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1. See William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), James Harvey Young, Pure Food: Securing the Federal Food and Drugs Act of 1906 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), and Oscar E. Anderson, Jr., The Health of a Nation: Harvey W. Wiley and the Fight for Pure Food (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958).
2. Adelynne Hiller Whitaker, “Federal Pesticide Legislation in the United States to 1947” (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1974), 46.
3. For a thorough study of sulfanilamide and the toxic diethylene glycol, see James Harvey Young, “Sulfanilamide and Diethylene Glycol,” in Chemistry and Modern Society: Historical Essays in Honor of Aaron J. Ihde, ed. John Parascandola and James C. Whorton (Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1983). For a brief discussion of the case with respect to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act of 1938, see Whorton, Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974). See also Charles O. Jackson, Food and Drug Legislation in the New Deal (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), 151–174, Philip J. Hilts, Protecting America’s Health: The FDA, Business, and One Hundred Years of Regulation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003), 72–94, and Daniel Carpenter, Reputation and Power: Organization Image and Pharmaceutical Regulation at the FDA (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010), 85–117.
4. Whorton, Before Silent Spring, 5.
5. Ibid., 15–16.
6. Quoted in ibid., 21.
7. See Robert J. Spear, The Great Gypsy Moth War: A History of the First Campaign to Eradicate the Gypsy Moth, 1890–1901 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2005).
8. Whitaker, “Federal Pesticide Legislation in the U.S.,” 81.
9. Ibid., 104.
10. Ibid., 107.
11. Christopher Bosso, Pesticides and Politics: The Life Cycle of a Public Issue (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 48.
12. See Christopher Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
13. See Christian Warren, Brush with Death: A Social History of Lead Poisoning, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000, David Rosner and Gerald Markowitz, Deadly Dust: Silicosis and the Politics of Occupational Disease in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), and David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy: DuPont R&D, 1902–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
14. Seller, Hazards of the Job, 21–31.
15. Hounshell and Smith, Science and Corporate Strategy, 555.
16. See Sellers, Hazards of the Job.
17. Ibid., 164.
18. Ibid., 166–172.
19. This section draws on Robert Proctor, Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don’t Know About Cancer (New York: Basic Books, 1995), 36–48, Benjamin Ross and Steven Amter, The Polluters: The Making of Our Chemically Altered Environment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 59–72, Sellers, Hazards of the Job, 221–223, Proctor, “Discovering Environmental Cancer: Wilhelm Hueper, Post-World War II Epidemiology, and the Vanishing Clinician’s Eye,” American Journal of Public Health 87 (11) (November 1997): 1824–1835, and Hounshell and Smith, Science and Corporate Strategy, 555–563.
20. Hounshell and Smith, Science and Corporate Strategy, 563. See also Ross and Amter, Polluters, 61.
21. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 40. See also Ross and Amter, Polluters, 59–72.
22. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 41.
23. Paul B. Dunbar, “Memories of Early Days of Federal Food and Drug Law Enforcement,” Food, Drug, Cosmetic Law Journal 14 (February 1959), 134. Cited in Jackson, Food and Drug Legislation, 3.
24. Jackson, Food and Drug Legislation, 4–5.
25. Arthur Kallet and F. J. Schlink, 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs: Dangers in Everyday Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics (New York: Grosset and Dunlap, 1933), 4.
26. Ruth deForest Lamb, American Chamber of Horrors: The Truth about Food and Drugs (New York: J. J. Little and Ives, 1936), 3.
27. Whorton, Before Silent Spring, 81–82.
28. Note: throughout this study, measurements and units will appear as in the original source. For the sake of comparison and consistency, I have inserted metric conversions as appropriate.
29. See Ross and Amter, Polluters, 46, and Whitaker, “Federal Pesticide Legislation in the U.S.,” 342–343.
30. Ibid.
31. C. N. Myers, Binford Throne, Florence Gustafson, and Jerome Kings-bury, “Significance and Danger of Spray Residue,” Industrial and Engineering Chemistry (June 1933): 624.
32. Ibid., 625.
33. Kallet and Schlink, 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs, 57.
34. Whorton, Before Silent Spring, 200.
35. Remarkably, enforceable tolerances for lead and arsenic were not set until 1950, by which time DDT and other synthetic insecticides had replaced heavy metal insecticides. See Ross and Amter, Polluters, 49–51.
36. This section draws on Daniel E. Rusyniak, R. Brent Furbee, and Robert Pascuzzi, “Historical Neurotoxins: What We Have Learned from Toxins of the Past about Diseases of the Present,” Neurologic Clinics 23 (2005): 337–352; John P. Morgan and Thomas C. Tulloss, “A Toxicologic Tragedy Mirrored in American Popular Music,” Annals of Internal Medicine 85 (1976): 804–808; John P. Morgan, “The Jamaica Ginger Paralysis,” J.A.M.A. 248 (October 15, 1982): 1864–1867; and John Parascandola, “The Public Health Service and Jamaica Ginger Paralysis in the 1930s,” P.H.R. 110 (May–June 1995): 361–363.
37. Morgan, “Jamaica Ginger Paralysis,” 1866.
38. Rusyniak et al., “Historical Neurotoxins,” 339.
39. Morgan and Tulloss, “Toxicologic Tragedy,” 804–808.
40. Maurice I. Smith, “The Pharmacological Action of Certain Phenol Esters, with Special Reference to the Etiology of So-Called Ginger Paralysis (Second Report),” P.H.R. 45 (42) (October 17, 1930): 2518.
41. B. T. Burley, “The 1930 Type of Polyneuritis,” New England Journal of Medicine 262 (1930): 1139–1142.
42. Cited in Kallet and Schlink, 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs, 155. Emphasis added.
43. John Pfeiffer, “Sulfanilamide: The Story of a Medical Discovery,” Harper’s Magazine 178 (1939): 387.
44. Ibid.
45. Anon., “Young Roosevelt Saved by New Drug: Doctor Uses Prontylin in Fight on Streptococcus Infection,” New York Times (December 17, 1936), 1.
46. Waldemar Kaempffert, “The Week in Science: Cause of the Tulsa Deaths,” New York Times (October 24, 1937), 6.
47. Henry A. Wallace, Elixir Sulfanilamide: Letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, in 75th Cong., 2nd Sess., Senate Document 124, Serial 10247 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1937), 3.
48. Young, “Sulfanilamide and Diethylene Glycol,” 108. Though seemingly naïve, Watkins’s statement merits further analysis. See below.
49. Morris Fishbein, “Sulfanilamide—A Warning,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1128.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Homer A. Ruprecht and I. A. Nelson, “Clinical and Pathologic Observations,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1537.
53. Wallace, Elixir Sulfanilamide, 4–5, reprinted as Wallace, “Deaths due to Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill. Report of Secretary of Agriculture Submitted in Response to House Resolution 352 of Nov. 18, 1937, and Senate Resolution 194 of Nov. 16, 1937,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1986.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid.
56. Paul Nicholas Leech, “Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill: II,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1531.
57. Wallace, Elixir Sulfanilamide, 1.
58. E. W. Schoefel, H. R. Kreider, and J. B. Peterson, “Chemical Examination of Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1532.
59. E. M. K. Geiling, Julius M. Coon, and E. W. Schoefel, “Preliminary Report of Toxicity Studies on Rats, Rabbits and Dogs Following Ingestion in Divided Doses of Diethylene Glycol, Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill and ‘Synthetic’ Elixir,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1532.
60. Ibid., 1535.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. Paul R. Cannon, “Pathologic Effects Following the Ingestion of Diethylene Glycol, Elixir of Sulfanilamide-Massengill, ‘Synthetic’ Elixir of Sulfanilamide, and Sulfanilamide Alone,” J.A.M.A. 109 (1937): 1536–1537.
64. See Carpenter, Reputation and Power, 76. See also Young, Pure Food, and Anderson, Health of a Nation.
65. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 49.
66. Bert J. Vos et al., “History of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Retired FDA Pharmacologists” (hereafter, “Retired FDA Pharmacologists”), (Rockville, Md.: National Library of Medicine, 1980), 10–16.
67. Ibid.
68. Ibid.
69. Chester I. Bliss, “The Calculation of the Dose-Mortality Curve,” Annals of Applied Biology 22 (1935): 166.
70. Edwin P. Laug et al., “The Toxicology of Some Glycols and Derivatives,” J. Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology 21 (5) (1939): 200.
71. Ibid.
72. For examples of the development of chronic toxicity profiles for lead and other heavy metals, see Sellers, Hazards of the Job, 81–98, and Warren, Brush with Death, 64–83.
73. Vos et al., “Retired FDA Pharmacologists,” 17–18.
74. Ibid., 24.
75. See Ross and Amter, Polluters.
76. See, for example, H. O. Calvery, E. P. Laug, and H. J. Morris, “The Chronic Effects on Dogs of Feeding Diets Containing Lead Acetate, Lead Arsenate, and Arsenic Trioxide in Varying Concentrations,” J.P.E.T. 64 (4) (1938): 364–387, and Lucy L. Finner and H. O. Calvery, “Pathologic Changes in Rats and in Dogs Fed Diets Containing Lead and Arsenic Compounds,” Archives of Pathology 27 (3) (1938): 433–466.
77. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 50.
78. Wallace, Elixir Sulfanilamide, 9.
79. Ibid.
80. In July 1934 Oettingen became the first director of Haskell Laboratory, an in-house medical research facility, at DuPont, one of the first such facilities in an American company. See Hounshell and Smith, Science and Corporate Strategy, 555–572.
81. W. F. von Oettingen and E. A. Jirouch, “The Pharmacology of Ethylene Glycol and Some of Its Derivatives in Relation to Chemical Constitution and Physical Chemical Properties,” J.P.E.T. 42 (3) (1931): 371.
82. Young, “Sulfanilamide and Diethylene Glycol,” 112.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid. Estimates of the settlements varied from a confirmed amount of $2,000 to an FDA report of a rumor that S. E. Massengill paid out more than $500,000 in damage suit settlements.
85. Wallace, Elixir Sulfanilamide, 10.
86. Carpenter, Reputation and Power, 100.
87. E. M. K. Geiling, “Therapeutic Applications of Sulfanilamide and Allied Compounds,” Illinois Medical Journal (November 1940): 404–405.
88. Ibid., 405.
89. Ibid.
90. Ibid., 410.
91. Cited in Anon., “Bristol Calls Ads Safety Insurance,” New York Times (December 8, 1937), 38.
92. Ibid.
93. Morris Fishbein, “Elixir of Sulfanilamide Deaths and New Legislation,” Hygeia 15 (1937): 1067.
94. Hilts, 89. Hilts’s emphasis.
95. This section is drawn from Young, “Sulfanilamide and Diethylene Glycol.” See also Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 51–52.
96. Gwen Kay, “Healthy Public Relations: The FDA’s 1930s Legislative Campaign,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 75 (3) (Fall 2001): 446–487.
1. See “War on Insects,” Time 46 (August 27, 1945): 67. For a meticulous analysis of the development of DDT and its role in World War II, see Edmund Russell, War and Nature: Fighting Humans and Insects with Chemicals from World War I to Silent Spring (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), and Russell, “War on Insects: Warfare, Insecticides, and Environmental Change in the United States, 1870–1945” (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1993). For another perspective on DDT and the war, see John H. Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime: The Effect of Military Goals on Entomological Research and Insect-Control Practices,” Technology and Culture 19 (1978): 169–186. For more general historical analyses of insecticides, including DDT, see Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT: Scientists, Citizens, and Public Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981); Whorton, Before Silent Spring; John H. Perkins, Insects, Experts, and the Insecticide Crisis: The Quest for New Management Strategies (New York: Plenum Press, 1982); Paul W. Riegert, From Arsenic to DDT: A History of Entomology in Western Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980); and David Kinkela, DDT and the American Century: Global Health, Environmental Politics, and the Pesticide That Changed the World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 2010.
2. For a thorough study of Müller and DDT’s early history, see Russell, War and Nature.
3. Paul Herman Müller, Histoire du DDT (1948). Cited by Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 171.
4. See Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 171.
5. Ibid., 173.
6. For a thorough analysis of the evolution of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, see Russell, War and Nature, especially 264–348, and Perkins, “Reshaping Technology in Wartime,” 169–186.
7. David Kinkela, DDT and the American Century, 16.
8. R. C. Bushland et al., “DDT for the Control of Human Lice,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 126.
9. Kinkela, DDT and the American Century, 22.
10. See ibid., 35–61.
11. E. F. Knipling, “Insect Control Investigations of the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory during World War II,” in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1948), 336.
12. DDT’s efficacy was the subject of numerous reports in an issue of the J.E.E. in 1944.
13. A. H. Madden, A. W. Lindquist, and E. F. Knipling, “DDT as a Residual Spray for the Control of Bedbugs,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 127.
14. H. K. Gouck and C. N. Smith, “DDT in the Control of Ticks on Dogs,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 130.
15. J. B. Gahan and E. F. Knipling, “Efficacy of DDT as a Roach Poison,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 139.
16. M. C. Swingle and E. L. Mayer, “Laboratory Tests of DDT against Various Insect Pests,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 142.
17. O. A. Hills, “Tests with DDT against Pentatomids, Mirids, the Boll-worm, and the Cotton Aphid,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 142.
18. J. C. Clark, “Tests of DDT Dust against a Stinkbug and the Cotton Leafworm,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 144, and George L. Smith, “Tests with DDT against the Boll Weevil,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 144.
19. J. W. Ingram, “Tests of DDT Dust against the Sugarcane Borer, the Yellow Sugarcane Aphid, and the Argentine Ant,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 145.
20. E. E. Ivy, “Tests with DDT on the More Important Cotton Insects,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 142.
21. W. E. Fleming and R. D. Chisholm, “DDT as a Protective Spray against the Japanese Beetle,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 155.
22. L. F. Steiner, C. H. Arnold, and S. A. Summerland, “Laboratory and Field Tests of DDT for Control of the Codling Moth,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 157.
23. E. C. Holst, “DDT as a Stomach and Contact Poison for Honeybees,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 159.
24. C. C. Plummer, “DDT and the Mexican Fruitfly,” J.E.E. 37 (1) (1944): 158.
25. For a complete description of war time research at the Orlando laboratory, see Knipling, “Insect Control Investigations of the Orlando, Fla., Laboratory,” 331–348.
26. R. L. Metcalf et al., “Observations on the Use of DDT for the Control of Anopheles quadrimaculatus,” P.H.R. 60 (27) (1945): 773.
27. Survivors had the capacity to develop resistance.
28. P. N. Annand, “How about DDT?” in Address before the 41st Annual Convention, National Audubon Society, October 22, 1945, New York, New York (Washington, D.C.: USDA Agricultural Research Administration, 1945), 5.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., 6. This statement anticipated the debate inspired by Silent Spring.
31. Ibid.
32. M. I. Smith and E. F. Stohlman, “The Pharmacologic Action of 2,2 bis (p-Chlorophenyl) 1,1,1 Trichlorethane and Its Estimation in the Tissues and Body Fluids,” P.H.R. 59 (1944): 985.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid.
36. R. D. Lillie and M. I. Smith, “Pathology of Experimental Poisoning in Cats, Rabbits, and Rats with 2,2 bis-Parachlorphenyl-1,1,1 Trichlorethane,” P.H.R. 59 (1944): 984.
37. P. A. Neal et al., “Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Aerosols, Mists, and Dusting Powders Containing DDT,” P.H.R., Supplement No. 177 (1944): 4.
38. Ibid., 7.
39. Ibid., 14.
40. Ibid., 22.
41. Ibid., 26–27.
42. A. A. Nelson et al., “Histopathological Changes Following Administration of DDT to Several Species of Animals,” P.H.R. 59 (31) (1944): 1009–1020.
43. G. Woodard, A. A. Nelson, and H. O. Calvery, “Acute and Subacute Toxicity of DDT (2,2,-bis (p-Chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane) to Laboratory Animals,” J.P.E.T. 82 (1944): 153.
44. Ibid., 156.
45. Ibid., 157–158.
46. J. H. Draize, A. A. Nelson, and H. O. Calvery, “The Percutaneous Absorption of DDT (2,2-bis (p-Chlorophenyl) 1,1,1-Trichloroethane) in Laboratory Animals,” J.P.E.T. 82 (1944): 161.
47. Ibid., 166.
48. R. J. Bing, B. McNamara, and F. H. Hopkins, “Studies on the Pharmacology of DDT (2,2 bis-Parachlorophenyl-1,1,1,Trichloroethane): The Chronic Toxicity of DDT in the Dog,” Bulletin of Johns Hopkins Hospital 78 (1945): 310.
49. Edwin P. Laug, “A Biological Assay Method for Determining 2, 2 bis (p-Chlorophenyl)-1,1,1 Trichloroethane (DDT),” J.P.E.T. 86 (1946): 324.
50. Vos et al., “Retired FDA Pharmacologists,” 48–49.
51. E. P. Laug and O. G. Fitzhugh, “2,2-bis (p-Chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane (DDT) in the Tissues of the Rat Following Oral Ingestion for Periods of Six Months to Two Years,” J.P.E.T. 87 (1946): 23.
52. See H. O. Calvery, E. P. Laug, and H. J. Morris, “The Chronic Effects on Dogs of Feeding Diets Containing Lead Acetate, Lead Arsenate, and Arsenic Trioxide in Varying Concentrations,” J.P.E.T. 64 (4) (1938): 364–387, and E. P. Laug, and H. P. Morris, “The Effect of Lead on Rats Fed Diets Containing Lead Arsenate and Lead Acetate,” J.P.E.T. 64 (4) (1938): 388–410.
53. H. S. Telford and J. E. Guthrie, “Transmission of the Toxicity of DDT through the Milk of White Rats and Goats,” Science 102 (2660) (1945): 647.
54. See Nancy Langston, Toxic Bodies: Hormone Disruptors and the Legacy of DES, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010.
55. Clarence Cottam and Elmer Higgins, “DDT: Its Effect on Fish and Wildlife,” U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 11 (1946): 11.
56. Ibid.
57. Don R. Coburn and Ray Treichler, “Experiments on Toxicity of DDT to Wildlife,” J.W.M. 10 (3) (1946): 208–210.
58. Cottam and Higgins, “DDT: Its Effect on Fish and Wildlife,” 12.
59. Eugene W. Surber, “Effects of DDT on Fish,” J.W.M. 10 (3) (1946): 187.
60. Ibid., 188.
61. Cottam and Higgins, “DDT: Its Effect on Fish and Wildlife,” 1.
62. Ibid. Emphasis added.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid., 4.
65. Robert E. Stewart et al., “Effects of DDT on Birds at the Patuxent Research Refuge,” J.W.M. 10 (3) (1946): 201, and Cottam and Higgins, “DDT: Its Effect on Fish and Wildlife,” 5.
66. R. T. Mitchell, “Effects of DDT Spray on Eggs and Nestlings of Birds,” J.W.M. 10 (3) (1946): 194, and Cottam and Higgins, “DDT: Its Effect on Fish and Wildlife,” 5.
67. Cottam and Higgins, “DDT: Its Effect on Fish and Wildlife,” 6, and Surber, “Effects of DDT on Fish,” 184.
68. Clarence M. Tarzwell, “Effects of DDT Mosquito Larviciding on Wildlife. Part 1, The Effects on Surface Organisms of the Routine Hand Application of DDT Larvicides for Mosquito Control,” P.H.R. 62 (15) (1947): 525.
69. Ibid., 526.
70. Ibid.
71. Ibid., 528.
72. See Donald Worster, Nature’s Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, 2nd ed., ed. Donald Worster and Alfred Crosby (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994), especially 291–315.
73. Tarzwell, “Effects of DDT Mosquito Larviciding on Wildlife,” 530.
74. Ibid., 530–531.
75. Ibid., 545–546.
76. Ibid., 554.
77. Arnold B. Erickson, “Effects of DDT Mosquito Larviciding on Wildlife. Part 2, Effects of Routine Airplane Larviciding on Bird and Mammal Populations,” P.H.R. 62 (1947): 1257.
78. Ibid., 1259.
79. Ibid., 1261.
80. P. A. Neal, W. F. Von Oettingen, and W. W. Smith, “Toxicity and Potential Dangers of Aerosols, Mists, and Dusting Powders Containing DDT,” P.H.R. Supplement 177 (1944): 10.
81. Ibid., 12.
82. G. R. Cameron, “Risks to Man and Animals from the Use of 2,2-bis (p-Chlorophenyl), 1,1,1,-Trichlorethane (DDT): With a Note on the Toxicology of Gamma-Benzene Hexachloride (666, Gammexane),” British Medical Bulletin 3 (1945): 234.
83. R. A. M. Case, “Toxic Effects of 2,2-bis (p-Chlorphenyl) 1,1,1-Trichlorethane (D.D.T.) in Man,” British Medical Journal 2 (1945): 843.
84. Ibid.
85. F. M. G. Stammers and F. G. S. Whitfield, “The Toxicity of DDT to Man and Animals: A Report on the Work Carried Out at the Royal Naval School of Tropical Hygiene, Colombo, and a Review of the World Literature to January 1947,” Bulletin of Entomological Research 38 (1) (1947): 580.
86. See P. A. Neal, T. R. Sweeney, S. S. Spicer, and W. F. von Oettingen, “The Excretion of DDT (2,2-Bis-(P-Chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-Trichloroethane) in Man, Together with Clinical Observations,” P.H.R. 61: 403–409, and E.F. Stohlman and M. I. Smith, 1945, “The Isolation of Di(P-Chlorophenyl) Acetic Acid (DDA) from the Urine of Rabbits Poisoned with 2,2 Bis (P-Chlorophenyl) 1,1,1 Trichlorethane (DDT),” J.P.E.T. 84 (1946): 375–379.
87. E. P. Laug, F. M. Kunze, and C. S. Prickett, “Occurrence of DDT in Human Fat and Milk,” A.M.A Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 3 (3) (1951): 245–246.
88. G. W. Pearce, A. W. Mattson, and W. J. Hayes, Jr., “Examination of Human Fat for the Presence of DDT,” Science 116 (1952): 256.
89. Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., William F. Durham, and Cipriano Cueto, Jr., “The Effect of Known Repeated Oral Doses of Chlorophenothane (DDT) in Man,” J.A.M.A. 162 (9) (1956): 891.
90. Ibid., 897.
91. Ibid.
92. See Robert L. Rudd and Richard E. Genelly, Pesticides: Their Use and Toxicity in Relation to Wildlife (Davis: California Department of Fish and Game, 1956); Dunlap, DDT; Dunlap, “Science as a Guide in Regulating Technology: The case of DDT in the United States,” Social Studies of Science 8 (3) (1978): 265–285, and Robert N. Proctor, Cancer Wars.
93. Russell, “War on Insects,” 447.
94. See Whorton, Before Silent Spring.
1. See Daniel J. Kevles, The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978). For additional studies of contributions of the University of Chicago to the biological sciences, see several papers in Gregg Mitman, Jane Maienschein, and Adele E. Clarke, eds., “Crossing the Borderlands: Biology at Chicago,” Perspectives on Science: Historical, Philosophical, Social 1 (3) (1993).
2. Biographical information on E. M. K. Geiling can be found in Philip C. Hoffmann and Alfred Heller, “E. M. K. Geiling (1891–1971),” in Remembering the University of Chicago: Teachers, Scientists, and Scholars, ed. Edward Shilts (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 147–56.
3. Linda Bren, “Frances Oldham Kelsey: FDA Medical Reviewer Leaves Her Mark on History,” FDA Consumer Magazine (March–April 2001), http://web.archive.org/web/20061020043712/http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/2001/201_kelsey.html. Accessed July 25, 2012.
4. John O. Hutchens, “The Tox Lab,” Scientific Monthly 66 (1948): 107–108.
5. For a complete history of the OSRD, the NDRC, and CMR, see Irvin Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948). For a deeper analysis of the evolution of postwar science, see Roger L. Geiger, Research and Relevant Knowledge (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), especially 3–29. For a detailed study of the Chemical Warfare Service and the OSRD, see Russell, War and Nature.
6. Oscar Bodansky, “Contributions of Medical Research in Chemical Warfare to Medicine,” Science 102 (2656) (1945): 518. See also W. R. Kirner, “The Toxicity and Vesicancy of Chemical Warfare Agents,” in Chemistry: A History of the Chemistry Components of the National Defense Research Committee, 1940–1946, ed. W. A. Noyes, Jr. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 243–248.
7. John Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 41 (2001): 2.
8. Hutchens, “Tox Lab,” 108.
9. Ibid.
10. See Frederick Rowe Davis, “On the Professionalization of Toxicology,” Environmental History 13 (October 2008): 751–756.
11. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 5.
12. Literally translated as “bad air,” malaria had a long history in the warmer, tropical and subtropical regions of the world. See Paul F. Russell, Man’s Mastery of Malaria (London: Oxford University Press, 1955). For detailed analysis, see Leo Barney Slater, War and Disease: Biomedical Research on Malaria in the Twentieth Century, New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2009.
13. William H. Taliaferro, “Malaria,” in Medicine and the War, ed. Talliaferro (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944), 55–75.
14. Ibid., 65.
15. Russell, Man’s Mastery of Malaria, 108. See also Slater, War and Disease, pp. 59–108.
16. Graham Chen, “The Nature of the Enzyme Systems Present in Trypanosoma equiperdum: Introductory Statement,” Grant Application, Department of Pharmacology, University of Chicago, n.d., 1–2.
17. Nathaniel Comfort, “The Prisoner as Model Organism: Malaria Research at Stateville Penitentiary,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 40 (2009): 192.
18. Chen, “Nature of the Enzyme Systems Present in Trypanosoma equiperdum,” 4.
19. Ibid., 7–8.
20. Ibid., 12–13.
21. F. E. Kelsey et al., “Studies on Antimalarial Drugs: The Excretion of Atabrine in the Urine of the Human Subject,” J.P.E.T. 80 (1944b): 385.
22. See also Frederick Rowe Davis, “Unraveling the Complexities of Joint Toxicity of Multiple Chemicals at the Tox Lab and the FDA,” Environmental History 13 (October 2008): 674–683.
23. Cited in C. I. Bliss, “The Toxicity of Poisons Applied Jointly,” Annals of Applied Biology 26 (1939): 586.
24. Bliss, “Toxicity of Poisons,” 585–587.
25. Graham Chen and E. M. K. Geiling, “The Acute Joint Toxicity of Atabrine, Quinine, Hydroxyethylapocupreine, Pamaquine and Pentaquine,” J.P.E.T. 91 (1947): 138–139.
26. Ibid., 138.
27. Graham Chen and E. M. K. Geiling, “Trypanocidal Activity and Toxicity of Antimonials,” Journal of Infectious Disease 76 (1945): 150.
28. Graham Chen and E. M. K. Geiling, “The Determination of Antitrypanosome Effect of Antimonials in Vitro,” Journal of Infectious Disease 77 (1945): 142.
29. F. W. Schueler, G. Chen, and E. M. K. Geiling, “The Mechanism of Drug Resistance in Trypanosomes,” Journal of Infectious Disease 81 (1947): 17.
30. Stanford Moore and W. R. Kirner, “The Physiological Mechanism of Action of Chemical Warfare Agents,” in Chemistry: A History of the Chemistry Components of the National Defense Research Committee, 1940–1946, ed. W. A. Noyes, Jr. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1948), 249–260.
31. L. O. Jacobson, C. L. Spurr, E. S. G. Barron, T. Smith, C. Lushbaugh, and G. F. Dick, “Nitrogen Mustard Therapy: Studies on the Effect of Methylbis (Beta-chloroethyl) Amine Hydrochloride on Neoplastic Diseases and Allied Disorders of the Hemopoietic System,” J.A.M.A. 132 (5) (1946): 263–71, and C. L. Spurr, L. O. Jacobson, T. R. Smith, and E. S. G. Barron, “The Clinical Application of a Nitrogen Mustard Compound Methyl bis (Beta-Chloroethyl) Amine to the Treatment of Neoplastic Disorders of the Hemopoietic System,” Cancer Research 7 (1) (1947): 51–52.
32. Hoffmann and Heller “E. M. K. Geiling,” 153.
33. See Gretchen Krueger, “The Formation of the American Society for Clinical Oncology and the Development of a Medical Specialty, 1964–1973,” Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 47 (4) (Autumn 2004): 539. See also Krueger, Hope and Suffering: Children, Cancer, and the Paradox of Experimental Medicine (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).
34. Hutchens, “Tox Lab,” 109–110.
35. E. M. K. Geiling, “Pharmacology,” Annual Review of Physiology 10 (1948): 409–410.
36. See Alice Kimball Smith, A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists’ Movement in America, 1945–47 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 539–559 and Angela N. H. Creager, Life Atomic: A History of Radioisotopes in Science and Medicine (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2013).
37. Eugene M. K. Geiling, “The Use of the Radioisotopes as an Experimental Tool,” Transactions and Studies of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia 25 (1957): 57.
38. E. M. K. Geiling, B. J. McIntosh, and A. Ganz, “Biosynthesis of Radioactive Drugs Using Carbon 14,” Science 108 (1948): 559.
39. E. M. K. Geiling et al., “Biosynthesis of Radioactive Medicinally Important Drugs with Special Reference to Digitoxin,” Transactions of the Association of American Physicians 63 (1950): 94.
40. Ibid., 95.
41. John Doull, Kenneth P. DuBois, and E. M. K. Geiling, “The Biosynthesis of Radioactive Bufagin,” Archives of Internal Pharmacodynamics 86 (4) (1951): 463.
42. George Okita, Robert B. Gordon, and E. M. K. Geiling, “Placental Transfer of Radioactive Digitoxin in Rats and Guinea Pigs,” Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 80 (1952): 538.
43. G. T. Okita et al., “Studies on the Renal Excretion of Radioactive Digitoxin in Human Subjects with Cardiac Failure,” Circulation 7 (1953): 167.
44. George T. Okita et al., “Blood Level Studies of C14-Digitoxin in Human Subjects with Cardiac Failure,” J.P.E.T. 113 (1955): 380.
45. George T. Okita et al., “Metabolic Fate of Radioactive Digitoxin in Human Subjects,” J.P.E.T. 115 (1955): 378.
46. John Doull, interview by author, October 27, 2000.
47. Ibid. See also Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 5.
1. See Russell, War and Nature.
2. DuBois had also completed an M.S. in pharmaceutical chemistry at Purdue University and a B.S. in chemistry and pharmacy at South Dakota State University, where he participated in research on selenium poisoning as an undergraduate. For additional biographical information, see F. K. Kinoshita, “Kenneth Patrick DuBois (August 9, 1917—January 24, 1973),” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 25 (1973): 435–436, and John Doull, “Kenneth Patrick DuBois (August 9, 1917–January 24, 1973),” Toxicological Sciences 54 (2000): 1–2.
3. See Russell, War and Nature.
4. Hutchens, “Tox Lab,” 111.
5. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 2–3.
6. Kenneth P. DuBois and George H. Mangun, “Effect of Hexaethyl Tetra-phosphate on Choline Esterase in Vitro and in Vivo,” Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine 64 (1947): 139.
7. Doull received his B.S. in chemistry at Montana State College in 1944, then spent two years in the navy as a radar and electronics specialist on the battleship New Jersey in the South Pacific. In 1946, he began a doctorate in biochemistry at the University of Chicago, on the advice of one of his professors at Montana State who arranged an interview with DuBois’s colleague George Mangun (also a Montana graduate). It was Mangun who suggested that Doull switch to pharmacology to work with DuBois as his graduate advisor. See Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 3.
8. Kenneth P. DuBois et al., “Studies on the Toxicity and Mechanism of Action of P-Nitrophenyl Diethyl Thionophosphate (Parathion),” J.P.E.T. 95 (1949): 79–91.
9. Cited in Kenneth P. DuBois, John Doull, and Julius M. Coon, “Studies on the Toxicity and Pharmacological Action of Octamethyl Pyrophosphoramide (OMPA; Pestox III),” J.P.E.T. 99 (1950): 376–393.
10. Ibid.
11. David Grob, William L. Garlick, and A. McGehee Harvey, “The Toxic Effects in Man of the Anticholinesterase Insecticide Parathion (P-Nitrophenyl Diethyl Thionophosphate),” Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin 87 (1950): 107.
12. Ibid., 127.
13. P. Lesley Bidstrup, “Poisoning by Organic Phosphorous Insecticides,” British Medical Journal (1950): 548.
14. Ibid., 550.
15. Biographical material on Arnold J. Lehman is surprisingly limited given his long tenure at the FDA, but see Harry W. Hays, “Obituary: Arnold J. Lehman (September 2, 1900–July 10, 1979),” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 51 (1979): 549–551 and Anon., “About the Authors: Arnold J. Lehman, M.D.,” Food Drug Cosmetic Law Journal 8 (7) (1953): 403.
16. Arnold J. Lehman, “The Toxicology of the Newer Agricultural Chemicals,” Quarterly Bulletin of the Association of Food and Drug Officials 12 (3) (1948): 83–85.
17. Ibid., 87.
18. Ibid., 88.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid., 68.
21. Ibid., 70.
22. Ibid.
23. Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry Committee on Pesticides, American Medical Society, “Pharmacology and Toxicology of Certain Organic Phosphorous Insecticides,” J.A.M.A. 144 (2) (1950): 104–108.
24. Ibid., 107–108.
25. Ibid., 108.
26. Ibid.
27. Ibid.
28. See Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 66.
29. Kenneth P. DuBois, “Food Contamination from the New Insecticides,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 26 (1950): 326.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid., 328.
32. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 3–4.
33. Kenneth P. DuBois and Julius M. Coon, “Toxicology of Organic Phosphorus-Containing Insecticides to Mammals,” A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 6 (1952): 11–12.
34. Ibid., 12.
35. Lloyd W. Hazleton and Emily G. Holland, “Toxicity of Malathon: Summary of Mammalian Investigations,” A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Medicine 8 (1953): 401. Emphasis added.
36. Ibid., 405.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid.
39. Robert E. Bagdon and Kenneth P. DuBois, “Pharmacologic Effects of Chlorthion, Malathion and Tetrapropyl Dithionopyrophosphate in Mammals,” Archives of Internal Pharmacodynamics 103 (2–3) (1955): 197.
40. C. P. Carpenter, H. F. Smyth, M. W. Woodside, P. E. Palm, C. S. Weil, and J. H. Nair, “Insecticide Toxicology—Mammalian Toxicity of 1-Naphthyl-n-Methylcarbamate (Sevin Insecticide),” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 9 (1) (1961): 30–39.
41. John E. Casida, Klas-Bertil Augustinsson, and Gunnel Jonsson, “Stability, Toxicity, and Reaction Mechanism with Esterases of Certain Carbamate Insecticides,” J.E.E. 53 (2) (1960): 205–212. See also Robert Lee Metcalf, Organic Insecticides, Their Chemistry and Mode of Action (New York: Interscience Publishers), 1955.
42. Sheldon D. Murphy and Kenneth P. DuBois, “The Influence of Various Factors on the Enzymatic Conversion of Organic Thiophosphates to Anticholinesterase Agents,” J.P.E.T. 124 (1958): 201.
43. Ibid.
44. Rachel Carson drew attention to endocrine system effects in Silent Spring in 1962. For a detailed history of endocrine disruptors, see Langston, Toxic Bodies. More than three decades later, a study by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences of the basic variability in susceptibility to environmental and dietary chemicals between the young and the old led to the passage of the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996. For a thorough examination of the history, science, and policy leading to FQPA, see John Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy: How Science and Law Fail to Protect Us from Pesticides, 2nd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).
45. J. William Cook, Fred L. Lofsvold, and James Harvey Young, “Interview between: J. William Cook, Retired Director, Division of Pesticide Chemistry and Toxicology, and Fred L. Lofsvold, FDA, and James Harvey Young, Emory University,” in History of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Rockville, Md.: History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, 1980), 1–2.
46. Ibid., 17–18.
47. Ibid., 18–19.
48. Ibid., 19–20.
49. Ibid., 21–22.
50. Ibid., 31–32, and J. William Cook, “In Vitro Destruction of Some Organophosphate Pesticides by Bovine Rumen Fluid,” Agricultural and Food Chemistry 5 (11) (1957): 859–863.
51. D. F. McCaulley and J. William Cook, “A Fly Bioassay for the Determination of Organic Phosphate Pesticides,” Journal of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists 42 (1) (1959): 206.
52. John P. Frawley et al., “Marked Potentiation in Mammalian Toxicity from Simultaneous Administration of Two Anticholinesterase Compounds,” J.P.E.T. 121 (1957): 96.
53. Ibid., 106.
54. Kenneth P. DuBois, “Potentiation of the Toxicity of Insecticidal Organic Phosphates,” A.M.A. Archives of Industrial Health 18 (1958): 490–496.
55. Ibid., 495.
1. S. R. Newell, Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, Hearings Before the Committee on Agriculture House of Representatives on H.R. 4851 (H.R. 5645 reported): “A bill to regulate the marketing of economic poisons and devices, and for other purposes,” 79th Cong., February 5, 1946–April 11, 1947 (hereafter, FIFRA Hearings), 1.
2. Ibid., 4.
3. L. S. Hitchner, FIFRA Hearings, 29.
4. Ibid., 44.
5. Ibid., 46.
6. Ibid.
7. W. K. Granger, FIFRA Hearings, 46.
8. Hitchner, FIFRA Hearings, 46.
9. R. Smith, FIFRA Hearings, 84.
10. E. L. Griffin, FIFRA Hearings, 10.
11. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 57.
12. Ibid., 57–58.
13. Whitaker, “Federal Pesticide Legislation in the U.S.,” 449.
14. This section draws on Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 70–71, and Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 73–78.
15. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 71.
16. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 75.
17. K. T. Hutchinson, Chemicals in Food Products: Hearings Before the House Select Committee to Investigate the Use of Chemicals in Food Products, 82nd Cong., H. Res. 74 (hereafter, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings), September 14, 1950–March 6, 1952, 9.
18. R. L. Cleere, Letter to James J. Delaney, November 24, 1950, in Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 39.
19. Ibid.
20. Carl E. Weigele, Letter to James J. Delaney, November 9, 1950, in Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 53.
21. George A. Spendlove, Letter to James J. Delaney, October 27, 1950, in Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 58.
22. Morton S. Biskind, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, December 12, 1950, 700.
23. Ibid, 701.
24. Morton S. Biskind, “DDT Poisoning and Elusive Virus X: A New Cause for Gastro-enteritis,” American Journal of Digestive Diseases 16 (March 1949): 79–84; Biskind, “Endocrine Disturbances in Gastrointestinal Conditions,” Review of Gastroenterology 16 (March 1949): 220–225; and Biskind and Irving Bieber, “DDT Poisoning: A New Syndrome with Neuropsychiatric Manifestations,” American Journal of Psychotherapy 3 (April 1949): 261–270.
25. A. I. Miller, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, December 12, 1950, 705.
26. Ibid., 706.
27. E. M. Hedrick, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, December 12, 1950, 707.
28. Biskind, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, December 12, 1950, 707.
29. Ibid., 714.
30. Ibid., 716.
31. Ibid., 717.
32. Kleinfeld, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, December 12, 1950, 717.
33. PHS and USDA, press release re: DDT, April 1, 1949, in Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 719.
34. Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, April 17, 1951, 90.
35. Ibid., 91.
36. Ibid., 93.
37. Ibid., 96.
38. Ibid., 97.
39. Paul A. Neal, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, April 17, 1951, 107.
40. Hayes, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 109.
41. Ibid., 111.
42. Frank Princi, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 1, 1950, 149.
43. Ibid.
44. Miller, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 149.
45. Princi, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 150.
46. Ibid.
47. Ibid., 151.
48. Charles E. Palm, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 1, 1950, 166.
49. Ibid., 167–168.
50. Ibid., 168.
51. Ibid.
52. Ibid., 169.
53. Ibid., 172.
54. George C. Decker, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 2, 1951, 183.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. John Dendy, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 8, 1951, 220.
58. E. H. Hedrick, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 220.
59. Dendy, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 220.
60. Ibid., 222.
61. There is just one reference to Dendy unrelated to pesticides in Cyrus Longworth Lundell, Agricultural Research at Renner, 1946–1967 (Renner, Tex.: Texas Research Foundation), 1967.
62. Dendy, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 8, 1951, 237.
63. Louis Bromfield, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 11, 1951, 292.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid., 313.
66. Harold P. Morris, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 11, 1951, 348.
67. Wilhelm C. Hueper, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, January 29, 1952, 1370.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid. Emphasis added.
70. Proctor, Cancer Wars, 47–48.
71. Ross and Amter, Polluters, 71.
72. Ibid.
73. See Sellers, “Discovering Environmental Cancer,” 1832.
74. Hueper, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 1380.
75. Ibid., 1381.
76. Fred C. Bishopp, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 15, 1951, 373.
77. Ibid.
78. Ibid., 374.
79. Ibid., 375.
80. Ibid., 377. Emphasis added.
81. Ibid., 378. Emphasis added.
82. Ibid., 380.
83. Ibid.
84. Kleinfeld, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 520.
85. Bishopp, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 520.
86. Edward F. Knipling, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, May 15, 1951, 521–522.
87. Quoted by Kleinfeld, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 523.
88. Miller, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 524.
89. Bishopp, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 524.
90. Knipling, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 525.
91. Ibid., 313.
92. Kleinfeld, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, June 14, 1951, 518.
93. Bishopp, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 519. Emphasis added.
94. Arnold J. Lehman, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, November 28, 1950, 389.
95. Ibid., 407.
96. Ibid.
97. Ibid., 408.
98. Ibid.
99. Kleinfeld, quoting Arnold Lehman, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 540.
100. Lehman, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, 389.
101. See Pete Daniel, Toxic Drift: Pesticides and Health in the Post–World War II South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2005).
102. L. G. Cox, Chemicals in Food Products Hearings, January 31, 1952, 1388.
103. Ibid., 1390–1394.
104. Ibid., 1397.
105. For a similar conclusion, see Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 75.
106. Ibid.
107. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 106.
108. Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 77.
109. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 106.
110. Quoted in Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 97.
111. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 107.
112. Langston, Toxic Bodies, 82.
113. This section draws on Bosso, Pesticides and Politics, 98–100.
1. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 4.
2. Kenneth P. DuBois, “Proposed Research and Teaching Program in Toxicology at the University of Chicago,” University Archives, University of Chicago, 1958, 1–2.
3. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 5.
4. Ibid.
5. Kenneth P. DuBois and E. M. K. Geiling, Textbook of Toxicology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959), 211.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 213.
8. The Textbook of Toxicology was the only one in its field until 1968, when Theodore Loomis and Wallace Hayes published a similar work. Another seven years passed before Doull, in collaboration with Louis Casarett, published Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons in 1975. In addition to providing the standard review of classes of toxic agents (metals, solvents, pesticides, etc.), this last text presented the organ system involved (kidney, liver, etc.) Over thirty-nine years and eight editions, Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology (as the text became known) has remained the preferred textbook of toxicology. See John Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 6–7. See also Mary O. Amdur, John Doull, and Curtis D. Klaassen, eds., Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons, 4th ed. (New York: Pergamon Press, 1991).
9. Frederick Coulston, Arnold J. Lehman, and Harry W. Hays, Editors’ Preface, Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 1 (1959): iii.
10. Ibid., iii–iv.
11. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 5.
12. Martin W. Williams, Henry N. Fuyat, and O. Garth Fitzhugh, “The Subacute Toxicity of Four Organic Phosphates to Dogs,” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 1 (1959): 1.
13. Frederick Coulston, Victor Drill, William Deichman, Harry Hays, Harold Hodge, Arnold Lehman, Boyd Schafer, Kenneth DuBois, and Paul Larson. See Harry W. Hays, Society of Toxicology History, 1961–1986 (Washington, D.C.: Society of Toxicology, 1986).
14. Doull, “Toxicology Comes of Age,” 7.
15. Ibid., 7–8. Emphasis added.
16. See Robert Rudd, Pesticides and the Living Landscape (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), and Lewis Herber, Our Synthetic Environment (New York: Alfred A, Knopf, 1962).
17. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 26–27.
18. Ibid., 27–28.
19. Ibid., 29.
20. Ibid., 30.
21. Ibid., 31.
22. Ibid., 126–127.
23. Ibid., 196–198.
24. Ibid., 296.
25. Ibid., 297.
26. See, for example, Linda Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature (New York: Owl Books, 1998); Mark Lytle, The Gentle Subversive: Rachel Carson, Silent Spring, and the Rise of the Environmental Movement (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); William Souder, On a Farther Shore: The Life and Legacy of Rachel Carson (New York: Crown Publishers, 2012); Dunlap, DDT; Maril Hazlett, “The Story of Silent Spring and the Ecological Turn,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Kansas, 2003); Hazlett, “‘Woman vs. Man vs. Bugs:’ Gender and Popular Ecology in Early Reactions to Silent Spring,” Environmental History 9 (4) (October 2004): 701–729; Frank Graham, Since Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1970); and especially Thomas R. Dunlap, DDT, Silent Spring, and the Rise of Environmentalism: Classic Texts (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2008).
27. Joseph Hickey, quoted in “Interview with Joseph J. Hickey,” Dunlap, DDT, 82.
28. CBS Reports, “The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson,” April 3, 1963, transcript. Quoted in Lytle, Gentle Subversive, 183.
29. Frank Graham, Jr., Since Silent Spring (New York: Fawcett Crest, 1970), 61.
30. For a detailed analysis of the PSAC and its significance in cold war America, see Zuoyue Wang, In Sputnik’s Shadow: The President’s Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2008).
31. President’s Science Advisory Committee, “Use of Pesticides: A Report by the President’s Science Advisory Committee” (Washington, D.C.: The White House, May 15, 1963) (hereafter, PSAC, “Use of Pesticides”), 1.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid., 3.
34. Ibid., 4. Emphasis added.
35. See Sarah A. Vogel, “From ‘The Dose Makes the Poison’ to ‘The Timing Makes the Poison’: Conceptualizing Risk in the Synthetic Age,” Environmental History 13 (October 2008): 667–673, and Vogel, Is It Safe? BPA and the Struggle to Define the Safety of Chemicals (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013). See also Proctor, The Cancer Wars, and Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy.
36. PSAC, “Use of Pesticides,” 13.
37. Ibid.
38. Ibid., 22.
39. Abraham Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards (Pesticides), Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Reorganization and International Organizations of the Committee on Government Operations United States Senate, 88th Cong., 1st Sess.), May 16, 1963–July 29, 1964 (hereafter, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards), 1.
40. Ibid., 2.
41. Orville L. Freeman, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 84.
42. Ibid., 87.
43. Ibid., 86.
44. Ibid., 98.
45. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 206.
46. Ibid.
47. Rachel Carson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 215–216.
48. Ibid., 217.
49. Ibid., 218–219.
50. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 220.
51. Carson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 244.
52. Ibid.
53. See Scott Frickel, Chemical Consequences: Environmental Mutagens, Scientist Activism, and the Rise of Genetic Toxicology (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2004).
54. Carson., Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 246.
55. James B. Pearson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 247.
56. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 2005–2006.
57. Ibid., 2006.
58. PSAC, “Use of Pesticides,” 13.
59. Ibid., 20.
60. George Larrick, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 191.
61. Theron G. Randolph, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 591.
62. Irma West, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 601.
63. Ibid., 617.
64. Ibid., 626.
65. Julius E. Johnson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1334.
66. Thomas H. Milby and Fred Ottoboni, Report of an Epidemic of Organic Phosphate Poisoning in Peach Pickers, Stanislaus County, California, August 1963. Exhibit 132 in Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1452.
67. Bert J. Vos, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 759.
68. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 760.
69. Vos, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 760.
70. Recall that Frawley published several important papers on the toxicity of pesticides; see references in chapter 2.
71. Julius E. Johnson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1335.
72. This section draws on Langston, Toxic Bodies, 90–95.
73. Roger Williams, “The Nazis and Thalidomide: The Worst Drug Scandal of All Time,” Newsweek (September 10, 2012). Somewhat ironically this important piece of investigative journalism did not follow thalidomide to the United States.
74. Langston, Toxic Bodies, 93.
75. Ibid., 95.
76. Exhibit 126, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1342.
77. Ibid.
78. E. F. Feichtmeir, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1343.
79. See J. E. Lovelock, “A Sensitive Detector for Gas Chromatography,” Journal of Chromatography 1 (1958): 35–46. See also John and Mary Gribbin, James Lovelock: In Search of Gaia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 97–98.
80. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1343.
81. For a detailed analysis of the precautionary principle, see Langston, Toxic Bodies, 152–166. See also Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy.
82. Feichtmeir, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1344.
83. Ernest J. Jaworski, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1348.
84. Ibid.
85. See Bruce N. Ames, Margie Profet, and Lois Swirsky Gold, “Nature’s Chemicals and Synthetic Chemicals: Comparative Toxicology,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 87 (October 1990): 7782–7786.
86. Arnold Lehman, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1117.
87. Ibid., 1145.
88. Kenneth DuBois, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1246.
89. Ibid.
90. Ibid., 1247.
91. John P. Frawley, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1317.
92. Julius E. Johnson, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1409.
93. Ibid., 1412.
94. Ibid., 1413.
95. Ibid.
96. Ernest G. Jaworski, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1429.
97. Ribicoff, Interagency Coordination in Environmental Hazards, 1342.
98. See Daniel, Toxic Drift, Langston, Toxic Bodies, Gerald Markowitz and David Rosner, Deceit and Denial: The Deadly Politics of Industrial Pollution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), and Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010). For an ethical perspective, see Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Taking Action, Saving Lives: Our Duties to Protect Environmental and Public Health (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 2007.
99. Daniel, Toxic Drift, 67–68.
100. Ibid., 83.
1. Dunlap, DDT.
2. This section is drawn from Dunlap, DDT, 129–196.
3. J. Brooks Flippen, “Pests, Pollution, and Politics: The Nixon Administration’s Pesticide Policy,” Agricultural History 71 (4): 452.
4. Ibid., 197–245.
5. Anon., “Low Consumption of Insecticides Aids Resistance,” Medical Tribune (October 5, 1964), 15.
6. Anon., “Pesticide Poisonings Widespread in U.S.,” Santa Ana Register (September 22, 1969), 10.
7. Chicago Daily News Service, “Pesticide Poisoning Expected to Increase,” Springfield Daily News (December 21, 1971), 1.
8. Ibid.
9. William D. Ruckleshaus, “Federal Register,” (Washington, D.C.: 1972), cited in Lewis Regenstein, America the Poisoned: How Deadly Chemicals Are Destroying Our Environment, Our Wildlife, Ourselves and—How We Can Survive! (Washington, D.C.: Acropolis Books, 1982), 107.
10. This section draws on Flippen, “Pests, Pollution, and Politics,” and Flip-pen, Nixon and the Environment (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press), 2000. See also Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 89–93, and Mary Jane Large, “Comments: The Federal Pesticide Control Act of 1972: A Compromise Approach,” Ecology Law Quarterly 3 (1973): 277–310.
11. Flippen, “Pests, Pollution, and Politics,” 451–52.
12. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 89.
13. Ibid., 90.
14. Ibid., 91.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid., 92.
17. Ibid., 93.
18. Ibid., 93–94.
19. Ibid., 87–88.
20. Michael Elliott, “Properties and Applications of Pyrethroids,” E.H.P. 14 (1976): 4.
21. John E. Casida, “Michael Elliott’s Billion Dollar Crystals and Other Discoveries in Insecticidal Chemistry,” Pesticide Management Science 66 (2010): 1163.
22. M. Elliot, A. W. Farnham, N. F. Janes, P. H. Needham, D. A. Pulman, and J. H. Stevenson, “A Photostable Pyrethroid,” Nature 246 (November 16, 1973): 169.
23. Elliott, “Properties and Applications,” 6.
24. Ibid., 9.
25. Ibid., 10
26. Ibid., 11.
27. John E. Casida, “Pyrethrum Flowers and Pyrethroid Insecticides,” E.H.P. 34 (February 1984): 199.
28. Michael Elliott, “Progress in the Design of Insecticides,” Chemistry and Industry (November 17, 1978): 759.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid., 767.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid., 767–768.
33. Leonard P. Gianessi, “U.S. Pesticide Use Trends, 1966–1989” (Washington, D.C.: Resources for the Future, 1992).
34. Ibid., 12.
35. Ibid., 13.
36. Ibid., 9.
37. “Chlorpyrifos,” Pesticide Information Profile, Extension Toxicology Network. Available from http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryldicrotophos/chlorpyrifos-ext.html. Accessed May 20, 2011.
38. Gianessi, “U.S. Pesticide Use Trends,” 10.
39. J.A.M.A. 260 (7): 963.
40. Theo Colborn, “Pesticides: How Research Has Succeeded and Failed to Translate Science into Policy: Endocrinological Effects on Wildlife,” E.H.P. 103, Supplement 6 (September 1995): 81–85. See also Colborn, Dianne Dumanoski, and John Peterson Myers, Our Stolen Future: Are We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? A Scientific Detective Story (New York: Dutton, 1996).
41. See Langston, Toxic Bodies.
42. Wargo, Our Children’s Toxic Legacy, 94.
43. Joel Bourne, “Buggin Out: Integrated Pest Management Uses Natural Solutions Both Old and New to Help Farmers Kick the Chemical Habit,” Audubon 101 (2) (1999): 73.
44. American Bird Conservancy, Monocrotophos. Available from http://www.abcbirds.org/pesticides/Profiles/monocrotophos.htm (accessed March 2001).
45. American Bird Conservancy, Diazinon. Available from http://www.abcbirds.org/pesticides/Profiles/diazinon.htm (accessed March 2001).
46. Ted Schettler et al., Generations at Risk: Reproductive Health and the Environment (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999), 126–129.
47. Brenda Eskenazi, Asa Bradman, and Rosemary Castorina, “Exposures of Children to Organophosphate Pesticides and Their Potential Adverse Health Effects,” E.H.P. 107, Supplement 3 (1999): 409.
48. Gardiner Harris and Hari Kumar, “Contaminated Lunches Kill 22 Children in India,” New York Times (July 17, 2013), http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/18/world/asia/children-die-from-tainted-lunches-at-indian-school.html. Accessed July 18, 2013. See also Meera Subramanian, “Bihar School Deaths Highlight India’s Struggle with Pesticides,” New York Times (July 30, 2013), http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/07/30/bihar-school-deaths-highlight-indias-struggle-with-pesticides/. Accessed August 20, 2013.
49. Office of Pesticide Programs (USEPA), “Organophosphate Pesticides in Food: A Primer on Reassessment of Residue Limits,” (Washington, D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency, 1999), 1.
50. Consumers Union, “Consumers Union Praises EPA Phase Out of the Pesticide Diazinon: Hopes New Administration Will Continue Rigorous Examination of Pesticides,” Press Release, December 5, 2000, 1.
51. Virginia Rauh, Srikesh Arunajadai, Megan Horton, Frederica Perera, Lori Hoepner, Dana B. Barr, and Robin Whyatt, “Seven-Year Neurodevelopmental Scores and Prenatal Exposure to Chlorpyrifos, a Common Agricultural Pesticide,” E.H.P. 119 (2011): 1196–1201. See also Theo Colborn, “A Case for Revisiting the Safety of Pesticides: A Closer Look at Neurodevelopment,” E.H.P. 114 (1) (2006): 10–17.
52. Stephanie M. Engel, James Wetmur, Jia Chen, Chenbo Zhu, Dana Boyd Barr, Richard L. Canfield, and Mary S. Wolff, “Prenatal Exposure to Organophosphates, Paraoxonase 1, and Cognitive Development in Childhood,” E.H.P. 119 (2011): 1182–1188.
53. Maryse F. Bouchard, Jonathan Chevrier, Kim G. Harley, Katherine Kogut, Michelle Vedar, Norma Calderon, Celina Trujillo, Caroline Johnson, Asa Bradman, Dana Boyd Barr, and Brenda Eskenazi, “Prenatal Exposure to Organophosphate Pesticides and IQ in 7-Year-old Children,” E.H.P. 119 (2011): 1189–1195.
54. John D. Meeker and Heather M. Stapleton, “House Dust Concentrations of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Relation to Hormone Levels and Semen Quality Parameters,” E.H.P. 119 (2010): 318–323.
1. Izuru Yamamoto, “Nicotine to Nicitinoids: 1962 to 1997,” in Yamamoto and John Casida, Nicotinoid Insecticides and the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (Tokyo: Springer-Verlag, 2008), 3–27.
2. Motohiro Tomizawa and John E. Casida, “Neonicotinoid Insecticide Toxicology: Mechanisms of Selective Action,” Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 45 (2005): 252.
3. Pierre Mineau and Cynthia Palmer, The Impact of the Nation’s Most Widely Used Insecticides on Birds (Washington, D.C.: American Bird Conservancy, 2013), 5–9.
4. Dave Goulson, “An Overview of the Environmental Risks Posed by Neonicotinoid Insecticides,” Journal of Applied Ecology 50 (4) (2013): 1–11.
5. See Mineau and Palmer, Impact of the Nation’s Most Widely Used Insecticides on Birds, and Goulson, “An Overview of Environmental Risks Posed by Neonicitinoid Insecticides.”
6. EPA, “Colony Collapse Disorder: European Bans on Neonicotinoid Pesticides,” http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/intheworks/ccd-european-ban.html. Accessed September 13, 2013.