. White, Business, Government and the End of Empire: Malaya, 1942–57 (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1996), 72–88, 97–9.
12. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 146, 148, 153.
13. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, doc. 162.
14. Stockwell, ‘A widespread and long-concocted plot’, 69, 74, 78–81.
15. Stockwell, ‘Imperialism and nationalism’, 486.
16. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, doc. 144. The unfortunate Gent died in office, his plane colliding with another as it descended to Northolt Airport on 29 June 1948.
17. TNA, CO 537/5658, CPM(48)15, Cabinet committee on preparations for the meeting of Commonwealth Prime Ministers, 4 Oct. 1948.
18. TNA, CAB 21/1681, JP(50)114(S), ‘Comment on the defence of Malaya’, 6 Oct. 1950.
19. For the Vietnamese case, see Goscha, ‘A “Total War”’ 136–62.
20. Christopher Bayly and Timothy Harper, Forgotten Wars: Freedom and Revolution in South East Asia (London: Penguin, 2007), 443–9. Few MSS officers could speak Chinese, taking refuge in stereotypical characterization of Chinese actions as inherently inscrutable.
21. French, The British Way, 44–5, 65–7, 96–7; Karl Hack, ‘Everyone lived in fear: Malaya and the British way of counter-insurgency’, SWI, 23:4/5 (2012), 671–99.
22. Huw Bennett, ‘“A very salutary effect”: The counter-terror strategy in the early Malayan Emergency, June 1948 to December 1949’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 32:3 (2009), 417–19, 427–31. For the Palestine parallel: Matthew Hughes, ‘Lawlessness’, 141–56.
23. Bayly and Harper, Forgotten Wars, 449–53.
24. Bennett, ‘A very salutary effect’, 427–35. Relatives of the men killed at Batang Kali have demanded a fuller investigation and on 8–9 May 2012 the case was reviewed by the British High Court: ‘Judicial review into colonial-era massacre opens at high court’, The Guardian, 7 May 2012.
25. Leong Yee Fong, ‘The impact of the Cold War on the development of trade unionism in Malaya (1948–57)’, JSEAS, 23:1 (1992), 60–73.
26. MAE série Z: Europe, 1944–1960, sous-série: Grande-Bretagne, vol. 95, no. 25/EU, René Massigli to Robert Schuman, 5 Jan. 1950.
27. Nicholas Tarling, ‘The UK and the origins of the Colombo Plan’, Commonwealth & Comparative Studies 24:1 (1986), 3–34.
28. Susan L. Carruthers, Winning Hearts and Minds: British Governments, the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency 1944–1960 (Leicester University Press, 1995), 76–85; Kumar Ramakrishna, Emergency Propaganda: The Winning of Malayan Hearts and Minds, 1948–1958 (Richmond: Curzon, 2002), 72–86.
29. TNA, CAB 134/497, MAL. C(50)14, ‘Outline of future anti-bandit policy’, 12 May 1950.
30. Carruthers, Winning Hearts, 76–8; French, The British Way, 60–1.
31. TNA, CAB 158/6, JIC(49)33, ‘Communist influence in the Far East’, 29 Apr. 1949; CAB 158/7, JIC(49)48, ‘The implications of a Communist success in China’, 30 Sept. 1949.
32. Philip Deery, ‘The terminology of terrorism: Malaya, 1948–52’, JSEAS, 34:2 (2003), 236–47; Frank Furedi, ‘Creating a breathing space: The political management of colonial emergencies’, JICH, 21:2 (1993), 94.
33. BDEEP, series S, vol. 3: The Conservative Government and the End of Empire, 1951–1957, II, doc. 344.
34. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 258 & 259. Templer also enjoyed influential backing from Field Marshal Montgomery, who was bitterly critical of Malcolm MacDonald’s alleged indecisiveness.
35. Kumar Ramakrishna, ‘“Transmogrifying” Malaya: The impact of Sir Gerald Templer (1952–54)’, JSEAS, 32:1 (2001), 79–92.
36. Arguments over the Emergency’s differing phases are explored in Karl Hack, ‘The Malayan Emergency as counter-insurgency paradigm’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 32:3 (2009), 383–414.
37. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, doc. 206. Appointed on the initiative of Defence Minister Emmanuel Shinwell, Briggs was military commander in Burma at the end of the Second World War.
38. French, The British Way, 186–7.
39. Hack, ‘The Malayan Emergency’, 385–92.
40. French, The British Way, 77–80, 119–21. David French estimates that approximately half of Malaya’s ethnic Chinese population (1,073,000 out of 2,153,000 according to 1953 census figures) were subjected to forcible resettlement, a figure surpassed in Kenya where sixty-nine per cent (some 1,077,500 of Kenya’s roughly 1,555,000 Kikuyu, Meru, or Embu people according to 1948 census figures) were compelled to move to one of the colony’s 854 ‘new villages’.
41. TNA, CAB 21/1681, MAL.C(50)9th Meeting, Malaya Committee minutes of meeting, 25 Sept. 1950; BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 233 and 234.
42. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, doc. 239, joint memo by Gurney and Briggs, ‘Federation of Malaya—combined appreciation of the emergency situation’, 4 June 1951.
43. Karl Hack, ‘Negotiating with the Malayan Communist Party, 1948–89’, JICH, 39:4 (2011), 608.
44. Karl Hack, ‘“Screwing down the people”: The Malayan Emergency, decolonisation and ethnicity’, in Hans Antlöv and Stein Tennesson, eds, Imperial Policy, 83–109; Hack, ‘“Iron claws on Malaya”: The historiography of the Malayan Emergency’, JSEAS, 30:1 (1999), 119.
45. Simon C. Smith, ‘General Templer and counter-insurgency in Malaya: Hearts and minds, intelligence and propaganda’, INS, 16:3 (2001), 60–78.
46. Ramakrishna, Emergency Propaganda, 107–11, 151–8, 162–3; Hack, ‘Negotiating’, 611–12.
47. Karl Hack, ‘“Iron Claws”’, quotation at 123.
48. BDEEP, series S, vol. 3: The Conservative Government and the End of Empire, 1951–1957, II, edited by David Goldsworthy (London, HMSO, 1994), doc. 341, annex II.
49. Karl Hack, “Iron claws”, 104
50. Ramakrishna, ‘Transmogrifying’ Malaya’, 82, 88.
51. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, doc. 301.
52. Tim Harper, ‘The British “Malayans”’, in Bickers, Settlers and Expatriates, 261–4, quotation at 261.
53. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 270 & 280.
54. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, docs. 283, 298 & 299; Stockwell, ‘Imperialism’, 487.
55. Hack, ‘Negotiating’, 612–26. The negotiations, held at Baling in the north state of Kedah on 28–29 Dec. 1955, did not produce a surrender agreement, but they did herald the transfer of internal security responsibilities to Chief Minister Rahman’s Malayan Alliance in Jan. 1956.
56. A. J. Stockwell, ‘Malaysia: The making of a neo-colony?’ JICH, 26:2 (1998), 144–5.
57. Hugues Tertrais, ‘Le Poids financier de la guerre d’Indochine’, in Maurice Vaïsse, ed., L’Armée française dans la guerre d’Indochine (Bruxelles, Editions Complexe, 2000), 33–51; ‘L’Économie indochinoise dans la guerre (1945–1954)’, Outre-Mers: Revue d’histoire, 88:330 (2001), 113–29.
58. Mark Philip Bradley, Vietnam at War (Oxford University Press, 2009), 43–7.
59. This argument is central to Christopher Goscha’s Vietnam: Un état né de la guerre.
60. Goscha, Vietnam, 161–4.
61. Goscha, ‘Colonial Hanoi’.
62. Brocheux and Hémery, Indochina, 361–2.
63. Lawrence, Assuming the Burden, chs 5–6.
64. Wall, Making of Postwar France, 237–8.
65. Lawrence, Assuming the Burden, 269.
66. Goscha, Vietnam, 378, 393.
67. The pitfalls of regarding Sino-Vietnamese alignment as inevitable are discussed by Christopher E. Goscha, ‘Courting diplomatic disaster? The difficult integration of Vietnam into the internationalist Communist movement (1945–1950)’, Journal of Vietnamese Studies, 1:1/2 (2006), 59–103.
68. Chen Jian, ‘China and the first Indo-China War, 1950–54’, China Quarterly, 133 (Mar., 1993), 86–9.
69. The materiel supplied are detailed in Goscha, Vietnam, 113–19.
70. Qiang Zhai, ‘Transplanting the Chinese model: Chinese military advisers and the first Vietnam War, 1950–1954’, Journal of Military History, 57:4 (1993), 689–95.
71. Jian, ‘China’, 90–2; Goscha, Vietnam, 117–18.
72. Jian, ‘China’, 93.
73. Clayton, The Wars of French Decolonization, 53–5; Zhai, ‘Transplanting’, 700–1. The French defending force was only 260 strong. Few escaped.
74. Frédéric Turpin, ‘Cao Bang, autumne 1950: Autoposie d’un désastre’, Revue Historique des Armées, 3 (2000), 25–34; Logevall, Embers, 238–59 passim.
75. Bernard Fall, Street Without Joy: The French Debacle in Indochina (Mechanicsburg: Stackpole, 1994), 32–3; also cited in Creswell, A Question of Balance, 184n.34.
76. Jian, ‘China’, 92–5; Zhai, ‘Transplanting’, 702–4.
77. Bougeard, René Pleven, 216–17.
78. The Chinese precluded sending troops unless the DRV faced defeat: Eva-Maria Stolberg, ‘Vietnam and the Sino-Soviet struggle for ideological supremacy’, in Andreas W. Daum, Lloyd C. Gardner, and Wilfried Mausbach, eds, America, the Vietnam War, and the World (Cambridge University Press, 2003), 240–2.
79. TNA, CAB 158/11, JIC(50)94, ‘Threat to French position in Indochina’, 9 Nov. 1950.
80. Alain Ruscio, ‘L’Opinion publique et la guerre d’Indochine’, Vingtième Siècle, 1 (1991), 35–46.
81. David Drake, ‘Les Temps Modernes and the French war in Indochina’, Journal of European Studies, 28: 109–10 (1998), 25–41.
82. Paul Clay Sorum, Intellectuals and Decolonization in France (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), 55–6; Jean-Pierre Biondi, Les Anticolonialistes (1881–1962) (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1992), 261–5.
83. Goscha, Vietnam, 14–15; Susan Bayly, ‘Conceptualizing resistance and revolution in Vietnam: Paul Mus’ understanding of colonialism in crisis’, Journal of Vietnamese Studies, 4:1 (2009), 192–205.
84. Ruscio, Les Communistes français et la guerre d’Indochine, 1944–54 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2004); ‘French public opinion and the war in Indochina, 1945–1954’, in M. Scriven and P. Wagstaff, eds, War and Society in Twentieth-Century France (Oxford: Berg, 1992), 117–29.
85. Some Socialists never abandoned the idea of face-to-face negotiations and maintained indirect links with the Vietminh, see Jacques Dalloz, ‘Alain Savary, un socialiste face à la guerre d’Indochine’, Vingtième Siècle, 53:1 (1997), 42–54.
86. For the intelligence dimension, see Alexander Zervoudakis, ‘Nihilmirare, nihil contemptare, Omnia intelligere: Franco-Vietnamese intelligence in Indochina, 1950–1954’, INS, 13:1 (1998), 195–229.
87. R. E. M. Irving, Christian Democracy in France (London: Allen & Unwin, 1973), 199–200, 205–9.
88. MAE série Z: Europe, sous-série: Grande-Bretagne, 1944–1949, vol. 39, ‘Compte-rendu des conversations entre M. Schuman et M. Bevin, Londres’, 13 Jan. 1949.
89. Pierre Mendès France, Oeuvres Complètes, ii: Une Politique de l’économie 1943–1954, (Paris: Gallimard, 1985), 297–303.
90. Jean-Pierre Rioux, ‘Varus, Qu’as-tu fait de mes légions?’, in Vaïsse, L’Armée française, 21–31; Frédéric Turpin, De Gaulle, les Gaullistes et l’Indochine (Paris: Les Indes savantes, 2005), 571–2.
91. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 136, ‘Conventions inter-états’, Pau, 29 Nov. 1950.
92. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 136, Haut-Commissariat en Indochine, Conseiller à l’économie et aux finances, ‘Rapport d’activité, 1952’, 20 Jan. 1953.
93. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP/28/D1, PM’s office memo on defence spending, 7 Aug. 1950.
94. Hugues Tertrais, La Piastre, 225–31.
95. Anthony Clayton, Three Marshals of France: Leadership after Trauma (London: Brasseys, 1992).
96. Alexander Zervoudakis, ‘“Nihil mirare, nihil contemptare, omnia intelligere”: Franco-Vietnamese intelligence in Indochina, 1950–1954’, INS, 13:1 (1998), 195–229.
97. François Guillemot, ‘Be men!’: Fighting and dying for the state of Vietnam (1951–54)’, War & Society, 31:2, (2012), 184–92, quotation at 184.
98. Robert Schuman served twice as finance minister, first between June and Dec. 1946, then from Jan. to Nov. 1947; he was prime minister from Nov. 1947 to July 1948, after which he began the first of three spells as foreign minister between 1948 and 1953.
99. Raymond Poidevin, Robert Schuman, homme d’état, 1886–1963 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1986), 340–4; Wall, Making of Postwar France, 237, 243.
100. AN, 363AP/28, René Mayer papers, Robert Schuman letter to Dean Acheson, 25 Aug. 1951.
101. Marc Michel, ‘De Lattre et les débuts de l’américanisation de la guerre d’Indochine’, Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 77 (1985), 321–34.
102. USNA, State Department files, Policy Planning Staff records, RG 59/250/D/12/01, Box 15, Record of Washington discussions with General de Lattre, 7 Sept. 1951.
103. MAE, série Asie-Océanie, sous-série: Indochine, vol. 261, Washington tel. 1652, 15 Mar. 1952; Direction Asie-Océanie ‘Note pour le Ministre’, 23 May 1952.
104. Logevall, Embers, 320, 354–5.
105. USNA, State Department files, Policy Planning Staff records, RG 59/250/D/12/01, Box 18, PPS briefing for Secretary of State’s conversation with Jean Letourneau, 16 June 1952.
106. Logevall, Embers, 322–6.
107. TNA, FO 371/106742, FF1011/1, ‘Indochina: Annual review for 1952’, 9 Jan. 1953.
108. TNA, FO 371/112774, WF1019/1/54, Paris Embassy report on France for 1953, 30 Jan. 1954.
109. TNA, FO 371/106751, FF10317/43, Churchill minute for Sir William Strang, 1 May 1953.
110. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP/24/D1, no. 2968/EMCFA, ‘Évolution de la situation en Indochine au mois d’avril 1953’, 6 May 1953.
111. Goscha, Vietnam, 282–315.
112. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP/24/D2, Jean Letourneau letter to René Mayer, 9 Apr. 1953: summary of SDECE covert funding in Indochina.
113. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP/24/D2, Général Charles Léchères, ‘Compterendu de mission en Indochine (30 avril–18 mai 1953)’.
114. AN, René Mayer papers, 363AP/24/D1, ‘Note sur les effectifs engagés en Indochine’, ‘Note sur le développement des armées nationales’, ‘Du rôle des officiers français dans les armées des États Associés’, all undated High Command assessments, 1953.
115. Guillemot, ‘Be men!’, 194–210.
116. Rioux, The Fourth Republic, 211.
117. George Herring, America’s Longest War: The United States and Vietnam 1950–1975 (New York: Knopf, 1986), 26.
118. Duiker, Communist Road, 148–9.
119. Jian, ‘China’, 97–9.
120. Greg Lockhart, Nation in Arms: The Origins of the People’s Army of Vietnam (London: Allen and Unwin, 1989), 254, n.123.
121. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 136, Bulletin d’informations, 10 Aug. 1953.
122. Tuang Huang, ‘The early South Vietnamese critique of Communism’, in Tuong Vu and Wasana Wongsurawat, eds, Dynamics of the Cold War in Asia: Ideology, Identity, and Culture (New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2009), 18–31.
123. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 136, Gautier to Minister for Associated States, 19 July 1953; ‘Notices sur les groupements politiques et les sectes confessionelles au Viêtnam’, 1 Aug. 1953. The Hoa Hao’s militant attitude to self-defence was hardly surprising since its spiritual leader Huynh Phu So was killed and dismembered by Vietminh agents before the war began, see Bradley, Vietnam at War, 46.
124. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 138, MAE Direction Asie-Océanie note, ‘Négociation de paix en Indochine’, 9 Oct. 1953; Dejean (Saigon) to PM, n.d., Nov. 1953.
125. Logevall, Embers, parts IV and V captures the mood of rising desperation.
126. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 138, no. 1599/CAB, Dejean (Saigon) memo for PM’s office, 28 Apr. 1954; Thomas Engelbert, ‘Vietnamese-Chinese relations in Southern Vietnam during the first Indochina Conflict’, Journal of Vietnamese Studies, 3:3 (2008), 191–230.
127. Cooper, France in Indochina, 184–90. Geneviève de Galard recounted her experiences in Une femme à Dien Bien Phu (Paris: Editions des Arènes, 2003). Aside from de Galard’s stoicism, Paris Match photo montages depicted an increasingly haggard French commander, General Christian de Castries, injured servicemen, and advancing DRV troops stereotypically described as ‘yellow hordes’. Vietnamese and North African soldiers in the French garrison’s ranks were overlooked.
128. Bertrand de Hartingh, Entre le peuple et la nation: La République Démocratique du Viêt Nam de 1953 à 1957 (Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2003), 79–83.
129. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 138, Lt.-Colonel Cann, ‘Aide chinoise au Vietminh’, 23 Mar. 1954.
130. Goscha, Vietnam, 485–8.
131. Goscha, Vietnam, 489.
132. TNA, Anthony Eden private papers, FO 800/790, Churchill message to Eden, 27 Apr. 1954.
133. For contrasting views of the EDC scheme, see: Saki Dockrill, Britain’s Policy for West German Rearmament, 1950–1955 (Cambridge University Press, 1991), chs 6–7; Spencer Mawby, Containing Germany: Britain and the Arming of the Federal Republic (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1999), ch. 4; Renata Dwan, An Uncommon Community: France and the European Defence Community, 1950–1954 (Oxford University Press, 1996); William I. Hitchcock, France Restored; Michael Creswell and Marc Trachtenberg, ‘France and the German Question, 1945–1955’, Journal of Cold War Studies, 5:3 (2003), 5–28; Victor Gavin, ‘Power through Europe? The case of the European Defence Community in France (1950–1954)’, FH, 23:1 (2009), 69–87.
134. TNA, Eden papers, FO 800/790, FR/54/14, Ivone Kirkpatrick minute, 6 Aug. 1954.
135. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 138, Memo for Bidault, ‘Position du Vietminh à la conférence de Genève’, 5 June 1954.
136. MAE, Dejean papers, vol. 138, HFA/MA, Commissariat général en Indochine note, 14 June 1954; Pierre Asselin, ‘Choosing peace: Hanoi and the Geneva Agreement on Vietnam, 1954–1955’, Journal of Cold War Studies, 9:2 (2007), 95–104.
137. Laurent Césari, ‘Que reste-t-il de l’influence politique française en Indochine (1954–1966)’, in Pierre Brocheux, ed., Du conflit d’Indochine aux conflits indochinois (Paris: Complexe, 2000), 21–3.
138. Shao Kuo-kang, ‘Zhou Enlai’s diplomacy and the neutralization of Indochina, 1954–55’, China Quarterly, 107 (1986), 483–504; Edward Miller, ‘Vision, power and agency: The ascent of Ngô Dình Diêm, 1945–1954’, JSEAS, 35:3 (2004), 433–58.
139. Stephen Tyre, ‘The memory of French military defeat at Dien Bien Phu and the defence of French Algeria’, in Jenny MacLeod, ed., Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era (Basingstoke: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2008), 214–22.
140. TNA, DEFE 11/84, JIC 2005/4, ‘South East Asian Defence Organisation’, 17 Aug. 1954.
141. TNA, DEFE 11/84, JIC report/2024/54, 19 Aug. 1954.
142. Martin Alexander, ‘Seeking France’s “lost soldiers”: Reflections on the military crisis in Algeria’, in Kenneth Mouré and M. S. Alexander, eds, Crisis and Renewal in France, 1918–1962 (Oxford: Berghahn, 2002), 247–8; Jean-Marc Marill, ‘L’Héritage indochinois: Adaptation de l’armée française en Algérie (1954–56)’, Revue Historique des Armées 187:2 (1992), 26–32.
143. Martin S. Alexander and Philip C. F. Bankwitz, ‘From politiques en képi to military technocrats: De Gaulle and the recovery of the French Army after Indochina and Algeria’, in George J. Andreopoulos and Harold E. Selesky, eds, The Aftermath of Defeat: Societies, Armed Forces, and the Challenge of Recovery (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 80–5.
144. Tyre, ‘The Memory’, 225–8; ‘The Gaullists, the French Army and Algeria before 1958: Common cause or marriage of convenience’, in M. S. Alexander and J.F.V. Keiger, eds, France and the Algerian War, 154–62: Strategy, Operations and Diplomacy (London: Frank Cass, 2002), 103–4.
145. Strategic analysts’ overly positive assessments of British facility for counter-insurgency are discussed in Richard Popplewell, ‘“Lacking intelligence”: Some reflections on recent approaches to British counter-insurgency, 1900–1960’, INS, 10:2 (1995), 336–52.
146. TNA, AIR 8/1660, Supply of helicopters to France, 1952–55.
147. MAE, série Asie-Océanie, sous-série: Indochine, vol. 261, ‘Indochine’, 9 Feb. 1952.
148. BDEEP, series B, vol. 3: Malaya, II, doc. 301.
149. TNA, WO 32/16218, ‘Present situation in Indo-China’, 30 Apr. 1953.
150. Irving, Christian Democracy in France, 206.
151. Hack, ‘The Malayan Emergency’, 383–414.
152. French, The British Way, 26–7, 116–24.
153. Anderson, Histories of the Hanged, 6.
154. These figures are from Brocheux and Hémery, Indochina, 372.