1. This account of the burial is derived from photographs of the aftermath and from William S. E. Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000), 350–352; Charles A. Eastman, From the Deep Woods to Civilization (1916; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977), 111–112; Jerome A. Greene, American Carnage: Wounded Knee, 1890 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014), 240, 299–302.
2. John Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks: Being the Life Story of a Holy Man of the Oglala Sioux (1932; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 270.
3. Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1970), 445.
4. Anthony F. C. Wallace, “Revitalization Movements,” American Anthropologist, new series, 58, no. 2 (April 1956): 264–268; Weston La Barre, The Ghost Dance: Origins of Religion (1970; reprint, Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1990), 226–254; Jennifer Wenzel, Bulletproof: Afterlives of Colonial Prophecy in South Africa and Beyond (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Shelley Ann Osterreich, The American Indian Ghost Dance, 1870 and 1890: An Annotated Bibliography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1991).
5. For typical examples, see Heather Cox Richardson, Wounded Knee: Party Politics and the Road to an American Massacre (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 118; Robert M. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963), 60. Several historians have begun to push back against the image of the religion as a cult calling for a return to the past; see Rani-Henrik Andersson, The Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008); Jeffrey Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004); and Gregory E. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity: Prophetic Religion and American Indian Ethnogenesis in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006). In exploring how the Ghost Dance served contemporary cultural needs, anthropologists have argued that the religion’s promise of a return to the past can be understood as modern, whether as militant anticolonialism or as an effort at demographic revival; see Raymond J. DeMallie, “The Lakota Ghost Dance: An Ethnohistorical Account,” Pacific Historical Review 51 (November 1982): 385–405; Alice Beck Kehoe, The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization, 2nd ed. (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2006); Russell Thornton, We Shall Live Again: The 1870 and 1890 Ghost Dance Movements as Demographic Revitalization (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).
6. Raymond J. DeMallie, ed., The Sixth Grandfather: Black Elk’s Teachings Given to John G. Neihardt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 46, 266.
7. Richardson, Wounded Knee, 264, 273; Charles W. Allen, From Fort Laramie to Wounded Knee: In the West That Was, ed. Richard E. Jensen (1939; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 194, 206.
8. John Sutton Lutz, Makúk: A New History of Aboriginal-White Relations (Vancouver, CA: UBC Press, 2008), 23–6; Joshua L. Reid, The Sea Is My Country: The Maritime World of the Makah (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015), 17, 197.
9. Justin R. Gage, “Intertribal Communication, Literacy, and the Ghost Dance,” PhD dissertation, University of Arkansas, 2015. For newspapers, see Andersson, The Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 193; Major Wirt Davis to Asst. Adj. Gen, Dec. 23, 1890, Reel 2, Frame 854, SC 188, NARA-DC.
10. Philip J. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2004), 6.
11. For Indian Christianity in the colonial era, see Linford D. Fisher, The Indian Great Awakening: Religion and the Shaping of Native Cultures in Early America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 89.
12. James Mooney, The Ghost Dance Religion and Sioux Outbreak of 1890: Fourteenth Annual Report of the US Bureau of Ethnology, 1892–1893, pt. 2 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1896).
13. Tisa Wenger, We Have a Religion: The 1920s Indian Dance Controversy and American Religious Freedom (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009), 4–5; Peter Nabokov, Where the Lightning Strikes: The Lives of American Indian Sacred Places (New York: Viking, 2006).
14. “Interesting to Spiritualists,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 27, 1885, 8; for a comparison of Ghost Dancers to Spiritualists, see John McLaughlin, My Friend the Indian (1910; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 1989), 191, 193.
15. Ann Taves, Fits, Trances, and Visions: Experiencing Religion and Explaining Experience from Wesley to James (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 261–307; William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1902); see also, for example, Frederick Morgan Davenport, Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals: A Study in Mental and Social Evolution (New York: Macmillan, 1905). For the holiness movement, see Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition: Charismatic Movements in the Twentieth Century, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1997), 22–59; Randall J. Stephens, The Fire Spreads: Holiness and Pentecostalism in the American South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 15–55; and Grant Wacker, Heaven Below: Early Pentecostals and American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 1–17.
1. “Indians Expect a Savior to Appear,” Chicago Daily Tribune, April 27, 1890, 1; “Looking for a Savior,” New York Times, April 27, 1890, 1.
2. “Hope for the Flying Machine,” New York Times, November 30, 1890, 7; Patricia Beard, After the Ball: Gilded Age Secrets, Boardroom Betrayals, and the Party That Ignited the Great Wall Street Scandal of 1905 (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 158; Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today (1873; reprint, New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). For the Gilded Age generally, see Eric Rauchway, Murdering McKinley: The Making of Theodore Roosevelt’s America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003); Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order: 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967); T. J. Jackson Lears, Rebirth of a Nation: The Making of Modern America, 1877–1920 (New York: HarperCollins, 2009); and Nell Irvin Painter, Standing at Armageddon: The United States, 1877–1919 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987).
3. Roy Harvey Pearce, The Savages of America: A Study of the Indian and the Idea of Civilization (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1953), 49; Robert M. Utley, Geronimo (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 1823, 1838 (Kindle edition page numbers).
4. “Returned Without the Messiah,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 28, 1890, 1.
5. Charles L. Hyde to Secretary Noble, May 29, 1890; C. R. Crawford, W. R. Morris, and M. N. Adams to T. J. Morgan, June 21, 1890; Charles E. W. Chesney to Commissioner of Indian Affairs (CIA), June 16, 1890, all in Reel 1, Special Case (SC) 188, Record Group (RG) 75, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC (NARA-DC).
6. The following is drawn from Robertson’s rendering of Porcupine’s account in Redfield Proctor to Secretary of the Interior, July 7, 1890, Frames 25–30, Reel 1, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC; see also Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 793–796.
7. Compare Porcupine’s account of his route to “A Correct Map of the United States Showing the Union Pacific, the Overland Route, and Connections” (Knight, Leonard & Co., 1892), Library of Congress, American Memory website: http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/map_item.pl?data=/home/www/data/gmd/gmd370/g3701/g3701p/rr005970.jp2&itemLink=D?gmd:4:./temp/~ammem_Db3l::&title=A+correct+map+of+the+United+States+showing+the+Union+Pacific,+the+overland+route+and+connections.&style=gmd&legend= (accessed April 24, 2016); see also A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in Annual Report of the Secretary of War 1891 (hereafter ARSW [year]) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1892), 194.
8. For another perspective on Porcupine’s gospel and his extensive influence among the Northern Cheyenne, see W. S. Dudagh (or Judagh [illegible]) to T. J. Morgan, June 19, 1890, Box 635, Letters Received (LR) 1881–1907, RG 75, NARA-DC.
9. “Indians Crazed by Religion,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 2, 1890, 1.
10. “Census Foreshadowings,” New York Times, June 5, 1890, 4.
11. “To Be States Soon” and “For a United Site,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 12, 1890, 1; “Census Foreshadowings,” New York Times, June 5, 1890, 5; see also Geoffrey Austrian, Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982), 58.
12. Quoted in Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 49–50; see also Scientific American 43, no. 9 (August 30, 1890): 132.
13. T. C. Martin, quoted in Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 70.
14. Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 71–72.
15. Herman Hollerith, 72.
16. Ibid., 97.
17. US Department of the Interior (Census Office), Report on Transportation Business in the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, pt. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895), 4, 6, 385; Abstract of the Eleventh Census: 1890 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894), 109–110; Report on Manufacturing Industries at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Pt. III, Selected Industries (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895), 383.
18. Walter F. Willcox, “The Development of the American Census Since 1890,” Political Science Quarterly 29, no. 3 (1914): 445; “Under a Partisan Census,” New York Times, September 15, 1890, 2; “The Census and the City,” New York Times, September 18, 1890, 4; “The Unreliable Census,” New York Times, September 18, 1890, 8; “The Porter Census,” New York Times, October 19, 1890, 4.
19. T. C. Martin, quoted in Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 86.
20. US Department of the Interior (Census Office), Report on Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895), 1:xi–xii; Willcox, “The Development of the American Census,” 444.
21. Warren K. Moorehead (unattributed), “The Red Christ,” The Illustrated American (December 13, 1890): 11–12.
22. Ibid.
23. William J. Plumb to CIA, November 8, 1890, Reel 1, SC–188, NARA-DC.
24. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1891 (hereafter ARCIA) (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1892), 123; Moorehead, “The Red Christ,” 13; H. D. Gallagher to T. J. Morgan, June 14, 1890, Frame 6, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
25. Peter Matthiessen, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse (New York: Viking, 1983), 527–528; Jeffrey Ostler, The Lakotas and the Black Hills: The Struggle for Sacred Ground (New York: Penguin, 2011); Report of the Sioux Commission of 1889, 51st Congress, 1st Session, US Senate, Executive Document 51, 23–24; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 55.
26. E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 28, 1890, Frames 32–36, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 54–55, 79.
27. Ghost shirts did not appear until October 1890, and only among some Lakotas were they said to be bulletproof. Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 67–73; Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 279–280.
28. E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 23, 1890, Frames 32–36, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
29. Mrs. Z. A. Parker, quoted in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 917.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. For “dance craze,” see A. T. Lea to James A. Cooper, in James A. Cooper to R. V. Belt, November 22, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC. The term “dance craze” appears periodically in these accounts; see, for example, John M. Sweeney to D. F. Royer, November 22, 1890 (copy), Box 27, Folder 391, Elmo Scott Watson Collection, Newberry Library. For “dancing in the snow,” see D. F. Royer to R. V. Belt, November 15, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC. For “exceedingly prejudicial,” see E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 23, 1890, Frames 32–36, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC. For “fall senseless to the ground,” see McLaughlin to T. J. Morgan, October 17, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC; witness quoted in Greene, American Carnage, 80.
33. Little Wound, quoted in D. F. Royer to R. V. Belt, October 30, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 109.
34. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 266; Arthur Amiotte, personal communication, August 14, 2015; James R. Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, edited by Elaine A. Jahner and Raymond J. DeMallie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1980), 101–109.
35. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1061, 1068, 1072.
36. For “love feast,” see E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 23, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC; for “séance,” see McLaughlin, My Friend the Indian, 191, 193.
37. Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition, 22–59; Stephens, The Fire Spreads, 15–55; and Wacker, Heaven Below, 1–17.
38. For incipient Pentecostals and Woodworth, see Jonathan R. Baer, “Redeemed Bodies: The Functions of Divine Healing in Incipient Pentecostalism,” Church History 70, no. 4 (December 2001): 735–771, esp. 739–748; “Religious Craze in Indiana,” Chicago Daily Tribune, January 30, 1885, 2; “There Is a Hell,” Chicago Daily Tribune, February 22, 1885, 3; “Electric Evangelist,” Chicago Daily Tribune, October 4, 1885, 26. For holiness revivals and Pentecostals, see Wacker, Heaven Below, 1–17; Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition, 22–66; Stephens, The Fire Spreads.
39. Baer, “Redeemed Bodies”; for the Oakland riot, see “Ring the Riot Alarm!” and “Flora Briggs’ Story,” San Francisco Examiner, January 9, 1890, 1–2.
40. US Department of the Interior, Report on Population of the United States, pt. I, lxxix, cxc.
41. “Special Notices,” New York Times, November 24, 1890, 5; David Leviatin, “Framing the Poor: The Irresistibility of How the Other Half Lives,” in Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives (1890), edited by David Leviatin (reprint, New York: Bedford Books, 1996), 1–50.
42. Francis A. Walker, “Immigration and Degradation,” Forum (August 11, 1891): 643, 644, quoted in Michael A. Elliott, The Culture Concept: Writing and Difference in an Age of Realism (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002), 95.
43. Rauchway, Murdering McKinley, 17, 89–96; Paul Avrich, Haymarket Tragedy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 35–36, 45–51, 59; Lears, Rebirth of a Nation.
44. Lears, Rebirth of a Nation, 83–84; James Green, Death in the Haymarket: A Story of Chicago, the First Labor Movement, and the Bombing That Divided Gilded Age America (New York: Knopf, 2006); Richard Slotkin, Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in Twentieth-Century America (New York: Harper Perennial, 1992), 91–92.
45. For “every steamship,” see Hjalmar H. Boyesen, “Dangers of Unrestricted Immigration,” Forum 3, no. 5 (July 1887): 532. For “hordes of barbarians,” see A. Cleveland Coxe, “Government by Aliens,” Forum (August 1889): 600.
46. For “fear of responsibility,” see Lears, Rebirth of a Nation, 7; George M. Beard, A Practical Treatise on Nervous Exhaustion (Neurasthenia) (New York: William Wood and Co., 1880), vi, xv (“the prime cause”). Another example from the period: “The nervous temperament is the creation of civilization.” W. A. Hammond, “A Few Words About the Nerves,” The Galaxy 6, no. 4 (October 1868): 493.
47. Beard quoted in Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 84–88; Francis Amasa Walker, “The Great Count of 1890,” in Discussions in Economics and Statistics, edited by Davis R. Dewey and Francis Amasa Walker, 2 vols. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1899), 2:111–126; Margo J. Anderson, The American Census: A Social History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 106–109. US observers had warned that immigrants were having more children than native-born Americans as early as 1869. See Dr. N. Allen, “Changes in Population,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine 38, no. 225 (February 1869): 386.
48. P. Leroy Beaulieu, “The Influence of Civilisation upon the Movement of Peoples,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society of London (June 1891), reprinted in Benjamin Kidd, Social Evolution, rev. ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1902), 381. For “the decades ending,” see Austrian, Herman Hollerith, 85.
49. Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order 1877–1920 (New York: Hill & Wang, 1967), 55. “For “one… common nationality,” see Edward McGlynn, quoted in ibid., 57–58.
50. I owe this discussion of assimilation to Richard White, The Republic for Which It Stands: The United States in the Gilded Age (New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).
51. David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, Indian Removal (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 39–41; see also Thurman Wilkins, Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People, 2d ed. (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986), 190–191.
52. Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, abridged edition (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 64–65; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880–1920 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), x–xi, 1–44; Alan Trachtenberg, Shades of Hiawatha: Staging Indians, Making Americans 1880–1930 (New York: Hill & Wang, 2005), 39.
53. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1883, 48th Congress, 1st Session, 1883–1884, Executive Document 1, Pt. 5, xi.
54. Dawes quoted in Elliott, Culture Concept, 95.
55. Elliott, Culture Concept; Hoxie, A Final Promise, 33–34.
56. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 293; Richardson, Wounded Knee, 186–204.
57. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 302–306; Frank Wood to R. V. Belt, November 29, 1890, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
58. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 301; Richardson, Wounded Knee, 235.
59. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 306–307; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 76–77, 345 n. 164, 202–209. Andersson’s count of only 15,329 Lakotas excludes the 2,084 Lakotas at Lower Brule and Crow Creek Reservations, where there appears to have been little if any Ghost Dancing.
60. Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 198–205.
61. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 876.
62. Ibid.
63. General Miles reported 200 dead, General Colby reported 220 Indian dead on the field, and Agent Royer announced that 300 Indians had fallen at Wounded Knee. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 871. Joseph Horn Cloud, a Wounded Knee survivor, compiled a list of 185 people who died from wounds in the massacre. Richard E. Jensen, ed., Voices of the American West, 2 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska, 2005). This section is based primarily on vol. 1, The Indian Interviews of Eli S. Ricker, 204–206.
64. Rex Alan Smith, Moon of Popping Trees: The Tragedy at Wounded Knee and the End of the Indian Wars (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 201–204; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 230, 249.
65. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 768, 879; L. G. Moses, The Indian Man: A Biography of James Mooney (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 63, 96 (page before a photo of Mooney), 113.
66. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 869, and Plate XCIX.
1. For Pan-a-mite, see Brigadier General A. McD. McCook to Secretary of the Interior, October 17, 1890, Frame 623; for “Bannock Jim,” see K. R. Kellog to A. Ashley, October 27, 1890, Frame 125; for “designing white man,” see William Plumb to CIA, November 8, 1890, Frame 140; all in Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC. See also L. G. Moses, “Jack Wilson and the Indian Service: The Response of the BIA to the Ghost Dance Prophet,” American Indian Quarterly 5, no. 4 (November 1979): 295–316.
2. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 792; for the end of plural marriage, see Sarah Barringer Gordon, The Mormon Question: Polygamy and Constitutional Conflict in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 211–212, 220–221.
3. General Nelson A. Miles, quoted in “Probably a Mormon Trick,” New York Times, November 8, 1890, 5, cited in Gregory E. Smoak, “The Mormons and the Ghost Dance of 1890,” South Dakota History 16, no. 3 (1986): 269; and William L. Selwyn to E. W. Foster, November 25, 1890, Frames 304–310, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; see also Mrs. S. A. Crandall to President Benjamin F. Harrison, November 27, 1890, JPGs 474–475, SC 188, NARA-DC. Mooney himself would conclude that the sacred shirts of the Ghost Dancers on the Plains “may have been suggested by the ‘endowment robe’ of the Mormons.” Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 790. For white dancers, Porcupine’s view, and white settlers participating in Paiute dances, see “As Narrated by Short Bull” (hereafter ANSB), handwritten manuscript at Buffalo Bill Museum, Golden, CO, 8; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 794; Clark J. Guild, quoted in Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, researched, compiled, and written by Michael Hittman, edited by Don Lynch (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 307.
4. John S. Mayhugh to T. J. Morgan, November 24, 1890, Frames 275–280, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
5. Arthur Chapman to Gen. John Gibbon, Dec. 6, 1890, in Annual Report of the Secretary of War 1891, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1892), 191; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 765.
6. Gunard Solberg, Tales of Wovoka (Reno: Nevada Historical Society, 2012), 22.
7. Nevada remains a “laboratory” even today as federal regulators seek to balance ecological concerns with the grazing, lumbering, and mining interests on land owned or managed by the Bureau of Land Management, the US Forest Service, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and the National Park Service—a total area of more than 53 million acres, or twice the size of Ohio. “Land Acreages by County and Land Owner/Manager,” January 2012, http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/nv/information.Par.45693.File.dat/Land.Acreages.by.County.Jan2012.pdf (accessed April 21, 2016).
8. In exploring Indian investment in settler society, I have been influenced by the arguments of James H. Merrell, The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact Through the Era of Removal (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989).
9. Christopher L. Miller, Prophetic Worlds: Indians and Whites on the Columbia Plateau (Seattle: University of Washington Press), 71–75; Carolyn Merchant, Reinventing Eden: The Fate of Nature in Western Culture (New York: Routledge, 2003).
10. For the size of the Great Basin, see Richard V. Francaviglia, Mapping and Imagination in the Great Basin: A Cartographic History (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2005), 5; for the aridity of the Great Basin, see Donald W. Sada and Gary L. Vinyard, “Anthropogenic Changes in Biogeography of Great Basin Aquatic Biota,” in Great Basin Aquatic Systems History: Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences (book 33), edited by Robert Hershler, David B. Madsen, and Donald R. Currey (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2002), 277–293. The first historian to seize upon aridity as the West’s defining characteristic was Walter Prescott Webb in The Great Plains (Boston: Ginn & Co., 1931). More recent interpretations include Patricia Nelson Limerick, Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987); Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1991); and Donald Worster, Rivers of Empire: Water, Aridity, and the Growth of the American West (New York: Pantheon, 1985). See also Donald Worster, “New West, True West: Interpreting the Region’s History,” Western Historical Quarterly 18, no. 2 (April 1987): 141–156.
11. For Great Basin temperatures, see Donald K. Grayson, The Great Basin: A Natural Prehistory, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California, 2011), 16–17.
12. The drum metaphor comes from Stephen Trimble, The Sagebrush Ocean: A Natural History of the Great Basin (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1999), 8. For the expanding distance between Salt Lake City and Reno, see John McPhee, Basin and Range (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1982), 65.
13. Margaret Wheat, Survival Arts of the Primitive Paiutes (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1967), 1; Grayson, The Great Basin, 87–134, esp. 106.
14. Smith quoted in C. Elizabeth Raymond, “Sense of Place in the Great Basin,” in East of Eden, West of Zion: Essays on Nevada, edited by Wilbur S. Shepperson (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1989), 18; John C. Frémont and William Hemsley Emory, The California Guidebook: Notes of Travel in California (New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1849), 10.
15. For “dreary and dismal,” see Raymond, “Sense of Place in the Great Basin,” 17; for “poorest and most worthless,” see Richard V. Francaviglia, Believing in Place: A Spiritual Geography of the Great Basin (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2016), 8; for “strange, weird land,” see Raymond, “Sense of Place in the Great Basin,” 18, 20–21; for “Geographic purgatory,” see Rob Schultheis, The Hidden West: Journeys in the American Outback (1978; reprint, New York: Lyons and Burford, 1996), 138.
16. Zenas Leonard, Leonard’s Narrative: Adventures of Zenas Leonard, Fur Trader and Trapper, 1831–1836, edited by W. F. Wagner (1839; reprint, Cleveland: Burrows Brothers, 1904), 168.
17. Frémont quoted in Julian H. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups (1938; reprint, Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002), 8–9; Abbe Emmanuel Domenech, Seven Years’ Residence in the Great Deserts of North America, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Green, 1860), 2:64.
18. Ned Blackhawk, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empire in the Early American West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 239–240. The trade in the southern Great Basin is discussed in James F. Brooks, Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 153–156, 351–353. On Paiutes as slaves, see Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 9. Captain J. H. Simpson reports that Navajos continued to buy Paiutes from eastern Utah as late as 1859. See Simpson, Report of Exploration Across the Great Basin of the Territory of Utah for a Direct Wagon-Route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, in Carson Valley, in 1859 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1876); Andres Resendez, The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), 193–194.
19. California Department of Water Resources, Walker River Atlas (Sacramento: California Department of Water Resources, 1992), 6.
20. Willard Z. Park, Shamanism in Western North America: A Study in Cultural Relationships (Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1938), 27–28, 76, 110, 115; Eileen Kane field notes, interview with Corbett Mack, July 8, 1964, 4–5, in Eileen Kane, “1964 Field Report,” University of Nevada Ethnographic Archive 3, Desert Research Institute, Collection 92–09/I/1–21, Box 1, Folder 8, Special Collections, University of Nevada, Reno Libraries (hereafter “1964 Field Report”); Catherine S. Fowler, In the Shadow of Fox Peak: An Ethnography of the Cattail-Eater Northern Paiute People of Stillwater Marsh (Reno: Nevada Humanities Committee, 2002), 177.
21. Marlin Thompson, personal communication, August 6, 2010; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 77, 187–91; Kane field notes, 16, in “1964 Field Report.”
1. Wheat, Survival Arts, 1–2; Isabel Kelly, “Northern Paiute Tales,” Journal of American Folklore 51, no. 202 (October–December 1938): 365–372.
2. Grayson, The Great Basin, 314–333. See also David B. Madsen and David Rhode, eds., Across the West: Human Population Movement and the Expansion of the Numa (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1994), 20–23; Jane Hill, “Proto-Uto-Aztecan: A Community of Cultivators in Central Mexico?” American Anthropologist 103: 913–914; Mark Q. Sutton, “Warfare and Expansion: An Ethnohistoric Perspective on the Numic Spread,” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 8 (1986): 65–82.
3. The Numic expansion is the subject of a large and sometimes contentious literature. For summaries of the main arguments and references to the principal contenders, see Steve Fountain, “Sky Dogs and Smoked Streams: Horses and Ethnocultural Change in the North American West, 1700–1850,” PhD dissertation, University of California, Davis, 2007; Grayson, The Great Basin, 313–338.
4. Jay Miller, “Basin Religion and Theology: A Comparative Study of Power (Puha),” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 5, nos. 1–2 (1983): 66–86; for “Water Utes,” see Wallace Stegner, Where the Bluebird Sings to the Lemonade Springs: Living and Writing in the West (New York: Penguin, 1992), 73.
5. Michael Hittman, The Yerington Paiute Tribe: A Numu History (Yerington, NV: Yerington Paiute Tribe, 1984), 3–5.
6. For the history of Northern Paiute communities and territories, see Omer C. Stewart, “The Northern Paiute Bands,” Anthropological Records 2, no. 3 (1939): 127–149. A community living nearby at Desert Creek was known as the Poo-zi Ticutta, which also translates as “Bulb Eaters,” but here poo-zi refers to a larger bulb that grew only at Desert Creek. Inter-Tribal Council of Nevada, Numa: A Northern Paiute History (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1976), 11, 52, 109 n. 1. Hittman, Yerington Paiute Tribe, 19. The upheavals of colonization, war, and epidemic caused smaller outfits to merge with larger groups; thus, by the time scholars began looking for Paiute communities, some had disappeared, perhaps absorbed into others. Marlin Thompson, personal communication, August 6, 2010.
7. Patrick Trotter, Cutthroat: Native Trout of the West, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 153, 155.
8. Ibid., 162; Lembi Kongas Speth, “Possible Fishing Cliques Among the Northern Paiutes of Walker River Reservation, Nevada,” Ethnohistory 16, no. 3 (November 1969): 225–244. Except where noted, this discussion of the Numu seasonal round is derived from Wheat, Survival Arts; Edward C. Johnson, Walker River Paiutes: A Tribal History (Schurz, NV: Walker River Paiute Tribe, 1975), 7–15; and Inter-Tribal Council of Nevada, Numa 10–15.
9. Dan De Quille (William Wright), The Big Bonanza (1876; reprint, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1947), 208.
10. Michael Hittman, Corbett Mack: The Life of a Northern Paiute (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996), 275–276.
11. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 27; Joel C. Janetski, “Role of Pinyon-Juniper Woodlands in Aboriginal Societies of the Desert West,” in S. B. Monson and R. Stevens, Proceedings: Ecology and Management of Pinyon-Juniper Communities Within the Interior West, Proceedings RMRS-P-9 (Rocky Mountain Station: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, June 1999), 249–253, http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p009.pdf (accessed April 27, 2016).
12. Kane field notes, interview with Corbett Mack, July 8, 1964, 4, in “1964 Field Report.”
13. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 28; Wheat, Survival Arts, 8–16; Johnson, Walker River Paiutes, 10–15; Robert Lowie, Notes on Shoshonean Ethnography (New York: American Museum Press, 1924), 311.
14. Catherine Fowler, ed., Willard Z. Park’s Ethnographic Field Notes on the Northern Paiute of Western Nevada, 1933–1940, vol. 1, University of Utah Anthropological Papers 114 (1989): 54, 69–71.
15. Jay Miller, “Basin Religion and Theology: A Comparative Study of Power (Puha),” Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 5, nos. 112 (Summer–Winter 1983): 66–86; William J. Bauer Jr., “The Giant and the Waterbaby: Paiute Oral Traditions and Owens Valley Water Wars,” Boom: A Journal of California 2, no. 4 (Winter 2012): 104–117; Alex K. Carroll, M. Nieves Zedeño, and Richard W. Stoffle, “Landscapes of the Ghost Dance: A Cartography of Numic Ritual,” Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 11, no. 2 (June 2004): 129.
16. Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 14.
17. Fowler, In the Shadow of Fox Peak, 171; Richard Stoffle, quoted in Bauer, “The Giant and the Waterbaby,” 109. For the ubiquity of religious prescription and proscription in Northern Paiute life, see Fowler, Willard Z. Park’s Ethnographic Notes, 20–21, 41.
18. Michael Hittman, personal communication, January 7, 2013. Far-flung kin and friends also gathered for a multiday festival and dances in the fall in a ritual of thanksgiving for the pine nut harvest. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 54.
19. Jedediah S. Smith, The Southwest Expedition of Jedediah S. Smith: His Personal Account of the Journey to California 1826–1827, edited by George R. Brooks (Glendale, IL: Arthur H. Clark Co., 977), 171–175; Leonard, Leonard’s Narrative, 158–169; Myron Angel, History of Nevada (Oakland, CA: Thompson & West, 1881), 145–148. For the banding together of Paiute and Western Shoshone outfits for defensive purposes, see Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 248–249.
20. Martha Knack, “Nineteenth-Century Great Basin Indian Wage Labor,” in Native Americans and Wage Labor: Ethnohistorical Perspectives, edited by Alice Littlefield and Martha C. Knack (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996), 145; Merrill J. Mattes, The Great Platte River Road: The Covered Wagon Mainline Via Fort Kearny to Fort Laramie (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1969), 23. For emigrant reduction of grass seed and game on the Humboldt River, see Dale L. Morgan, Shoshonean Peoples and the Overland Trails: Frontiers of the Utah Superintendency of Indian Affairs, 1849–1869, edited by Richard L. Saunders (Logan: Utah State University Press, 2007), 102.
21. Dale Morgan reports that, for instance, the headman-talker Joaquin was on the Carson River in the late 1850s but seems to have moved to the Walker River area soon after, as we see later in this chapter. Morgan, Shoshonean Peoples and the Overland Trail, 116; Kane, “Field Notes,” 35–38.
22. James W. Hulse, The Silver State: Nevada’s Heritage Reinterpreted, 3rd ed. (Reno: University of Nevada, 2004), 134.
23. Ibid., 71.
24. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 27–33; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 773–774; Ed Dyer, “The Jack Wilson Story,” 9, n.d., in Margaret M. Wheat Collection, Series III, Box 4/29, Special Collections, University of Nevada, Reno; L. G. Moses, “‘The Father Tells Me So!’: Wovoka, the Ghost Dance Prophet,” American Indian Quarterly 9, no. 3 (Summer 1985): 335–351. Wovoka had at least two younger brothers: Honocha-yu, better known as Pat, and Toyanaga-a. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 35.
25. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 32–33; Inter-Tribal Council of Nevada, Numa, 55.
26. Ronald James, The Roar and the Silence: A History of Virginia City and the Comstock Lode (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1998), 58, 109; Robert Neil Chester, “Comstock Creations: An Environmental History of an Industrial Watershed,” PhD dissertation, University of California, Davis, 2009.
27. James, The Roar and the Silence, 1–118; Chester, “Comstock Creations,” 1–11; George Ferdinand Becker, Geology of the Comstock Lode and Washoe District, with Atlas, US Geological Survey, Monograph 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1882), xv.
28. Forester quoted in Charles S. Sargent, Report on the Forests of North America (Exclusive of Mexico): 10th Census of the United States, vol. 9 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1884), 571. Agent quoted in Martha C. Knack and Omer C. Stewart, As Long as the River Shall Run: An Ethnohistory of Pyramid Lake Indian Reservation (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 85. On the growing scarcity of pine nuts, see, for example, ARCIA 1864 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1865), 15, 142, 145. On the impact of cattle and sheep ranching, see James A. Young and B. Abbot Sparks, Cattle in the Cold Desert (1985; revised edition, Reno: University of Nevada, 2002), 135–136. It is worth observing, however, that when James Mooney spent a week at Walker River Reservation in the waning days of December 1890, he enjoyed “sampling the seed mush and roasted piñon nuts.” Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 768.
29. Earl William Kersten Jr., “Settlements and Economic Life in the Walker River Country of Nevada and California,” PhD dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1961, 78–84; Edward C. Johnson, Walker River Paiutes, 60; Hulse, The Silver State, 134–136; ARCIA 1862 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1863), 215.
30. Hittman, Yerington Paiute Tribe, 18; Saxon E. Sharpe, Mary E. Cablk, and James M. Thomas, The Walker Basin, Nevada and California: Physical Environment, Hydrology, and Biology (Reno: Desert Research Institute, 2008), 13; Israel Cook Russell, Geological History of Lake Lahontan, a Quarternary Lake of Northwestern Nevada (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895), 46; Gary A. Horton, Walker River Chronology: A Chronological History of the Walker River and Related Water Issues (Carson City: Nevada Division of Water Planning, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1996), available at: http://water.nv.gov/mapping/chronologies/walker/ (accessed October 3, 2016).
31. Michael Hittman, “The 1870 Ghost Dance at the Walker River Reservation: A Reconstruction,” Ethnohistory 20, no. 3 (Summer 1973): 254, 256; ARCIA 1864 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1865). For family labor in seed gathering, see Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 3. Recent historians have done a superb job of exploring Indian work in the reservation era; see William J. Bauer Jr., We Were All Like Migrant Workers: Work, Community, and Memory on California’s Round Valley Reservation, 1850–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2009); Colleen O’Neill, Working the Navajo Way: Labor and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005); Erika Marie Bsumek, Indian Made: Navajo Culture in the Marketplace, 1868–1940 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2008); Paige Raibmon, Authentic Indians: Episodes of Encounter from the Late Nineteenth-Century Northwest Coast (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Alexandra Harmon, Rich Indians: Native People and the Problem of Wealth in American History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2010).
32. Agent quoted in ARCIA 1866 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1867), 115; ibid., 118–119; see also H. Douglas to E. S. Parker, September 20, 1870, in ARCIA 1870 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 95.
33. J. I. Wilson testimony, September 17, 1928, vol. II, 791, Hearing Before Special Master, C-125, US v. Walker River Irrigation District, US District Court, Reno, NV (hereafter Hearing Before Special Master); Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 53; Grace Dangberg, “Wovoka,” Nevada Historical Society Quarterly 11, no. 2 (1968): 6, 26; Mrs. Wilson interview, Jeanne Weir Field Notes, NC 17/4/44, Nevada Historical Society.
34. Quoted in Hittman, Corbett Mack, 290; Hittman, Yerington Paiute Tribe, 22; Knack, “Nineteenth-Century Great Basin Wage Labor,” 145.
35. Eugene M. Hattori, “‘And Some of Them Swear Like Pirates’: Acculturation of Indian Women in Nineteenth-Century Virginia City,” in Comstock Women: The Making of a Mining Community, edited by Ronald M. James and C. Elizabeth Raymond (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1998), 233.
36. Eugene Mitsuru Hattori, “Northern Paiutes on the Comstock: Archaeology and Ethnohistory of an American Indian Population in Virginia City, Nevada,” Nevada State Museum Occasional Papers 2 (1975): 14–15, 18–20; De Quille, The Big Bonanza, 215.
37. Hattori, “‘And Some of Them Swear Like Pirates,’” 242.
38. Hattori, “Northern Paiutes on the Comstock,” 17–18; for fish, see Martha C. Knack, “The Effects of Nevada State Fishing Laws on the Northern Paiutes,” Nevada Historical Society Quarterly 25, no. 4 (Winter 1982): 255.
39. Louis Bevier (agency farmer) to James E. Spencer (US Indian agent), April 13, 1880, SC 90, Special Cases 1821–1907, Box 68, RG 75, NARA-DC.
40. For the effort to renege on the free shipment deal with the Paiutes, see Henry Yerington to H. Price (CIA), May 1, 1882, SC 90, Special Cases 1821–1907, Box 68, RG 75, NARA-DC; for the figure 20,000 pounds of fish, see US Department of the Interior (Census Division), Report on Indians Taxed and Not Taxed in the United States, at the Eleventh Census: 1890 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894), 392; Johnson, Walker River Paiutes, 70; see also Chester, “Comstock Creations,” 164–166, 171–178.
41. For borax, see L. H. Strother to A.A.G., June 27, 1891, in Acting Secretary of War to Secretary of the Interior, July 22, 1891, Box 758, LR 1881–1907, No. 27124, RG 75, NARA-DC; Knack, “Nineteenth-Century Great Basin Wage Labor.”
42. Brad Logan, “The Ghost Dance Among the Paiute: An Ethnohistorical View of the Documentary Evidence, 1889–1893,” Ethnohistory 27, no. 3 (Summer 1980): 16; Knack, “Nineteenth-Century Great Basin Wage Labor,” passim.
43. US Department of the Interior, Report on Indians Taxed and Not Taxed, 392–393; for eight miles of irrigation ditch, see S. S. Sears to J. D. Atkins, July 1, 1889, No. 18152, Box 533, LR 1881–1907, RG 75, NARA-DC.
44. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 27–28; J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, September 10, 1890, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books, Box 314, RG 75, NARA, Pacific Region, San Bruno, CA (hereafter Walker River Agency Press Copy Books). See also Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 51, photographs in Numu Ya Dua.
45. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 20; J. I. Wilson testimony, September 17, 1928, Hearing Before Special Master.
46. J. O. Gregory to S. H. Strother, July 6, 1891, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books; see also R. G. Armstrong to Assistant Adjutant General–California, December 17, 1887, in O. O. Howard to Secretary of the Interior, December 20, 1887, Box 438, LR 1881–1907, No. 269, RG 75, NARA-DC.
47. See, for example, ARCIA 1865 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1866), 15. For the unreliability and vindictiveness of agents, see Knack and Stewart, As Long as the River Shall Run, 94–95; and W. D. Gibson to CIA, April 5, 1888, Box 457, LR 1881–1907, No. 9650, RG 75, NARA-DC.
48. Michael Hittman, “The 1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal 16, no. 4 (1992): 126; Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 54, 60; Julian Steward and Erminie Wheeler-Voegelin, The Northern Paiute Indians (New York: Garland Publishing Co., 1974), 48; Catherine S. Fowler and Sven Liljeblad, “Northern Paiute,” in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11, Great Basin, edited by Walter d’Azevedo (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986), 453.
49. W. D. Gibson to CIA, May 2, 1888, Box 458, LR 1881–1907, RG 75, NARA-DC; Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 126.
50. Mark Aldrich, Death Rode the Rails: American Railroad Accidents and Safety, 1825–1965 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), 318.
51. See D. A. Bender to William Stewart, n.d., handwritten note on copy of telegram from T. J. Morgan to C. C. Warner, October 12, 1891; and Richard Clarke [?—illegible], Attorney General, to Secretary of the Interior, October 30, 1893; both in Box 68, SC 90, Special Cases 1821–1907, RG 75, NARA-DC. See also ARCIA 1893 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894), 30–31; Knack, “Effects of Nevada State Fishing Laws on the Northern Paiutes”; Johnson, Walker River Paiutes, 69–80.
52. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 250.
1. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 702; Cora Du Bois, “The 1870 Ghost Dance,” University of California Publications in Anthropological Records 3, no. 1 (1939): 3–7, 10.
2. For Wodziwob and his origins, see Hittman, “1870 Ghost Dance at Walker River Reservation,” 265–266; for the healthfulness of the Ghost Dance, see Judith Vander, Ghost Dance Songs and Religion of a Wind River Shoshone Woman (Los Angeles: University of California, Department of Music, 1986), 13; see also Lowie, “Dances and Societies,” 817.
3. Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 74; for “They have preachers,” see De Quille, The Big Bonanza, 209. See also Joseph G. Jorgensen, “Ghost Dance, Bear Dance, and Sun Dance,” in d’Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11, Great Basin, 660; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Pantheon, 1964), 350–399; Robert F. Wearmouth, Methodism and the Working-Class Movements in England 1800–1850 (1937; reprint, Clifton, UK: Augustus M. Kelley, 1972). For “fertility and beauty of Eden,” see ARCIA 1871 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1872), 558.
4. Journalist quoted in Hattori, “‘And Some of Them Swear Like Pirates,” 243–244; see also Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 250.
5. Mrs. Wilson interview, Weir Field Notes, NC 17/4/44; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 29, 32–33, 97, 173; Gregory E. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity: Prophetic Religion and American Indian Ethnogenesis in the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008), 113–118.
6. Smoak, “Mormons and the Ghost Dance of 1890,” 269–294.
7. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity, 72–73.
8. Smoak, “Mormons and the Ghost Dance of 1890”; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 790; Gunard Solberg makes this point in Michael Hittman, “Wovoka and the 1890 Ghost Dance Religion: A Conversation with Gunard Solberg,” n.d., unpublished paper in the possession of the author.
9. Sven Liljeblad, “Oral Tradition: Content and Style of Verbal Arts,” in D’Azevedo, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 11, Great Basin, 657.
10. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity, 58–67; Miller, Prophetic Worlds, 44; Leslie Spier, The Prophet Dance of the Northwest and Its Derivatives: The Source of the Ghost Dance (Menasha, WI: George Banta Publishing Co., 1935); Robert H. Ruby and John A. Brown, Dreamer-Prophets of the Columbia Plateau: Smohalla and Skolaskin (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002); Deward E. Walker Jr. and Helen H. Schuster, “Religious Movements,” in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 12, Plateau, edited by Deward E. Walker Jr. (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1998), 500; Cassandra Tate, “Smohalla (1815?–1895),” July 11, 2010, History-Link.org, http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=9481 (accessed June 16, 2012).
11. I draw here on Gregory Smoak’s discussion of the “convergence of prophecy” in the Great Basin. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity, 124–132.
12. Ibid., 63, 65.
13. George William Smart, “Mission to Nevada: A History of Nevada Indian Missions,” PhD dissertation, Central Baptist Theological Seminary, Kansas City, KS, 1958, 63–81.
14. US Department of the Interior, Report on Statistics of Churches in the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, xxi, 437. Only 12 percent of Nevadans were church members.
15. US Department of the Interior, Report on Statistics of Churches, 421; “Methodism in Nevada, Part 1,” Online Nevada Encyclopedia, http://www.onlinenevada.org/methodism_in_nevada_part_i (accessed February 26, 2013). For Wovoka quotes, see the notes from the interview with M. Wilson, Grace Dangberg Composition Notebook (GDCN), 12–20, esp. 18, in Dangberg Papers, Nevada Historical Society, Reno (hereafter Dangberg Papers); see also Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 151; Francaviglia, Believing in Place, 115.
16. Knack, “Nineteenth-Century Great Basin Wage Labor.”
17. James, The Roar and the Silence, 76; US Department of the Interior, Report on Population of the United States, pt. I, xiii, 235; “A Dying State,” New York Times, July 28, 1889, 4; William D. Rowley, Reclaiming the Arid West: The Career of Francis G. Newlands (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996), 44.
18. Alexander Klein, “Personal Income of US States: Estimates for the Period 1880–1910,” Warwick Economics Research Papers Series 916 (Warwick, UK: University of Warwick, Department of Economics, 2009), http://ideas.repec.org/p/wrk/warwec/916.html; see also Killeen Hanson, Peter Shannon, Erik Steiner, and Richard White, “Visualization: Per Capita Income in the United States, 1880–1910,” Stanford University, Spatial History Project, http://www.stanford.edu/group/spatialhistory/cgi-bin/site/viz.php?id=259&project_id=0 (accessed October 3, 2012).
19. “A Dying State,” New York Times, July 28, 1889, 4; “Arizona and New Mexico,” Los Angeles Times, March 8, 1894, 6; Territorial Enterprise, January 23, 1881, quoted in Hittman, Corbett Mack, 279.
20. Young and Sparks, Cattle in the Cold Desert, 120–134; Richard G. Lillard, Desert Challenge: An Interpretation of Nevada (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979), 18; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 187. See also US Department of the Interior (Census Office), Report on Statistics of Agriculture in the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1895), 108–109. For contemporary views of ranching, see Karen R. Merrill, Public Lands and Political Meaning: Ranchers, the Government, and the Property Between Them (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002).
21. For “anything to eat,” see A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193. For “work for the white people,” see Captain George to “White Father,” February 13, 1888, Box 449, LR 1881–1907, No. 5433, RG 75, NARA-DC; see also Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 71; Paiute Sam in Territorial Enterprise, January 23, 1881, quoted in Hittman, Corbett Mack, 279.
22. Sarah Winnemucca, “The Pah-Utes,” The Californian 6, no. 33 (September 1882): 256.
23. The photograph also appears in Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 28.
24. Dyer, “Jack Wilson Story,” 4.
25. Mrs. Wilson interview, Weir Field Notes, NC 17/4/44; for “began to dream,” see M. Wilson interview, in GDCN, Dangberg Papers; for “wasn’t shamming,” see Dyer, “Jack Wilson Story,” 5; see also Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 135.
26. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 191.
27. Ibid., 191–192; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 771–772.
28. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193.
29. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 65–66; for a comparison to the pine nut blessing, see Wheat, Survival Arts, 12; for “Fog! Fog!,” see Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1054.
30. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 772; A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193.
31. For the drought, see Young and Sparks, Cattle in the Cold Desert, 128–129. For the Walker River going dry, see US Department of the Interior (Census Office), Report on Agriculture by Irrigation in the Western Part of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890 (Washington, US Government Printing Office, 1894), 184–185; and J. I. Wilson testimony, September 17, 1928, Hearing Before Special Master.
32. Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 59, 61. The belief in the invulnerability of shamans was also standard among Utes and Bannocks; see Lowie, Notes on Shoshonean Ethnography, 292–293.
33. Dyer, “Jack Wilson Story”; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 250.
34. For practical jokes, see Stephen Powers, “Centennial Mission to the Indians of Western Nevada and California: Smithsonian Institution Annual Report for 1876,” in A Great Basin Shoshonean Source Book, edited by David Hurst Thomas (New York: Garland Press, 1986), 450. For skepticism about shamanic powers, see Ake Hultkrantz, Shamanic Healing and Ritual Drama: Health and Medicine in Native North American Religious Traditions (New York: Crossroad Publishing, 1992), 87. See also Hittman, “1870 Ghost Dance,” 251; Du Bois, “1870 Ghost Dance,” 5.
35. Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 57; Maurice Snyder notes, Weir Field Notes, NC 17/4/44.
36. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193. For allegations of a hoax, see Joseph I. Wilson, quoted in Robert Nathaniel Davidson, “A Study of the Ghost Dance of 1889,” MA thesis, Stanford University, 1952, 46–47; and “Fieldnotes of Karl Fredericks,” reprinted in Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 308–309.
37. Notes from interview with Mrs. Webster, Dangberg Papers. The problem with this tale is that Paiutes do not normally cremate their dead. For the debate over Wilson’s miracles, see the documents and testimony in Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 303–312.
38. Dyer, “Jack Wilson Story”; see also Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 76.
39. Dyer, “Jack Wilson Story.”
40. For the willow basket, see Kane field notes, interview with Corbett Mack, July 14, 1964, 10, in “1964 Field Report”; and Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 338. For the ice floating down the river, see Kane field notes, interview with Andy Dick, July 9, 1964, in “1964 Field Report.”
41. Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 60; for the source of Wilson’s booha, see Joe Green, quoted in ibid., 19.
42. Kane field notes, 39, 42; Kane, interview with Corbett Mack, July 27, 1964, 4; both in “1964 Field Report.”
43. I have created this composite version of the event from several different accounts by Hazel Quinn, originally collected by Michael Hittman in the 1970s and retold to him with additions from Mary Lee Stevens, Russell Dick, and Ida Mae Valdez in the 1980s. See Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 163–164; see also Numu Ya Dua’ 3, no. 28 (June 4, 1982): 1–2.
44. Kane field notes, 42, in “1964 Field Report.”
45. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193.
46. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1052–1055.
47. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 191–192; for Josephus’s aspirations, see J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, October 7, 1890, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books.
48. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 192.
49. Ibid.; Young and Sparks, Cattle in the Cold Desert, 129–131.
50. J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, February 18, 1890, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books.
51. Corbett Mack, in Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 338–340; for the hot coal, see Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 135.
52. Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 136.
53. Notes from Wilson interview, GDCN.
54. Wier Field Notes, NC 17/4/44.
55. Wilson quoted in Chapman to Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193; correspondent quoted in Martha B. Caldwell, “Some Kansas Rainmakers,” Kansas Historical Quarterly 7, no. 3 (August 1938): 306–324, 306.
56. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 69; notes from interview with J. I. Wilson, Dangberg Papers.
57. J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, February 18, 1890, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 772.
1. Donald Worster, A River Running West: The Life of John Wesley Powell (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 470.
2. Richard Seager and Celine Herweijer (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University), “Causes and Consequences of Nineteenth Century Droughts in North America,” Drought Research, http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/res/div/ocp/drought/nineteenth.shtml (accessed August 9, 2012); Gilbert C. Fite, The Farmers’ Last Frontier, 1865–1900 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 308–309.
3. Charles Dana Wilber, The Great Valleys and Prairies of Nebraska and the Northwest, 3rd ed. (Omaha, NE: Daily Republican Print, 1881), 70; M. Jean Ferrill, “Rainfall Follows the Plow,” Encyclopedia of the Great Plains, http://plainshumanities.unl.edu/encyclopedia/doc/egp.ii.049 (accessed February 7, 2015).
4. Thomas W. Patterson, “Hatfield the Rainmaker,” Journal of San Diego History 16, no. 1 (Winter 1970), http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/1970/january/hatfield/; Caldwell, “Some Kansas Rainmakers.”
5. Victoria Foth, “‘Rainmakers’ Didn’t Deliver,” Lawrence Journal-World, May 22, 1988, 15; “Farmers in South Dakota Meet[ing] Close Contracts,” undated clipping in J. C. Ogden to Francis Newlands, October 4, 1891, Box 371/3, Francis G. Newlands Papers, Manuscripts and Archives, Yale University, New Haven, CT. The clipping refers to the Kansas Artificial Rain Company, but its correct name can be found in Caldwell, “Some Kansas Rainmakers,” 311. For the Rock Island Railroad rainmaker, see Caldwell, “Some Kansas Rainmakers,” 318–324.
6. Evan Zartman Vogt, Modern Homesteaders: The Life of a Twentieth-Century Frontier Community (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1955), 73–92; Kate Sheppard, “Rick Perry Asks Texans to Pray for Rain,” Mother Jones, April 21, 2011; Tim Egan, “Rick Perry’s Unanswered Prayers,” New York Times, April 11, 2011.
7. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193.
8. Worster, Rivers of Empire, 135; Worster, A River Running West, 476.
9. Worster, Rivers of Empire, 135.
10. Frank Nimmo Jr., quoted in Worster, Rivers of Empire, 116.
11. William E. Smythe, The Conquest of Arid America, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1905), 266–267; Smythe quoted in George Wharton James, Reclaiming the Arid West: The Story of the United States Reclamation Service (New York: Dodd, Mead, and Co., 1917), xvi; Smythe, Conquest of Arid America, xiii; Worster, Rivers of Empire, 119.
12. Smythe himself recalled his irrigation program in religious terms: “I had taken the cross of a new crusade.” Smythe, Conquest of Arid America, 266–267; see also Catrin Gersdorf, The Poetics and Politics of the Desert: Landscape and the Construction of America (New York: Rodopi, 2009), 64–67; Ian R. Tyrell, True Gardens of the Gods: Californian-Australian Environmental Reform, 1860–1930 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 107–108; Carolyn Merchant, Reinventing Eden: The Fate of Nature in Western Culture (New York: Routledge, 2004), 111.
13. J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, February 18, 1890, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books; Kane field notes, interview with Corbett Mack, July 14, 1964, in “1964 Field Report,” 8.
14. Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 123–136; A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 193; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 772.
15. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 780–781.
16. Nathaniel P. Phister, “The Indian Messiah,” American Anthropologist 4, no. 2 (April 1891): 106; Ruby and Brown, Dreamer-Prophets of the Columbia Plateau; Tate, “Smohalla.” Mooney asserts, with little evidence, that Smohalla had traveled and perhaps taught in Nevada in the mid-1880s. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 718, 746.
17. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 191.
18. Ibid., 191–193.
19. H. Douglas to E. S. Parker, September 20, 1870, ARCIA 1870 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1871), 95.
20. Robert Fleming Heizer, Notes on Some Paviotso Personalities and Material Culture (Carson City: Nevada State Museum, 1960), 6–7; Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 257–258.
21. Steward, Basin-Plateau Aboriginal Sociopolitical Groups, 247.
22. Female shamans appear not to have been political leaders. Kane field notes, in “1964 Field Report,” 11, 35–39, 48–49.
23. Harold Olofson, “Northern Paiute Shamanism Revisited,” Anthropos 4 (1974): 13, 19; Beatrice Blyth Whiting, Paiute Sorcery (New York: Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology, 1950), 43–54; Hultkrantz, Shamanic Healing and Ritual Drama, 1, 15; Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 18, 122.
24. Hittman, “1890 Ghost Dance in Nevada,” 148; Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 123, 294; Isabel T. Kelly, “Ethnography of the Surprise Valley Paiute,” University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 31, no. 3 (1932): 195; Olofson, “Northern Paiute Shamanism Revisited,” 21; Hultkrantz, Shamanic Healing, 18–19.
25. Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 68; Kane field notes, in “1964 Field Report,” 37.
26. Du Bois, “1870 Ghost Dance,” 5–6. “Apparently,” notes Park, “the more important Ghost Dance prophets were at first rebels.” Park, Shamanism in Western North America, 70.
27. Kane field notes, in “1964 Field Report,” 38–39; for an in-depth study of the phenomenon, see Whiting, Paiute Sorcery, passim.
28. Whiting, Paiute Sorcery, 48.
29. Ibid., 64–66.
30. Hittman, Corbett Mack, 35–36, 268–269; Kane field notes, in “1964 Field Report,” 34–35.
31. Hittman, Corbett Mack, 15, 61, 98, 178, 186–188, 191–192, 199–200, 349, 355–358, 360; Kane field notes, 37, 43, and interview with Corbett Mack, July 14, 1964, 8, both in “1964 Field Report.”
32. Hittman, Corbett Mack, 191, 352–353.
33. Kane field notes, in “1964 Field Report,” 43.
34. Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 111. The rumor was still widespread in the Yerington Paiute community in the mid-1960s. Eileen Kane, personal communication, August 12, 2013.
35. Quoted in Hittman, Corbett Mack, 44. For doctors confirming sorcery, see Whiting, Paiute Sorcery, 65; for witch killings in 1891, see William J. Plumb to CIA, June 27, 1891, Box 748, LR 1881–1907, No. 23719, RG 75, NARA-DC; see also “Getting Rid of Witches,” Daily Alta Californian, August 3, 1885, available at California Digital Newspaper Collection, http://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=DAC18850803.2.38 (accessed November 18, 2013).
36. Du Bois, “1870 Ghost Dance,” 44, 23.
37. The restorative powers of the Ghost Dance were well known; see Vander, Ghost Dance Songs, 10. Mrs. Z. A. Parker observed at Pine Ridge that “they believed those who were sick would be cured by joining in the dance and losing consciousness.” Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 917. See also Edgar E. Siskin, Washo Shamans and Peyotists: Religious Conflict in an American Indian Tribe (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1983), 157–158.
38. Hittman, “The 1870 Ghost Dance at Walker River Reservation,” 248.
39. According to George Sword, word of the prophecies first arrived at Pine Ridge via the Shoshone and Arapaho—that is, from Wind River Reservation. See Sword in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 797. For boarding school correspondence, see ibid., 894; for Nakash, see ibid., 817; Jeffrey D. Anderson, One Hundred Years of Old Man Sage: An Arapaho Life (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003), 60–66.
40. ANSB; Mooney, “Ghost Dance Religion,” 797, 817, 774. There are alleged to have been two delegations of Lakotas in 1889, but I am in agreement with Rani-Henrik Andersson that there was only one. See Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 32.
41. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 816.
42. See the series of telegrams from J. A. Williamson and J. A. Miller to Frank Bell, November 7, 1890; W. D. Jones to Acting Governor Frank Bell, November 9, 1890; W. Brougher and J. R. Brotherton to Frank Bell, November 13, 1890; all in Governor Bell Incoming Correspondence, September 1–December 31, 1890, Nevada State Archives, Carson City (hereafter Governor Bell Incoming Correspondence). See also Acting Governor Frank Bell to W. S. Gage, November 7 1890, 203; Governor R. Colcord to J. T. Wright, Ruby Valley, NV, January 21, 1891, 236; Colcord to Honorable F. Bell, Cloverdale (?), NV, June 4, 1891, 351; all in Letterbook of Stevens/Bell/Colcord, Nevada State Archives (hereafter Letterbook of Stevens/Bell/Colcord). See also George Nicholl to Frank Bell, November 23, 1890, Governor Bell Incoming Correspondence.
43. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891.
44. Ibid., 191.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid.
47. The following account of Chapman’s conversation with Wilson is from ibid., 192–193.
48. Elliott West, The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 284–285.
49. Ibid., 131, 134–135, 282, 299, 304; Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 173. In addition to his service in the Nez Perce War, Chapman worked for the War Department as an “Indian Interpreter” in Nevada among the Paiutes. James H. Wilbur to US Commissioner of Indian Affairs, October 27, 1881; A. J. Chapman to General Nelson A. Miles, December 6, 1881; and Chapman to Miles, December 19, 1881; all in Special File 268, RG 75, copies in Omer C. Stewart Collection, Box 1, Folder 14, Special Collections, University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
50. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891.
51. Ibid., 194.
1. Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 50–53.
2. Elliott West, The Contested Plains: Indians, Goldseekers, and the Rush to Colorado (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas), 22; Richard White, “The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” Journal of American History 65, no. 2 (September 1978): 321.
3. Wilhelm W. Wildhage, “Material on Short Bull,” European Review of Native American Studies 4, no. 1 (1990): 35; White, “Winning of the West,” 321.
4. Jeffrey Ostler, “‘The Last Buffalo Hunt’ and Beyond: Plains Sioux Economic Strategies in the Early Reservation Period,” Great Plains Quarterly (2001): 117; Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison, 143.
5. George E. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk: A History of the Oglala Sioux Indians, (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979), 164–165.
6. White, “Winning of the West,” 321–324; for Sitting Bull’s return, see Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 12; Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 193–194.
7. For tiyospaye organization, see Powers, Oglala Religion, 40–42; see also Clark Wissler, “Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton-Dakota,” Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 11, Societies of the Plains Indians, pt. 1 (1912); Thomas H. Lewis, The Medicine Men: Oglala Sioux Ceremony and Healing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 2.
8. Short Bull was affiliated with the people of the chiefs Two Strike and Red Leaf, who settled at Pass Creek. See Richmond Lee Clow, “The Rosebud Sioux: The Federal Government and the Reservation Years, 1878–1970,” PhD dissertation, University of New Mexico, 1977, 17–18; and “Letter from the Secretary of the Interior, in Relation to the Affairs of the Indians at the Pine Ridge and Rosebud Reservations in South Dakota, March 16, 1892,” 52nd Congress, 1st Session, 1891–1892, Senate Executive Document 58, 84.
9. West, Contested Plains; Loretta Fowler, “Arapaho,” in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 13, Plains, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001), pt. 1, 840; Pekka Hamalainen, Comanche Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008).
10. Loretta Fowler, “Arapaho, Southern”; and John H. Moore, “Cheyenne, Southern”; both at Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, www.okhistory.org (accessed May 17, 2015); see also Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 50–53; Hamalainen, Comanche Empire, 18–67.
11. For the location of the tribes, see the map in Omer C. Stewart, Peyote Religion: A History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 56.
12. For the environmental history of the Great Plains, see Isenberg, Destruction of the Bison; West, Contested Plains; Elliott West, The Way to the West: Essays on the Central Plains (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995); Webb, Great Plains; Dan Flores, “Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains from 1800 to 1850,” Journal of American History 78, no. 2 (September 1991); and William Cronon, Natures Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009). See also University of Virginia, Geospatial and Statistical Data Center, Historical Census Browser (2004), http://mapserver.lib.virginia.edu/ (accessed August 17, 2013); Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2012), 484.
13. The Kansas population in 1890 stood at 1.4 million, with over 166,000 farms; Texas had 2.2 million residents and over 228,000 farms. University of Virginia, Historical Census Browser (accessed June 25, 2015).
14. John D. Hicks, Populist Revolt: A History of the Farmers’ Alliance and the People’s Party (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1931), 32–35; Richardson, Wounded Knee, 148–150.
15. US Department of the Interior (Census Division), Abstract of the Eleventh Census: 1890 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1986), 96, 102, 172.
16. George E. Hyde, A Sioux Chronicle (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993), 184–228; James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974), 310; William T. Hagan, Taking Indian Lands: The Cherokee (Jerome) Commission, 1889–1893 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003), 61–84.
17. Ellwood House and Museum, “History of Barbed Wire” (2004), http://web.archive.org/web/20060712125058/http://www.ellwoodhouse.org/barb_wire/ (accessed August 27, 2013).
18. J. F. Wade to Assistant Adjutant General, December 26, 1891, in Assistant Adjutant General to Secretary of the Interior, January 26, 1891, SC 188, NARA-DC; “Maps Showing the Progressive Development of American Railroads: 1830 to 1950,” in Association of American Railroads, American Railroads: Their Growth and Development (pamphlet), January 1951, available at Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum, http://cprr.org/Museum/RR_Development.html (accessed August 27, 2013).
19. Alan K. Knapp et al., “The Keystone Role of Bison in North American Tall Grass Prairie,” Bioscience 49, no. 1 (January 1999): 39–50; Allen A. Steuter and Lori Hidinger, “Comparative Ecology of Bison and Cattle on Mixed-Grass Prairie,” Great Plains Research 9 (1999): 329–342; Steve Zack and Kevin Ellison, “Grassland Birds and the Ecological Recovery of Bison: A Conservation Opportunity,” Wildlife Conservation Society and American Bison Society, http://www.eco-index.org/search/pdfs/1354report_1.pdf (accessed June 25, 2015).
20. ARCIA 1889, 153. In 1889 performers from Pine Ridge made almost $29,000 traveling with Buffalo Bill’s Wild West. Louis S. Warren, Buffalo Bill’s America: William Cody and the Wild West Show (New York: Knopf, 2005), 366.
21. Donald J. Berthrong, The Cheyenne and Arapaho Ordeal: Reservation Life in Indian Territory, 1875–1907 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1976), 67; ARCIA 1884, 38; Loretta Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 1851–1978: Symbols in Crises of Authority (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986), 88–89.
22. ARCIA 1888, 50; Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 22–23; ANSB, 1.
23. Little Wound: “Sometimes when we have a feast we sell a little bead work or a pipe or a pair of moccasins and with the money buy some coffee and some sugar.” “The Indians’ Side,” Washington Evening Star, January 28, 1891, 3. For the sale of buffalo bones, see ARCIA 1886, 79. For Indian efforts to tax the use of reservation land, see Thomas L. Hedglen, “Cheyenne-Arapaho Cattle Company,” Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, www.okhistory.org (accessed May 17, 2015); Donald J. Berthrong, “From Buffalo Days to Classrooms: The Southern Cheyennes and Arapahos in Kansas,” Kansas History 12, no. 2 (Summer 1989): 104–105; and Berthrong, “Cattlemen on the Cheyenne-Arapaho Reservation, 1883–85,” Arizona and the West 13, no. 1 (Spring 1971): 5–32.
24. Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 84; Fowler, “Arapaho, Southern,” in Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, http://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=AR002 (accessed June 9, 2015). For the output at Rosebud and Pine Ridge Reservations, see Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 23; ARCIA 1888, 51. For Sitting Bull’s cattle, hay, and oats, see Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 180; Berthrong, Cheyenne and Arapaho Ordeal, 58–59.
25. “‘Kill the Indian, and Save the Man’: Capt. Richard H. Pratt on the Education of Native Americans,” History Matters, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/4929/ (accessed May 8, 2016); David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995); K. Tsainina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of the Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).
26. Elaine Goodale to CIA, December 18, 1890, Frame 666, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC. For cuts in beef rations, see Hagan, Taking Indian Lands, 82. The agent for the Southern Arapaho noted in 1885 the reduced beef rations resulting from a revised census. ARCIA 1885, 74. On Indian nutrition, see Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 129–130; Gretchen Goetz, “Nutrition a Pressing Concern for American Indians,” Food Safety News, March 5, 2012, http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2012/03/nutrition-a-pressing-concern-for-american-indians/#.UhyqguB7TQM (accessed August 27, 2013).
27. William Selwyn, interview with Kuwapi, in Selwyn to E. W. Foster, November 25, 1890, and in Foster to T. J. Morgan, November 25, 1890, Frames 281–306, SC 188, NARA-DC.
28. Thomas H. Lewis, The Medicine Men: Oglala Sioux Ceremony and Healing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 43; Elaine A. Jahner, “Lakota Genesis: The Oral Tradition,” in Sioux Indian Religion: Tradition and Innovation, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie and Douglas R. Parks (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 1987), 51–52.
29. James R. Walker, “The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of the Teton Dakota,” Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 16, pt. 2 (1917): 79; Joseph Epes Brown, Animals of the Soul: Sacred Animals of the Oglala Sioux (Rockport, MA: Element Books, 1992), 8; Walker, “Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies,” 84, 144.
30. Arthur Amiotte, “The Lakota Sun Dance: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives,” in DeMallie and Parks, Sioux Indian Religion, 80–84; Walker, “Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies,” 60–62; Frances Densmore, Teton Sioux Music (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 131.
31. Wilhelm Wildhage, “Material on Short Bull,” European Review of Native American Studies 4, no. 1 (1990): 35; Clow, “Rosebud Sioux,” 16–18.
32. Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior 1883, 48th Congress, 1st Session, 1883–1884, Executive Document 1, Pt. 5, xii; Clyde Holler, Black Elk’s Religion: The Sun Dance and Lakota Catholicism (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1995), 118, 119.
33. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 65–66, 68, 69, 71–72, 88.
34. Leslie Spier, “The Sun Dance of the Plains Indians, Its Development and Diffusion,” Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 16, no. 7 (1921); Alfred Kroeber, The Arapaho (1904; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 279–308; Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 176–193.
35. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 63, 69, 119.
36. George A. Dorsey, The Arapaho Sun Dance: The Ceremony of the Offerings Lodge (Chicago: Field Columbian Museum, 1903), 3–4.
37. West, Contested Plains, 197–199; ARCIA 1885, 79.
38. ARCIA 1887, 83; Benjamin R. Kracht, “Kiowa Religion in Historical Perspective,” American Indian Quarterly 21, no. 1 (Winter 1997): 23; Roderick Sweezy, personal communication, August 19, 2016.
39. Loretta Fowler, Wives and Husbands: Gender and Age in Southern Arapaho History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010), 96.
40. Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 130.
41. Gloria A. Young, “Intertribal Religious Movements,” in Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 13, Plains, pt. 2, edited by Raymond J. DeMallie (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2001), 999–1000; James Stuart Olson and Raymond Wilson, Native Americans in the Twentieth Century (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 55.
42. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 906–907; Young, “Intertribal Religious Movements.”
43. Thomas C. Maroukis, The Peyote Road: Religious Freedom and the Native American Church (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), 60.
44. Stewart, Peyote Religion, 3–53; Ake Hultrantz, Belief and Worship in Native North America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981), 291; for the shortened length of the ceremony, see Kroeber, The Arapaho, 398–399.
45. Stewart, Peyote Religion, 68–79, 34.
46. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 162.
47. Harvey Markowitz, “Catholic Mission and the Sioux: A Crisis in the Early Paradigm,” in DeMallie and Parks, Sioux Indian Religion, 131.
48. Marvin E. Kroeker, “Natives and Settlers: The Mennonite Invasion of Indian Territory,” Mennonite Life 61, no. 2 (June 2006); ARCIA 1887, 80; ARCIA 1888, 94; Herbert M. Dalke, “Seventy Five Years of Missions in Oklahoma,” Mennonite Life 10, no. 3 (July 1955): 101; Berthrong, “From Buffalo Days to Classrooms,” 107. For Southern Methodists and Baptists, see ARCIA 1889, 189.
49. Tash Smith, Capture These Indians for the Lord: Indians, Methodists, and Oklahomans, 1844–1939 (Tucson: University of Arizona, 2014), 81. In 1894, the Baptists also established a mission. William Munn Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain: A Biography of James Mooney, Ethnologist” Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin, Madison, 197; Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 157. For Indians who took up Christianity, see Berthrong, Cheyenne and Arapaho Ordeal, 81; K. B. Kueteman, “From Warrior to Saint: The Journey of David Pendleton Oakerhater,” Oklahoma State University Electronic Publishing Center, 2006, http://digital.library.okstate.edu/Oakerhater/bio.html (accessed May 25, 2015).
50. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 187; Markowitz, “Catholic Mission and the Sioux,” 130; Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 188.
51. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 188; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 164.
52. Douglas Barrows, “Congregational Dakotah Churches,” in History of the United Church of Christ in South Dakota, 1869–1976, edited by Edward C. Ehrensperger (Freeman, SD: Pine Hill Press, 1977), 167.
53. Virginia Driving Hawk Sneve, That They May Have Life: The Episcopal Church in South Dakota, 1859–1976 (New York: Seabury Press, 1977), 19–20, 35; Vine Deloria Jr., Singing for a Spirit: A Portrait of the Dakota Sioux (Santa Fe, NM: Clear Light Publishers, 2000), 39–48; Vine Deloria Sr., “The Establishment of Christianity Among the Sioux,” in DeMallie and Parks, Sioux Indian Religion, 105–106; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 166; Douglas Barrows, “Congregational Dakotah Churches,” in History of the United Church of Christ in South Dakota, 1869–1976, edited by Edward C. Ehrensperger (Freeman, SD: Pine Hill Press, 1977), 167; James Constantine Pilling, Bibliography of the Siouan Languages (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1887), 20, 69.
54. “The Indians’ Side,” Washington Evening Star, January 28, 1891, 3; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 164.
55. William K. Powers, Oglala Religion (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977), 115; Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 188.
56. See Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 74–75; Sneve, That They May Have Life, 59; Mark R. Ellis, “Reservation Akicitas: The Pine Ridge Indian Police, 1879–1885,” South Dakota History 29 (1999): 184, 195.
57. Hittman, Corbett Mack, 182; A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891.
58. George Bird Grinnell, “The Messiah Superstition Among the Northern Cheyenne,” Journal of American Folklore 4, no. 12 (January–March 1891): 62; Hugh Lenox Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier (New York: Century Co., 1928), 155.
59. Wildhage, “Material on Short Bull,” 38; Amiotte, “Lakota Sun Dance,” 80–84. In what is probably artistic license (perhaps a response to German enthusiasm for Lakota regalia), some of Short Bull’s dancers wear eagle headdresses, which the pledgers in this ceremony probably would not have worn.
60. Young, “Intertribal Religious Movements,” 1000.
1. General Nelson A. Miles to Adjutant General, November 28, 1890, M 983, vol. 1, p. 283, RG 94, NARA-DC; see also Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 141–142.
2. Short Bull quoted in James P. Boyd, Recent Indian Wars (Philadelphia: Publishers Union, 1891), 208; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 141. Historian Robert Utley, for instance, concluded that Short Bull and a fellow apostle, Kicking Bear, “perverted Wovoka’s doctrine into a militant crusade against the white man.” Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 87. See also Robert M. Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866–1890 (New York: Macmillan, 1973), 402–403; Paul Hedren, After Custer: Loss and Transformation in Sioux Country (Norman: University of Oklahoma, 2011), 170; Greene, American Carnage, 69, 74. Others have squared the circle by arguing that Lakotas did not need to change the religion because Wovoka himself was a militant. Thus, according to Jeffrey Ostler, Wovoka preached rebellion as part of “an anticolonial movement” and Lakotas did not stray “in any fundamental way” from his teachings. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 261–262.
3. Wildhage, “Material on Short Bull,” 35–42; Ronald McCoy, “Short Bull: Lakota Visionary, Historian and Artist,” American Indian Art Magazine (Summer 1992): 54–65, 57; George Wright to CIA, December 5, 1890, JPG 547, SC 188, NARA-DC.
4. Sam A. Maddra, Hostiles?: The Lakota Ghost Dance and Buffalo Bill’s Wild West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006), 29–31.
5. See Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 150–151, 204–223.
6. ANSB; Maddra, Hostiles?, 192–205.
7. Craeger was planning to write a book about Short Bull as early as 1891, which is the likely date of the narrative. Maddra, Hostiles?, 27–44. As far as I have been able to determine, the first history to use ANSB was Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee.
8. The Omaha dance originated among Pawnees and spread to other Plains peoples during the nineteenth century. By 1889, among Lakotas, it had become primarily a social dance. Clyde Ellis, A Dancing People: Powwow Culture on the Southern Plains (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2003), 50–54; James R. Murie, “Pawnee Indian Societies,” in Clark Wissler, ed., Societies of the Plains Indians (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1916), 629.
9. ANSB, 1–2.
10. Ibid., 2, 5.
11. Greene, American Carnage, 26.
12. ANSB, 4.
13. Ibid., 5; see also Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 818; A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891, 192.
14. ANSB, 7.
15. Boyd, Recent Indian Wars, 209; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 62.
16. ANSB, 7.
17. Ibid., 7–8.
18. One example of the criticism directed at the holy man is the remark of the unknown interpreter in Walker’s Lakota Belief and Ritual who alleged that Short Bull “wants to prove that he was not the cause of the trouble of 1890–91.” Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 142.
19. A. I. Chapman to John Gibbon, December 6, 1890, in ARSW 1891; Stewart Indian School, “Stewart Indian School History,” http://stewartindianschool.com/history/; Omer C. Stewart, “Contemporary Document on Wovoka (Jack Wilson), Prophet of the Ghost Dance in 1890,” Ethnohistory 24, no. 3 (Summer 1977): 222.
20. J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, February 18, 1890, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 772.
21. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 788–789.
22. ARSW 1891, vol. 1, 142–143; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 106; Greene, American Carnage, 74.
23. Ostler, The Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 295–297.
24. A. T. Lea to Jas. A. Cooper, in Cooper to Honorable R. V. Belt, November 22, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC; Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 79, 282.
25. “The Indians’ Side,” Washington Evening Star, January 28, 1891, 3. For the description of Little Wound, see D. F. Royer to T. J. Morgan, November 8, 1890, M 983, vol. 1, pp. 62–66, RG 94, NARA-DC.
26. “The Indians’ Side,” Washington Evening Star, January 28, 1891, 3 (emphasis added).
27. Sword quoted in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 797.
28. “Proceedings of a Council with the Cheyennes on Tongue River, Montana, Nov. 18, 1890,” in Redfield Proctor to Secretary of the Interior, December 10, 1890, Reel 1, JPGs 657–662, SC 188, NARA-DC.
29. David Rich Lewis, “Reservation Leadership and the Progressive-Traditional Dichotomy: William Wash and the Northern Utes, 1865–1928,” Ethnohistory 38 (Spring 1991): 124–148; Alexandra Harmon, Indians in the Making: Ethnic Relations and Indian Identities Around Puget Sound (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 178; Andrew H. Fisher, Shadow Tribe: The Making of Columbia River Indian Identity (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010), 122.
30. Loretta Fowler says that Sitting Bull was born in 1853. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 39, 159–160; see also Fowler, Arapahoe Politics; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 895–896; Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier, 150; Julia A. Jordan, continuation of interview of November 2, 1967, with Jess Rowlodge, T-159:7, Doris Duke Collection, University of Oklahoma, University Libraries, Norman (hereafter Doris Duke Collection); Hugh Scott to Post Adjutant, February 10, 1891, in Redfield Proctor to Secretary of the Interior, March 3, 1891, Reel 2, SC 188, NARA-DC.
31. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 894–895.
32. Ibid., 894–898; Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 158–159.
33. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 899.
34. Ibid., 977.
35. Jack Wilson explicitly asserted that only he, not the dancers, had the trance experience. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 772.
36. Ibid., 901, 1032, 1038–1039. An 1887 census records Grant Left Hand and Little Woman as a married couple without children. See “Census of Arapahoe Indians, Cheyenne and Arapahoe Agency, Darlington, Indian Territory, 30 June, 1887,” Cheyenne-Arapaho Lands of Oklahoma Genealogy, http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~itcheyen/1887ArapahoeCensus.html (accessed July 15, 2013).
37. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1069.
38. Ibid., 921, 964–965, 974–975, 1074–1075; see also Kroeber, The Arapaho, 368–397.
39. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1070.
40. “Until the Ghost dance came to the prairie tribes [Kiowa] women had never before been raised to such dignity as to be allowed to wear feathers in their hair.” Ibid., 909; James Mooney, “The Indian Ghost Dance,” in Collections of the Nebraska Historical Society, vol. 16 (Lincoln: Nebraska Historical Society, 1911), 174. For Pawnee women in the Ghost Dance, see Alexander Lesser, Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game: Ghost Dance Revival and Ethnic Identity (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996).
41. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 895; Lesser, Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game.
42. Hugh L. Scott, in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 897; Mrs. Z. A. Parker, in ibid., 917; Judith Vander, Shoshone Ghost Dance Religion: Poetry Songs and Great Basin Context (Chicago: University of Illinois, 1997), 65–66.
43. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1072.
44. Powers, Oglala Religion, 133; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 903; H. L. Scott to Post Adjutant, January 5, 1891, in Secretary of War to Secretary of the Interior, January 21, 1891, Frames 87–92, esp. 92, Reel 2, SC 188, NARA-DC; see also Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 903 (Caddo), 909 (Kiowa); and Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 160.
45. Kroeber, The Arapaho, 154–155; Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 61; Jeffrey D. Anderson, The Four Hills of Life: Northern Arapaho Knowledge and Life Movement (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2008), 3.
46. On the well-lived Arapaho life, see Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 30, 79–80; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 986–989; Kroeber, The Arapaho, 153–154, 156. For parallels among Northern Arapahos, see Anderson, Four Hills of Life, 137–161. For the work and contributions of wives, see Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 62, 77; Jeffrey D. Anderson, Arapaho Women’s Quillwork: Motion, Life, and Creativity (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2013), 116–117.
47. Anderson, Four Hills of Life, 160; Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 62–63.
48. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 73–74; Kroeber, The Arapaho, 156–157.
49. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 39, 156, 158–159; Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 122; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 896; H. L. Scott to Post Adjutant, January 4, 1891, in Secretary of War to Secretary of the Interior, January 21, 1891, SC 188. NARA-DC.
50. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 162.
51. Ibid., 160–161.
52. Grant Left Hand student file, Carlisle Indian Industrial School, Carlisle Indian Industrial School Digital Resource Center, http://carlisleindian.dickinson.edu/student_files/grant-lefthand-student-file (accessed October 8, 2016).
53. Hugh L. Scott to Post Adjutant, January 18, 1891, in Hugh Lenox Scott Papers, Box 6, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. For Boynton, see Andrew Cowell, Alonzo Moss Sr., and William J. C’Hair, Arapaho Stories, Songs, and Prayers: A Bilingual Anthology (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014) 9, 517–519. Hugh Scott claimed that Smith Curley was a Carlisle graduate, but I have been unable to find any record of a Smith Curley (or Curly) at the school. Hugh L. Scott to Post Adjutant, Fort Sill, Oklahoma Territory, January 30, 1891, in L. A. Grant (Acting Secretary of War) to Secretary of the Interior, February 13, 1891, Reel 2, SC 188, NARA-DC; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 820.
54. Grant Left Hand student file, Carlisle Indian Industrial School.
55. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 130, 132, 137.
56. H. L. Scott to Post Adjutant, December 16, 1890, in Assistant Adjutant General to Redfield Proctor, January 7, 1891, Frame 1129, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 780–781.
57. Luther Standing Bear, My People the Sioux (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 217–230; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 808; Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 270; ANSB. The most famous (or notorious) educated Lakota Ghost Dancer was Plenty Horses, a boarding school graduate who, in January 1891, during the period of skirmishing that followed the massacre at Wounded Knee, shot and killed an army officer who was attempting to negotiate a peace. Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places, 29–32.
58. Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 122; Anderson, Four Hills of Life, 206; Anderson, One Hundred Years of Old Man Sage, 62–63. Reinforcing such ideas, Arapahos taught that the Ghost Dance was “another Pipe”; all Arapaho rituals and ceremonies derived authority from the tradition of the sacred Flat Pipe, a gift from the Creator. Cowell, Moss, and C’Hair, Arapaho Stories, Songs, and Prayers, 3.
59. Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 164; Stewart, “Contemporary Document on Wovoka,” 222.
60. Maroukis, Peyote Road, 34–35; Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 295; Kroeber, The Arapaho, 158. For Young Bear and Heap of Crows, see Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 161–163. For Cleaver Warden and Paul Boynton, see Stewart, Peyote Religion, 106–107, 189–191.
61. ARCIA 1890, 178; T. J. Morgan to Bell, Indian Office, November 25, 1890, in SC 188, NARA-DC. Charles Ashley even reported on November 25 that the Ghost Dance excitement was subsiding. Ashley to CIA, November 25, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC.
62. ARCIA 1891, 1:350.
63. ANSB, 8.
1. ANSB, 8; ARCIA 1891, 411; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 74; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 820; Maddra, Hostiles?, 32.
2. For the significance of Sioux “outbreaks” in American policy, see Deloria, Indians in Unexpected Places, 15–51, esp. 21, 27.
3. D. F. Royer to T. J. Morgan, November 8, 1890, M 983, vol. 1, p. 65, RG 94, NARA-DC.
4. As Jerome Greene summarizes the consensus, the Ghost Dance sought (in the anthropologist Jack Goody’s phrase) to “bend time backwards” to recover an ideal past, or alternatively, “to quicken its movement forward” to utopian resolution. Lakotas performed the Ghost Dance to “encourage the anticipated millennium and its promised rejection of white civilization.” Greene, American Carnage, 65–66,71; 72–73, 440 n. 19.
5. Perain Palmer to T. J. Morgan, October 25, 1890, Frame 66, Reel 1; and D. F. Royer to R. V. Belt, October 30, 1890, Frame 71, Reel 1; both at SC 188, NARA-DC; Charles Eastman to Frank Wood, November 11, 1890, copy in Frank Wood to R. V. Belt, November 17, 1890, Frames 145–149, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; James McLaughlin to T. J. Morgan, October 17, 1890, Frames 49–61, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; F. S. Kingsbury to CIA, February 24, 1891, Frames 116–119, Reel 2, SC 188, NARA-DC; Philip F. Wells to James McLaughlin, October 19, 1890, in New Sources of Indian History, 1850–1891, edited by Stanley Vestal (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934); Anonymous [Warren K. Moorhead], “The Red Christ,” The Illustrated American, December 13, 1890, 8; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 168.
6. Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 76. The notion of religion as a means of reconciling cultural contradictions is widespread in religious studies. For a useful example, see Anthony A. Lee, “Reconciling the Other: The Baha’I Faith in America as a Successful Synthesis of Christianity and Islam,” Occasional Papers in Shayki, Babi, and Baha’i Studies 7 (March 2003), http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/bhpapers.htm.
7. Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 110–144, 189–192.
8. Ibid., 194–201.
9. Ibid., 202–208, 224.
10. Ibid., 209–213, 224–228, 202–228; Ostler, Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 217–239.
11. ARCIA 1890, 49.
12. Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 212, 236; Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 154. According to Bishop William Hare of the Protestant Episcopal Church, many Lakotas died in the epidemics of 1889–1890 “not so much from disease as for want of food.” Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 827–828.
13. ARCIA 1889, 152, 184.
14. Charles L. Hyde to Secretary Noble, May 29, 1890, Frame 2, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; McChesney to CIA, June 16, 1890, Frames 8–9, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
15. Gallagher to T. J. Morgan, June 14, 1890, Frame 6, Reel 1, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC; Wright to CIA, June 16, 1890, RG 75, NARA, Kansas City, MO (NARA-KC). Gallagher seems to have believed that his superiors knew what he was talking about, although there is no surviving record of a prior report to Washington about the Ghost Dance; Gallagher’s mention in this letter is the first.
16. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 54–55, 79.
17. Wright to CIA, June 16, 1890, Frames 11–13, Reel 1, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC; Wright to CIA, January 23, 1891, Letters Sent from Rosebud Agency, RG 75, NARA-KC.
18. Clow says that there were 500 Wazhazhas at Pass Creek, but the agent counted 358. Clow, “Rosebud Sioux,” 72; Wright to CIA, February 1, 1890, and Wright to CIA, February 11, 1890, both in Letters Sent from Rosebud Agency, RG 75, NARA-KC.
19. Clow, “Rosebud Sioux,” 71–74; “An act to divide a portion of the reservation of the Sioux Nation of Indians in Dakota into separate reservations and to secure the relinquishment of the Indian title to the remainder, and for other purposes,” March 2, 1889, 25 Stat. 888, in Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 1, compiled and edited by Charles J. Kappler (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1902), http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler/vol1/html_files/SES0328.html#sec2a (accessed September 7, 2015); Wright to CIA, March 27, 1889, Wright to CIA, May 14, 1890, Wright to CIA, July 22, 1890, and Wright to CIA, August 7, 1890, all in Letters Sent from Rosebud Agency, RG 75, NARA-KC.
20. E. G. Bettelyoun to Eliza McHenry Cox, December 6, 1890, Frame 515, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Clow, “Rosebud Sioux,” 74; see also ANSB, 15.
21. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 826; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 40–55.
22. J. O. Gregory to S. S. Sears, February 18, 1890, RG 75, Walker River Agency Press Copy Books, Box 314, NARA–Pacific Region, San Bruno, CA.
23. Hugh L. Scott, quoted in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 896.
24. Ibid., 899; Julia A. Jordan, interview with Jess Rowlodge, April 4, 1968, T-235–2, Doris Duke Collection.
25. Cherokee Commission Report, Entry 310, Irregularly Shaped Papers, Item 78, Box 45A, Folder 5, 39–40, RG 75, NARA-DC.
26. Hagan, Taking Indian Lands, 73–74; Cherokee Commission Report, Entry 310, Irregularly Shaped Papers, Item 78, Box 45A, Folder 4, 57, Folder 5, 40–41, RG 75, NARA-DC.
27. ARCIA 1891, 341–342; quote from Jordan, interview with Jess Rowlodge, April 4, 1968, Doris Duke Collection.
28. Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 297; Anderson, Four Hills of Life, 17.
29. Wissler, “Societies and Ceremonial Associations,” 7–27, 62.
30. Jeffrey Ostler, “Conquest and the State: Why the United States Deployed Massive Military Force to Suppress the Lakota Ghost Dance,” Pacific Historical Review 65(2) May, 1996: 217–48.
31. ARCIA 1889, 184.
32. For Spotted Tail and Pratt, see Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 51–56.
33. Robert M. Utley, “The Ordeal of Plenty Horses,” American Heritage 26, no. 1 (December 1974), http://www.americanheritage.com/content/ordeal-plenty-horses?page=show (accessed September 28, 2013).
34. P. P. Palmer to CIA, December 1, 1890, JPGs 417–421, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
35. W. T. Selwyn to E. W. Foster, November 25, 1890, Frames 301–306, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
36. Pilling, Bibliography of the Siouan Languages, 69; W. Fletcher Johnson, Life of Sitting Bull and History of the Indian War of 1890–91 (Edgewood Publishing Co., 1891), 162; V. Edward Bates, In Search of Spirit: A Sioux Family Memoir (Spokane, WA: Marquette Books, 2009), 178–179, 183–185.
37. Bates, In Search of Spirit.
38. Ibid.
39. Little Wound quoted in “The Indians’ Side,” Washington Evening Star, January 28, 1891, 3.
40. E. W. Foster to T. J. Morgan, November 25, 1890, Frame 282, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
41. The details of Cook’s account of Gallagher’s confrontation with Ghost Dancers on September 7 are exactly the same as those in the report of E. B. Reynolds, who got those details from Gallagher. E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 25, 1890, Frames 32–36, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC. Cook also says that Gallagher was his source: “The Agent told me this morning that yesterday he went down to see with his own eyes the dance.” Excerpt from Cook to Hare, September 8, 1890, in W. H. Hare to T. J. Morgan, September 11, 1890, Frames 37–40, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC. For Cook’s education, see Pilling, Bibliography of the Siouan Languages, 20.
1. ANSB, 1.
2. Ibid., 2.
3. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 26–30.
4. The Lime Crazy Lodge continued to meet as late as 1906. Loretta Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 121.
5. Anderson, Four Hills of Life, 154; Fowler, Wives and Husbands, 150.
6. Red Cloud eventually parlayed his leadership into federal recognition as head chief of all the Lakotas (an office that did not exist in Lakota custom) during treaty negotiations with the United States in 1868. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 52–53, 313–314. Little Wound quoted in Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 67.
7. Hyde, Red Cloud’s Folk, 315.
8. Thomas Powers, The Killing of Crazy Horse (New York: Random House/Vintage, 2010), 224.
9. Ellis, “Reservation Akicitas,” 200.
10. For instance, among Brules, Crow Dog was chief of police when he began to feud with Spotted Tail, the leading chief. After he was forced out of the police force (for other reasons), Crow Dog continued the feud, and in 1881, in a brazen, daylight shooting, he assassinated Spotted Tail. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 150; Stanley Vestal, Sitting Bull, Champion of the Sioux: A Biography (1932; revised edition, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957), 251–533, 272, 287; Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 47–63, 205; Frank Bennett Fiske, Life and Death of Sitting Bull (Fort Yates, ND: Pioneer-Arrow Print, 1933), 50.
11. William T. Hagan, Indian Police and Judges: Experiments in Acculturation and Control (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1966), esp. 43; Robert Utley, “Indian Police and Judges,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 57, no. 3 (July 1966): 129–130. For “the multitude are bitterly opposed,” see ARCIA 1885, 22; for “will not serve,” see McChesney in ARCIA 1890, 45; for George Sword, see Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 74–75. See also Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 28; Ellis, “Reservation Akicitas,” 195 n. 17. For the percentage of the force remaining in 1890, see Ellis, “Reservation Akicitas,” 200.
12. Greene, American Carnage, 72–74.
13. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 84. Utley claims that Short Bull did not begin dancing again until September, but Short Bull himself recalls that he began in May, following the lead of Scatter and others. ANSB, 9. Kicking Bear allegedly collaborated with Good Thunder to initiate the dances at Pine Ridge. See D. F. Royer to T. J. Morgan, November 8, 1890, Frames 95–99, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
14. George Wright to CIA, December 5, 1890, JPG 545, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 94.
15. Royer to CIA, November 27, 1890, JPGs 366–367, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
16. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 97; Perain Palmer to CIA, October 11 and 25, November 10 and 28, 1890, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
17. McLaughlin to CIA, October 17, 1890, Frames 49–61, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 98. Carignan reported that school attendance fell from “about 40” students to “8 or 9” in two months. “Report of John M. Carignan” (undated), in Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 1. Years later, Carignan recalled attendance dropping from ninety to three. Carignan, in Fiske, Life and Death of Sitting Bull, 32; Mary C. Collins, “A Short Autobiography,” in Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 61–72.
18. McLaughlin to T. J. Morgan, November 29, 1890, Entry 310, Irregularly Shaped Papers, Item 128, Box 76, Folder 1, RG 75, NARA-DC.
19. For the camps, see D. F. Royer to T. J. Morgan, November 8, 1890, M 983, vol. 1, pp. 62–66, RG 94, NARA-DC; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 103, 105.
20. Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 235, 250; “Dr. V. T. McGillycuddy on the Ghost Dance,” in Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 87–89; D. F. Royer to T. J. Morgan, November 8, 1890, M 983, vol. 1, pp. 62–66, RG 94, NARA-DC. Little Wound’s Ghost Dance vision itself is in Boyd, Recent Indian Wars, 189–191.
21. E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 25, 1890, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; ARCIA 1890, 49.
22. Utley conflates these two events into one. But a close reading of the sources reveals that Gallagher arrived at Torn Belly’s camp shortly before he made his annual report in late August and Reynolds arrived on September 21. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 92–94; E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 25, 1890, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; ARCIA 1890, 49.
23. Perain P. Palmer to T. J. Morgan, October 11, 1890, Frames 135–136, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
24. Royer to CIA, November 11, 1890, Frames 135–136, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Eastman, From the Deep Woods to Civilization, 94–95.
25. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 108.
26. Not all wicasa wakan took up the Ghost Dance; American Horse, who, as we have seen, was a leading “progressive” chief at Pine Ridge, was also a holy man who opposed the new religion throughout 1890. For American Horse as a holy man, see Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, xiv, 68, 283.
27. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 823; Boyd, Recent Indian Wars, 186; Holler, Black Elk’s Religion, 135–136; Mary Collins, [no title], The Word Carrier, November 27, 1890, fragment of a clipping in Collins Papers, Box 2, Accession H80–014-F38, South Dakota State Archives, Pierre.
28. For a description of religious seizures, see E. B. Reynolds to T. J. Morgan, September 25, 1890, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; and Mrs. Z. A. Parker’s account in “Ghost Dance at Pine Ridge,” Journal of American Folklore 4, no. 13 (April–June 1891): 160–162.
29. McLaughlin, My Friend the Indian, 201–207.
30. Marla N. Powers, Oglala Women: Myth, Ritual, and Reality (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 72; Amiotte, “Lakota Sun Dance,” 77.
31. At the October Ghost Dance on White Clay Creek observed by Mrs. Z. A. Parker, only about 110 dancers—of some 300 to 400—wore ghost shirts or dresses. According to Mrs. Parker, a woman visionary made garments for women in the dance. Mrs. Z. A. Parker, in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 916; see also “Ghost Dance at Pine Ridge,” Journal of American Folklore 4, no. 13 (April–June 1891): 160.
32. Arthur Amiotte, personal communication, October 25, 2014. With so many participants, the sweat lodges of the Ghost Dance were not small structures, but as James Mooney noted, they were “made sufficiently large to accommodate a considerable number of persons standing inside at the same time.” Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 823.
33. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1064, 1072–1073.
34. Karl Markus Kreis, ed. Lakotas, Black Robes, and Holy Women: German Reports from the Indian Mission in South Dakota, 1886–1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), 159.
35. Sword quoted in Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 80, 161–163. See also Lewis, The Medicine Men, 43; McLaughlin to T. J. Morgan, October 17, 1890, Frame 58, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
1. Quoted in Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 342.
2. For Little Wound and American Horse, see “The Indians’ Side,” Washington Evening Star, January 28, 1891, 3; Josephine Waggoner, Witness: A Hunkpapha Historian’s Strong-Heart Song of the Lakotas (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2013), 222.
3. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 110.
4. President Benjamin Harrison to Honorable Secretary of the Interior, November 13, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC.
5. “The Indian Situation,” extract from the Sioux Falls Press, December 2, 1890, in Bishop Hare to Morgan, December 5, 1890, JPGs 556–558, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; W. Hare to Morgan, December 5, 1890, Frame 553, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
6. M. A. DeWolfe Howe, Life and Labors of Bishop Hare: Apostle to the Sioux (New York: Sturgis & Walton, 1914), 237. For the schools established by Episcopalian missionaries, see Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 163.
7. Sioux Falls Press, “The Indian Situation.”
8. Ibid.
9. E. B. Reynolds to CIA, November 26, 1890, JPGs 331–333, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
10. For a summary of the boundary controversy, see Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 78.
11. Sioux Falls Press, “The Indian Situation.”
12. Ibid.
13. Palmer to T. J. Morgan, December 9, 1890, JPG 561, Reel 2, SC 188, NARA-DC.
14. Palmer to T. J. Morgan, November 10, 1890, SC 188, NARA-DC.
15. Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 168, 273; Perain Palmer to T. J. Morgan, November 10, 1890, JPG 125, Reel 1, and Perain Palmer to T. J. Morgan, December 9, 1890, JPG 560–562, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
16. DeMallie, “Lakota Ghost Dance,” 399.
17. Reynolds to CIA, September 25, 1890, Frames 31–36, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; DeMallie, Sixth Grandfather, 266. For Kicking Bear, see Edward Ashley journal typescript, entry for September 3, 1890, Center for Western History, Augustana College, Sioux Falls, SD; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 824.
18. Ashley journal typescript, entry for September 2, 1890.
19. Kreis, Lakotas, Black Robes, and Holy Women, 40.
20. Ashley journal typescript, entry for September 14, 1890.
21. Reynolds to CIA, September 25, 1890. Little Horse also related being carried to the Messiah by “two holy eagles.” See Boyd, Recent Indian Wars, 193.
22. Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 165.
23. For converts’ incomplete understanding of Christianity, see Howe, Life and Labors of Bishop Hare, 236.
24. Ostler, Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 189; Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 164; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 38–39.
25. Ostler, Plains Sioux and US Colonialism, 188–189. For the duty of chiefs, see Wissler, “Societies and Ceremonial Associations,” 11.
26. Quoted in Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 169.
27. Eugene Buechel and Paul Manhart, eds., Lakota Dictionary (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 384, 445.
28. Powers, Oglala Religion, 128.
29. Ashley journal typescript, entry for October 26, 1890.
30. ARCIA 1891, 1:350.
31. Craft quoted in Andersson, Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890, 182; “In Darkest America,” The Times (Philadelphia), January 8, 1891, clipping in Reel 1, JPG 90, SC 188, NARA-DC; John Gray to CIA, December 20, 1890, Reel 1, JPGs 674–675, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC.
1. Emphasis in original, Royer to Belt, November 15, 1890, Frame 156, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 111. The exact dates of the tour by Ashley and Clark are unknown, but given that most of the Wazhazhas fled Pass Creek on November 20, when the army invaded, the tour must have taken place before then. November 20 was also the day that Bishop William Hare gave an interview to the press about his recent trip to Rosebud Reservation. Hare left Rosebud the day Ashley left on his journey with Clark, which I estimate to have been about November 13. See Sioux Falls Press, “The Indian Situation.”
2. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 114–115.
3. ANSB, 10; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 78. According to Short Bull, these Brules had received word that they were to move to Pine Ridge and settle there and were preparing to move about the time the army arrived.
4. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 118; ANSB, 11–12.
5. Interview transcript in William Selwyn to E. W. Foster, November 25, 1890, in Foster to T. J. Morgan, November 25, 1890, Frames 281–306, SC 188, NARA-DC; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 799–801, quote on 801.
6. Selwyn to E. W. Foster, November 25, 1890, in Foster to T. J. Morgan, November 25, 1890, Frames 281–306, SC 188, NARA-DC.
7. Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 39, 42. The letters may not be credible. Although there was no widespread killing or looting in the fall of 1890, one of the correspondents, Brings Plenty, claimed in an undated letter: “There is lots fight going on at Black Hill I am in it all of them. We Kill lots white people and take away everything they got.” On December 7, 1890, Spotted Sheep advised his brother-in-law Kills Standing, “There are 20 companies of soldiers at this place. And we thought fighting them but gave it up until spring. Then is the time we decided on fighting.”
8. ANSB, 12.
9. C. H. Carlton to Assistant Adjutant General, January 11, 1891, in Wesley Merrit to Adjutant General, January 21, 1891, Reel 2, JPGs 83–96, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC; Charles Adams to CIA, November 5, 1890, Frames 90–92, Reel 1, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC. For Lakota and Arapaho letters, see Grinnell, “Messiah Superstition,” 63.
10. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 121.
11. ANSB, 12.
12. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 121–122.
13. Ibid., 127.
14. Ibid., 130–131.
15. Ibid., 132.
16. ANSB, 13.
17. “Lo the Poor Indian Has Census Troubles, Too!” New York Herald, December 7, 1890, 16; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 137; Kreis, Lakotas, Black Robes, and Holy Women, 143.
18. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 867.
19. Shangreau quoted in Warren K. Moorehead (unattributed), “Sioux on the Warpath,” Illustrated American, January 10, 1891, 269–270 (my thanks to Rani-Henrik Andersson for this source); Short Bull letter in Greene, American Carnage, 160, 164–165; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 867.
20. Sitting Bull quoted in Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 77; “Note on Kicking Bear,” in Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 341.
21. McLaughlin to CIA, November 19, 1890, Frames 185–194, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
22. James McLaughlin to T. J. Morgan, October 17, 1890, Frames 49–61, Reel 1, SC 188, RG 75, NARA-DC.
23. Walker, Lakota Belief and Ritual, 96.
24. Quoted in Greene, American Carnage, 179.
25. McLaughlin to CIA, October 17, 1890, Frame 59, Reel 1, SC 188, NARA-DC.
26. Robert M. Utley, The Lance and the Shield: The Life and Times of Sitting Bull (New York: Ballantine, 1994), 32–33.
27. Greene, American Carnage, 179–181; Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 204–210; John Lone Man, as told to Robert Higheagle, in Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 45–55; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 146–166; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 857–859.
28. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 857–858.
29. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 174; Greene, American Carnage, 199; Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 247; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 861, 867.
30. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 167–186.
31. ANSB, 15.
32. Ibid.
33. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 140–142; Moorehead, “Sioux on the Warpath.”
34. For the camp at Drexel Mission, see Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 868. Short Bull’s memoir departs from the official history in the one small detail of his staying behind. See, for example, ibid., 866–867.
35. Coleman, Voices of Wounded Knee, 250; Jensen, ed., Voices of the American West, 1:214–215.
36. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 187–199.
37. The foregoing description of the massacre is based primarily on Richardson, Wounded Knee, 259–274. Rough Feather and White Lance quoted in Smith, Moon of Popping Trees, 190–191. See also Utley, Last Days, 200–230; Greene, American Carnage, 220–243.
38. On the supposed invulnerability felt by young Indians, some refer to the alleged exhortation by a holy man named Yellow Bird during the search for guns that army bullets “cannot penetrate us… they will not penetrate you.” See Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 210; Hyde, Sioux Chronicle, 301.
39. Horn Cloud quoted in Jensen, ed., Voices of the Amerian West, 1:192, 194–195; Richardson, Wounded Knee, 258–259.
40. Horn Cloud quoted in Jensen, Voices of the American West, 1:191, 425 n. 4; Philip Burnham, Song of Dewey Beard: Last Survivor of the Little Bighorn (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014), 58–59.
41. ANSB, 16.
42. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 226–227, 231; Greene, American Carnage, 334.
43. ANSB, 18.
44. Red Cloud in T. A. Bland, A Brief History of the Late Military Invasion of the Home of the Sioux (Washington, DC: National Indian Defence Association, 1891), 22; Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 231, 233–234, 251.
45. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 232, 239–240, 253–254; Greene, American Carnage, 324.
46. ANSB, 18–19.
47. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 260; ANSB, 19.
1. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 913.
2. The tale of Wovoka’s disillusionment is a popular story. See for example, Paul Bailey, Wovoka, The Indian Messiah (Los Angeles: Westernlore Press, 1957); Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 284–285.
3. ARCIA 1891, 301.
4. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 903.
5. Dangberg, “Wovoka,” 34, 49; Maddra, Hostiles?, 187; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 265.
6. Alice Beck Kehoe, The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1989), 44.
7. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 653, 927.
8. Mooney to Henshaw, January 19, 1891, Records of the Bureau of American Ethnology (BAE), Series 1, Correspondence, Letters Received, 1888–1906, Box 109, National Anthropological Archives (NAA), Washington, DC.
9. James Mooney, “The Indian Ghost Dance,” in Albert Watkins, ed., Collections of the Nebraska Historical Society, 16 (1911): 171.
10. Mooney to Henshaw, January 27, 1891, Records of the BAE, Series 1, Correspondence, Letters Received, 1888–1906, Box 109, NAA.
11. Moses, The Indian Man, 18–51; Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 63–121.
12. Moses, The Indian Man, 51.
13. Hugh L. Scott to Post Adjutant, January 18, 1891, Hugh Lenox Scott Papers, Box 6, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
14. Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier, 148.
15. Mooney, “The Indian Ghost Dance.”
16. Ibid., 171–172.
17. Warden became a longtime consultant for anthropologists and would coauthor several studies. See Fowler, Arapahoe Politics, 325, n. 67.
18. Mooney, “The Indian Ghost Dance,” 172; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 918.
19. “It is awful,” he reported, using the word in its original sense as a synonym for “sacred” or “awe-inspiring.” Mooney to Henshaw, January 27, 1891, Records of the BAE, Series 1, Correspondence, Letters Received, 1888–1906, Box 109, NAA.
20. Quoted in Hattori, “‘And Some of Them Swear Like Pirates,” 243–244.
21. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 908–909.
22. Ibid., 911.
23. Ibid., 911–914.
24. Ibid., 913–914; Louise Saddleblanket, interview with William Bittle, June 27, 1967, T-56–2, Doris Duke Collection.
25. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 903.
26. Ibid., 900.
27. Ibid.
28. “The Messiah Letter (Free Rendering),” in ibid., 781.
29. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 903; Cowell, Moss, and C’Hair, Arapaho Stories, Songs, and Prayers, 481, 516.
30. “The Messiah Letter,” in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 780–781.
31. Ibid., 781.
32. Ibid. The Messiah Letter is a rare example of Wovoka invoking the name of Jesus, and one wonders if he did so by way of explaining his teachings to Plains believers, who had much exposure to Christian teachings and perhaps were curious to know if the promised Messiah was Christ or some other messiah. Ibid., 781.
33. Cowell, Moss, and C’Hair, Arapaho Stories, Songs, and Poetry, 478.
34. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 901.
35. Ibid., 767, 816.
36. Richmond L. Clow, “The Lakota Ghost Dance After 1890,” South Dakota History 20 (Winter 1990): 324–327.
37. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 1059–1060.
38. Ibid., 655. Mooney mentions that he consulted with Fire Thunder, whom he describes as an emissary to Nevada, but no other source names Fire Thunder as an emissary. Ibid., 1060. I am indebted to Sam Maddra for this argument about Mooney’s problematic sources at Pine Ridge. Maddra, Hostiles?, 30–34.
39. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 869, 879, plate XCIX (between pages 872–873); Moses, The Indian Man, 63.
40. Although the army scout Arthur Chapman had interviewed Wovoka, Chapman’s report was not published until sometime in 1891, and it is not clear whether Mooney had seen it. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 766.
41. C. C. Warner to James Mooney, October 12, 1891, in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 767.
42. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 767–768.
43. Ibid., 768.
44. Ibid.
45. Ibid.
46. Ibid., 768–769.
47. Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 227.
48. Mooney, “The Indian Ghost Dance,” 179; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 768.
49. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 768–770.
50. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 118.
51. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 771.
52. Ibid., 772.
53. Ibid., 773.
54. Ibid., 774.
55. Ibid., 774–775.
56. For “spiritual stock in trade,” see ibid., 775. In The Ghost Dance Religion (775), Mooney implies that he left the same night, but in “The Indian Ghost Dance” (179), he explains that he took the photo the next morning. The photograph is in the Smithsonian digital collections, http://sirismm.si.edu/naa/baegn/gn_01659a.jpg (accessed July 9, 2010).
57. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 775.
58. Ibid., 778.
59. Ibid., 778.
60. Ibid., 778–779; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 185.
61. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 779.
62. Ibid., 779.
63. Ibid., 778.
64. Ibid., 780.
65. James Mooney, report of November 1893, BAE Monthly Reports, MS 4733, NAA; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 903.
1. Regna Darnell, And Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology (Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1998), 78.
2. Worster, A River Running West, 109–382; Wallace Stegner, Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the American West (1953; reprint, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982).
3. John Wesley Powell in “Surveys of the Territories,” 45th Congress, 3rd Session, 1878–1879, House Miscellaneous Document 5, 26–27.
4. Thomas L. Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: The American Social Science Association and the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (1977; revised edition, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 24–47; Dorothy Ross, The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 53–57.
5. Neil M. Judd, The Bureau of American Ethnology: A Partial History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1967); Virginia H. M. Noelke, “The Origins and Early History of the Bureau of American Ethnology,” PhD dissertation, University of Texas, 1974.
6. Curtis M. Hinsley, Savages and Scientists: The Smithsonian Institution and the Development of American Anthropology, 1846–1910 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1981), 167.
7. Worster, A River Running West, 560–562.
8. Hinsley, Savages and Scientists, 190–230; Darnell, And Along Came Boas, 76.
9. Ross, Origins of American Social Science, 53–57; Haskell, Emergence of Professional Social Science, 63, esp. n. 2.
10. Ross, Origins of American Social Science, 61; Haskell, Emergence of Professional Social Science, 117.
11. Worster, A River Running West, 437–440; James Kirkpatrick Flack, Desideratum in Washington: The Intellectual Community in the Capital City, 1870–1900 (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 1975).
12. Worster, A River Running West, 420.
13. John Wesley Powell, quoted in Worster, A River Running West, 456.
14. Powell in “Surveys of the Territories,” 26–27; J. W. Powell, “Sketch of the Mythology of North American Indians,” in First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology 1879–80 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1881), 30–31, 40, 42–43.
15. Moses, The Indian Man, 2; Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 35.
16. Luke Gibbons, “Unapproved Roads: Post-Colonialism and Irish Identity,” in Distant Relations: Cercanías Distantes/Clann I gCéin, edited by Trisha Ziff (Santa Monica, CA: Smart Art Press, 1995), 5–6; Nicholas P. Canny, “Ideology of English Colonization: From Ireland to America,” William and Mary Quarterly 30, no. 4 (October 1973): 597–598; Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995); The Times quoted in Kerby A. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland the Irish Exodus to North America (New York: Oxford University Press), 307.
17. Charles Mann, “How the Potato Changed the World,” Smithsonian.com, November 2011, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-the-potato-changed-the-world-108470605/?page=6 (accessed July 25, 2016).
18. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, 323; Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 48–52; Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White, passim.
19. Pádraig Siadhail, “‘The Indian Man’ and the Irishman: James Mooney and Irish Folklore,” New Hibernia Review 14, no. 2 (Summer 2010): 22.
20. Moses, The Indian Man, 4. The concept of the immigrant as exile comes from Matthew Frye Jacobsen, Special Sorrows: The Diasporic Imagination of Irish, Polish, and Jewish Immigrants to the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
21. Eire Stevens to “Mr. M.,” n.d., shorthand notes in Mooney Papers, Box 1, NAA; Moses, The Indian Man, 5.
22. “The ‘Indian Man,’” Chicago Inter-Ocean, August 20, 1893, clipping in James Mooney vertical file, NAA.
23. O’Toole quoted in Joy Porter, “‘Primitive’ Discourse: Aspects of Contemporary North American Indian Representations of the Irish and of Contemporary Irish Representations of North American Indians,” American Studies 49, nos. 3–4 (Fall–Winter 2008): 65; Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Color, 51, 53–54; Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 263; Alexander Saxton, The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 117–121; Brigham D. Madsen, The Shoshone Frontier and the Bear River Massacre (Salt Lake: University of Utah Press, 1985), 59.
24. James Jeffrey Roche, Life of John Boyle O’Reilly, Together with His Complete Poems and Speeches (New York: Mershon Co., 1891), 142; see also Jacobsen, Special Sorrows, 57–58.
25. 1870 US census data for Wayne County, IN, University of Virginia, Historical Census Browser.
26. Norman Dunbar Palmer, The Irish Land League Crisis (London: Octagon, 1978), 34; Mann, “How the Potato Changed the World.”
27. Roche quoted in Jacobsen, Special Sorrows, 181.
28. Gelya Frank, “Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology,” American Anthropologist 99, no. 4 (December 1997): 740.
29. Moses, The Indian Man, 4–5; Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 38.
30. Mooney to J. W. Powell, June 9, 1882; Mooney to Garrick Mallery, July 8, 1882; Mooney to Powell, February 14, 1883; all in Records of the BAE, Series 1, Correspondence, Letters Received 1879–1887, Box 80, NAA.
31. Daniel Mooney to James Mooney, January 4, 1899, James Mooney Papers, Box 1, Folder “Letters,” NAA; “James Mooney,” American Anthropologist, new series (1922): 209–213; Moses, The Indian Man, 163. For Irish social science and the national museum, see M. C. Knowles to James Mooney, December 13, 1911, James Mooney Papers, Box 1, Folder “Letters,” NAA; Siadhail, “‘The Indian Man,’” 28. The National Museum of Science and Art succeeded the earlier Dublin Museum of Science and Art. See National Museum of Ireland, “History of the Museum,” http://www.museum.ie/en/list/history-of-the-museum.aspx (accessed August 21, 2015).
32. Earlham College, “History,” http://www.earlham.edu/about/campus-history/history/ (accessed August 17, 2015); Moses, The Indian Man, 11.
33. Powell, First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, xxxiii.
34. Moses, The Indian Man, 17.
35. Ibid., 175–176; James Mooney, “The Medical Mythology of Ireland,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 24, no. 125 (1887): 136–166; “The Funeral Customs of Ireland,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 25, no. 128 (1888): 243–296; “Holiday Customs of Ireland,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 26, no. 130 (1889): 377–427.
36. James Mooney, “Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees,” in Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1891 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1892), 313, 318–319; Mooney to Henshaw, October 29, 1887, and Mooney to Powell, September 19, 1888, Records of the BAE, Series 1, Correspondence, Letters Received 1879–1887, Box 80, NAA; Moses, The Indian Man, 24; Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 82.
37. Mooney, “Medical Mythology of Ireland,” 136. Ideas of Irish superiority took on new salience as Irish immigrants and their leaders responded to the mania for Anglo-Saxonism and resurgent American nativism in the United States in the 1890s. Jacobsen, Special Sorrows, 31.
38. Mooney, “Medical Mythology of Ireland,” 136; James Mooney, “In Memoriam: Washington Matthews,” American Anthropologist, new series 7, no. 3 (July–September 1905): 520; see also Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 53.
39. MS 3249, NAA; Mooney, “Ghost Dance Religion,” 657.
40. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 657.
41. Ibid., 659–691.
42. For the bureau’s archiving of the Code of Handsome Lake, see Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Death and Rebirth of the Seneca (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 342 n. 2.
43. Mooney to Henshaw, January 19, 1891, NAA.
44. Parker’s account appeared originally in the New York Times and was reprinted in the Journal of American Folklore. Mrs. Z. A. Parker quoted in “Ghost Dance at Pine Ridge,” Journal of American Folklore 4, no. 13 (April–June 1891): 160; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 916.
45. Vestal, New Sources of Indian History, 44; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 772.
46. “Address of Mr. James Mooney,” 174.
47. Compare Mooney’s field notes of his interview with Asatitola in Mooney, “Vocabulary,” MS 1915, 16–18, NAA, with his account of the man’s vision in Ghost Dance Religion, 911.
48. General Nelson A. Miles to Adjutant General, November 28, 1890, M 983, vol. 1, p. 283, RG 94, NARA-DC. Mooney attributes the initial eruption of gunfire at Wounded Knee to a misunderstanding, but labels the use of Hotchkiss guns and the pursuit of fleeing Indians as “simply a massacre.” Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 869.
49. Sword quoted in Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 797.
50. Ibid., 797–798; Short Bull, in Natalie Curtis, The Indians’ Book: An Offering by the American Indians of Indian Lore, Musical and Narrative, to Form a Record of the Songs and Legends of Their Race (1907), reprinted in Maddra, Hostiles?, 208.
51. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 821.
52. Ibid., 819–821.
53. Ibid., 848, 854–855.
54. Ibid., 857, 859, 861.
55. Ibid., 929–930.
56. Ibid., 936–938.
57. Ibid., 939, 941–942.
58. Ibid., 942–944.
59. Ibid., 945.
60. Ibid., 946–947.
61. Ibid., 947.
62. Taves, Fits, Trances, and Visions, 77. Indeed, in the United States fears of how religious spirit possessed dark-skinned people lingered behind much of the elite critique that Mooney relays. At the revival tent of Maria Woodworth in Oakland in January 1890, shortly before the riot broke out, the mostly white crowds were attending the harangues of a black preacher. “Ring the Riot Alarm!” San Francisco Examiner, January 9, 1890, 2.
63. Taves, Fits, Trances, and Visions, 349.
64. Ibid., 348–349; William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1902; reprint, New York: Penguin, 1982).
65. “Plenty of False Christs,” New York Times, November 30, 1890; “Messianic Excitements Among White Americans,” Journal of American Folklore 4, no. 13 (April–June 1891): 163–165.
66. Taves, Fits, Trances, and Visions, 241–242.
67. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 922.
68. This view was first formulated in 1871 by the famed British anthropologist E. B. Tylor. Spiritualism—the contacting of spirits of the deceased through ritualistic séances—had been a subject of popular controversy and fascination for much of the nineteenth century. Tylor explained it as a remnant of ancient animist religion that lingered exclusively in lower-class people (even though he met Spiritualists from all classes at the séances he attended for his research). Taves, Fits, Trances, and Visions, 199–200.
69. Buckley quoted in ibid., 245.
70. Ibid., 245–247.
71. Frederick Morgan Davenport, Primitive Traits in Religious Revivals (1905; reprint, New York: Negro Universities Press, 1968), 32–44, 285–286.
72. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 888.
73. Ibid., 782–783.
74. Scott, Some Memories of a Soldier, 151, 157–158; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 914; Julia Jordan, interview with Cecil Horse, July 26, 1967, T-25, Doris Duke Collection; Louise Saddleblanket, interview with William Bittle, June 27, 1967, T-56–2, Doris Duke Collection.
75. Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 914.
76. Ibid., 653, 927.
77. BAE Monthly Reports, MS 4733, NAA.
78. J. W. Powell, “Introduction,” in Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology 1892–93, 2 vols. (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896), vol. 1, ix.
79. Ibid., lx–lxi.
80. Ibid., lxi.
81. Langley to Powell, May 25, 1897, Collection RU 34, vol. 44, pp. 60–61, Smithsonian Institution Archives.
82. Powell to Langley, May 26, 1897, RU 31, Box 75, Folder 9, Smithsonian Institution Archives.
1. F. S. Kingsbury to CIA, February 24, 1891, Frames 116–119, Reel 2, SC 188, NARA-DC.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. See, for example, the cartoon available through the Library of Congress at http://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/ppmsca/28800/28855v.jpg (accessed July 28, 2016); Charles Postel, The Populist Vision (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
5. The historian Peter Brown points out that saints became a mainstay in Christian theology only in the fourth century A.D., when Romans realized that praying to them provided an idealized reflection of their need for high-placed “friends” who could secure them favors with the imperial court. The saints allowed Christians to “articulate and render manageable urgent, muffled debates on the nature of power in their own world, and to examine in the searching light of ideal relationships with ideal figures, the relation between power, mercy, and justice as practiced around them.” Peter Brown, The Cult of the Saints: Its Rise and Function in Latin Christianity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), 63.
6. The notion of religion as a means of “reconciling the unreconcilable” and dissolving or resolving contradictions is widespread in religious studies. See, for example, Anthony A. Lee, “Reconciling the Other: The Baha’i Faith in America as Successful Synthesis of Christianity and Islam,” Occasional Papers in Shayki, Babi and Baha’i Studies 7, no. 2 (March 2003), http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/bhpapers.htm (accessed August 28, 2014).
7. See, for example, David M. Kennedy and Lizabeth Cohen, The American Pageant, 16th ed. (New York: Wadsworth, 2016), 579; John Murrin et al., Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, 6th ed. (Boston: Wadsworth Cengage, 2011), 501.
8. Clow, “Lakota Ghost Dance After 1890,” 332–333; Thomas H. Lewis, The Medicine Men: Oglala Sioux Ceremony and Healing (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 112–113; James H. Howard, The Canadian Sioux (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 174–175, 182; Alice Beck Kehoe, The Ghost Dance: Ethnohistory and Revitalization (Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press, 2006), 50.
9. Clow, “Lakota Ghost Dance After 1890”; Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 76; Dangberg, “Wovoka,” 34, 49; Maddra, Hostiles?, 187; Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 265; Lewis, The Medicine Men, 112–113.
10. Lesser, Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game, 67, 77; Murie, “Pawnee Indian Societies,” 636.
11. Lesser, Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game, 68; Murie, “Pawnee Indian Societies,” 636.
12. Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 87; Louise Saddleblanket, interview with William Bittle, June 27, 1967, T-56–2, Doris Duke Collection.
13. Dayna Bowker Lee, “A Social History of Caddoan Peoples: Cultural Adaptation and Persistence in a Native American Community,” PhD dissertation, University of Oklahoma, 1998, 260–264; Elsie Clews Parson, “Notes on the Caddo,” Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 57 (1941): 47–48.
14. Benjamin R. Kracht, “The Kiowa Ghost Dance, 1894–1916: An Unheralded Revitalization Movement,” Ethnohistory 39, no. 4 (Autumn 1992): 466–468.
15. Clark Wissler, “General Discussion of Shamanistic and Dancing Societies,” Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 11, Societies of the Plains Indians, pt. 12 (1916): 868–871; see also Lesser, Pawnee Ghost Dance Hand Game.
16. Kracht, “Kiowa Ghost Dance,” 469.
17. Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 154, 160–164.
18. Stewart, Peyote Religion, 106.
19. Frank Rzeczkowski, Uniting the Tribes: The Rise and Fall of Pan-Indian Community on the Crow Reservation (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2012).
20. Julia A. Jordan, interview with Myrtle Lincoln, July 30, 1970, T-613, 1, 20, Doris Duke Collection.
21. Wacker, Heaven Below, 6; Cecil M. Robeck Jr., The Azusa Street Mission and Revival: The Birth of the Global Pentecostal Movement (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 2006).
22. Du Bois, “1870 Ghost Dance,” 2.
23. Parsons, “Notes on the Caddo,” 49–50. For similar remarks by Kiowa Christians, see Kracht, “Kiowa Ghost Dance,” 470–471.
24. Julia A. Jordan, interview with Myrtle Lincoln, July 30, 1970, T-613, Doris Duke Collection.
25. Smoak, Ghost Dances and Identity, 118.
1. ANSB, 19.
2. Eleanor Hannah, “Fort Sheridan,” Encyclopedia of Chicago, http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/478.html (accessed December 28, 2014); “Nelson Appleton Miles,” US Army History Center, http://www.history.army.mil/books/cg&csa/miles-na (accessed October 10, 2016). A useful source is the “National Register of Historic Places Inventory—Nomination Form” for the tower, available at: http://ihpa.greatarc.com/pdfs/200797.pdf (accessed December 28, 2014).
3. ANSB, 20; Warren, Buffalo Bill’s America, 417.
4. McCoy, “Short Bull,” 60; Wildhage, “Material on Short Bull,” 35–36, 38.
5. Warren, Buffalo Bill’s America, 538–540.
6. Utley, Last Days of the Sioux Nation, 283; Students and Faculty of Crazy Horse School, Pute Tiyospaye (Lip’s Camp): The History and Culture of a Sioux Indian Village (Wanblee, SD: Crazy Horse School, 1978), 9.
7. Maddra, Hostiles?, 209.
8. Ibid., 211.
9. Ibid., 210.
10. Ibid., 209.
11. Ibid.
12. McCoy, “Short Bull,” 61; Lothar Dräger, “Short Bull, Apostel der Ghost Dance Religion bei den Lakota, als Showman und Maler,” Amerindian Research (2012): 92; Tom Shortbull, personal communication, August 2, 2016; Maddra, Hostiles?, 209.
13. Bates, In Search of Spirit, 226–229.
14. Ibid., 229, 232–233.
15. Ibid., 218, 235–236, 192.
16. Burnham, Song of Dewey Beard, 104–105.
17. Ibid., 136.
18. See, for example, Mooney, “Myths of the Cherokee (1908),” in James Mooney’s History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees, edited by George Ellison (Fairview, NC: Bright Mountain Books, 1992), 181. “The older people still cling to their ancient rites and sacred traditions, but the dance and the ballplay wither and the Indian day is nearly spent.”
19. Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 477–478.
20. James Mooney, “The Mescal Plant and Ceremony,” Therapeutic Gazette, 3rd series, 12 (1896): 7–11; “The Kiowa Peyote Rite,” Am Ur-Quell, new series 1 (1897): 329–333; Moses, The Indian Man, 145–154.
21. ARCIA 1886, 130; ARCIA 1888, 98–99; quotes from ARCIA 1889, 191; Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 474.
22. Colby, “Routes to Rainy Mountain,” 475.
23. Peyote: Hearings Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Indian Affairs of the House of Representatives on HR 2614 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), I:58–63; I:61–63, 89, 107, 111.
24. Ibid., I:111.
25. Ibid., I:147.
26. Mooney to J. Walter Fewkes, July 26, 1918, Records of the BAE, Series 1, Correspondence, Letters Recd., 1909–1949, Box 200, NAA.
27. James Sydney Slotkin, The Peyote Religion: A Study in Indian-White Relations (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1956), 58; Weston La Barre, The Peyote Cult (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012), 168–169; Moses, The Indian Man, 207; Julia Jordan, interview with Jess Rowlodge, December 12, 1967, T-172–11, Doris Duke Collection.
28. Moses, The Indian Man, 206.
29. Stinchecum to Indian Office, telegram copy, n.d.; Cato Sells to Charles D. Walcott, October 22, 1918; Mooney to J. Walter Fewkes, November 19, 1918; all in “Mooney, James 1916–1934,” Records of the BAE, Box 200, NAA.
30. Moses, The Indian Man, 217–218.
31. James Mooney, draft letter protesting disbarment, n.d. [1921], James Mooney Papers, Box 1, NAA.
32. Frank, “Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology,” 734, 736; Darnell, And Along Came Boas, 89, 93, 296–297.
33. Moses, The Indian Man, 219.
34. “Resolutions Adopted by the Native American Church of Clinton, Okla. on the Death of James Mooney” (spelling corrected), in “Biographical Materials,” James Mooney Papers, Box 1, NAA.
35. Another account claims that a wind blew so strong that “nobody could stand up against it.” Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 204–206.
36. ARCIA 1892, 322; Mooney, Ghost Dance Religion, 901; L. G. Moses, “Jack Wilson and the Indian Service: The Response of the BIA to the Ghost Dance Prophet,” American Indian Quarterly 5, no. 4 (November 1979): 311.
37. Dyer, “Jack Wilson Story,” 11.
38. Ibid., 11–12.
39. Ibid., 16; Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 88–89.
40. Knack and Stewart, As Long as the River Shall Run, 269–270; John M. Townley, “Soil Saturation Problems on the Truckee-Carson Project, Nevada,” Agricultural History 52, no. 2 (April 1978): 283, 290.
41. For the effects of the “white winter” of 1889–1890, see Young and Sparks, Cattle in the Cold Desert, 154–179; for the Paiute labor shortage, see Knack, “Nineteenth-Century Great Basin Wage Labor,”172.
42. Solberg, Tales of Wovoka, 91.
43. Hittman, Yerington Paiute Tribe, 34, 41; Hagan, Taking Indian Lands, 78–84; “Nation’s Top Three Poorest Counties in Western South Dakota,” Rapid City (South Dakota) Journal, January 22, 2012, http://rapidcityjournal.com/news/nation-s-top-three-poorest-counties-in-western-south-dakota/article_2d5bb0bc-44bf-11e1-bbc9–0019bb2963f4.html (accessed October 10, 2016).
44. Michael Hittman, personal communication, July 25, 2016; Stewart, “Contemporary Document on Wovoka.”
45. Hittman, Wovoka and the Ghost Dance, 129–133.
46. Ibid., 173.
47. Francis Paul Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, 2 vols. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 2:918–919.