Epigraphs: [John P. Gray], “Statistics of Insanity,” AJI 18 (1861–1862), 13; Ludvig Dahl, “Fortsatte Bidrag til Kundskab om de Sindssyge i Norge,” Norsk Magazin for Lægevidenskaben 16 (1862), 548–549.
1. [John P. Gray], “Statistics of Insanity in Europe,” AJI 17 (1860–61), 348–349; Bénédict Augustin Morel, Traité des maladies mentales (Paris: Librairie Victor Masson, 1860), 79–83; Jean-Christophe Coffin, La transmission de la folie 1850–1914 (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2003), 7–8.
2. Report by Her Majesty’s Commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of Lunatic Asylums in Scotland (Edinburgh: HMSO, 1857), 31–35, 38. On Scottish asylum statistics see Jonathan Andrews, They’re in the Trade . . . of Lunacy. They “cannot interfere”—they say: The Scottish Lunacy Commissioners and Lunacy Reform in Nineteenth-Century Scotland, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, Occasional Publications No. 8 (London: Wellcome Trust, 1998).
3. “Notice of Dr. Dahl’s Report Respecting the Insane in Norway,” AJI 17 (1860–61), 342–344; from Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science 30 (1860), 193–195. These censuses are briefly discussed in Einar Lie and Hege Roll-Hansen, Faktisk Talt: Statistikkens historie i Norge (Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, 2001), 123–134. Holst also published a summary of one of these censuses in German: “Ueber die Anzahl der Geisteskranken, Blinden und Taubstummen in Norwegen im Jahre 1835,” AZP 4 (1847), 479–487.
4. [Gray], “Statistics of Insanity,” 1.
5. The review of Legoyt’s census compilation is in AJI 16 (1859–60), 436–461 and AJI 17 (1860–61), 421–443, see 444 and 454. The earliest source I can find for these claims, clearly a later publication than what Gray reviewed, is Alfred Legoyt, La France et l’Etranger: Études de statistique comparée (Paris: Veuve Berger-Levrault et fils, 1864), 121–122.
6. [Gray], “Statistics of Insanity,” 2–3, 13 (see epigraph).
7. Ludvig Dahl, “Beretning om en med Kgl. Stipendium foretagen Reise i Danmark, Holland, Belgien og Storbritannien,” Norsk Magazin for Lægevidenskaben 11 (1857), 387–411; 12 (1858), 1–19, 81–111.
8. W. Lauder Lindsay, “On Insanity and Lunatic Asylums in Norway,” Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology 11 (1858), 246–247, 251–252; A.J.F. Brierre de Boismont, “Sur l’aliénation mentale et les asiles d’aliénés en Norwège,” AMP, 3rd. ser., 5 (1858), 441–442.
9. Brierre de Boismont, “Sur l’aliénation,” 442–443; Dahl, “Beretning,” 102. Lindsay, “Insanity in Norway,” 276, describes this treatment and its successful use in Edinburgh, without any mention of French sources. But see A.J.F. Brierre de Boismont, “De l’emploi des bains prolongés et des irrigations continues dans le traitement des formes aigues de la folie, et en particulier de la manie,” Mémoires de l’Académie de Médecine 13 (1847), 527–599, where he explains that he had communicated his method orally to other doctors before publishing it in order to confirm its value, for the sake of humanity, even if it undercut his claim to priority. The use of water to warm the body and chill the head was not new.
10. The Danish word Anlæg (Anlegg in modern Norwegian) derives from the German Anlage, according to Hjalmar Falk and Alf Torp, Etymologisk Ordbog over det Norske og det Danske Sprog, 2 vols. (Kristiania: Forlagt af H. Aschehoug, 1903), 1: 19. Its meanings with respect to heredity seem to be identical.
11. Ole Sandberg, Direktor, General beretning fra Gaustad Sinsdssygeasyl for Aaret 1856 (Christiania: Steenske Hogtrykkeri, 1857), and similarly for subsequent reports; Lindsay, “Insanity in Norway.” See also David Cornelius Danielssen and Wilhelm Boeck, Traité de la Spédalskhed ou Éléphantiasis des Grecs, trans. L. A. Cosson (Paris: J.-B. Baillière, Librairie de l’Académie Royale de Médecine, 1848); Ludvig Dahl, Bidrag til Kundskab om de Sindssyge i Norge (Christiania: Steenske Bogtrykkeri, 1859), 76. There was another Norwegian precedent for these statistics of heredity: a government-commissioned report on the Bergen hospital for lepers in relation to others outside of Norway, jointly authored by a physician there and a medical professor from Christiania. It was published in 1848 in Danish and almost simultaneously in a French translation by the Royal Academy of Medicine. Dahl discussed these researches on leprosy in his 1859 book. For an introduction to the topic of leprosy and heredity, I thank Svain Atle Skålevåg, who wrote his 1998 doctoral thesis at the University of Bergen on insane asylums in Norway. See also Lorentz M. Irgens, “The Fight against Leprosy in Norway in the 19th Century,” Michael Quarterly 7 (2010), 307–320.
12. Peter Jessen, mentioned in chap. 3 above, worked in Schleswig, a Danish territory until 1862. See also J. R. Hübertz’s report of the exemplary Danish census, “Statistik der Irrenwesens in Dänemark,” AZP 1 (1844), 457–479; also Holst, “Ueber die Anzahl.”
13. Dahl, Bidrag, 76; Gerhard von dem Busch, review of Bidrag til Kundskab om de Sindssyge i Norge, by L. Dahl, AZP 18 (1861), 474–518, 474–482. Dahl later argued that this was a fundamentally important division and should be registered even by nonmedical census takers: “Om Tilveiebringelse af en fælles Sindssygestatistik for Sverige, Danmark og Norge,” Norsk Magazin for Lægevidenskaben 17 (1863), 459–460.
14. Dahl, Bidrag, 76–77; von dem Busch, review of Bidrag, 482–483.
15. A near-exception is Pliny Earle’s “genealogical chart” of color blindness in four generations of his own family in “On the Inability to Distinguish Colors,” American Journal of the Medical Sciences 9 (April 1845), 346–354.
16. Dahl, Bidrag, 76–96; von dem Busch review, 483; Ireland, Idiocy and Imbecility, reprinted tables at end of volume.
17. Dahl, Bidrag, 81; Ireland, Idiocy and Imbecility, 15.
18. Dahl, Bidrag, 77–78, 89; von dem Busch, review of Bidrag, 483–484.
19. Dahl, “Fortsatte,” 524–530. Von dem Busch’s review is “Fortgesetzter Beitrag zur Kenntniss über die Geisteskranken in Norwegen,” AZP 21 (1864), 283–306, 285–287.
20. Søren Christian Sommerfelt, Physisk-oeconomisk Beskrivelse over Saltdalen (Trondheim: Kgl. Norske Vidsksabers Selskab, 1827), 109. For basic biographical information on Sommerfelt see entry in Norsk biografisk leksikon, accessed 25 Oct. 2017, https://nbl.snl.no/.
21. Sommerfelt, Physisk-oeconomisk, 100, 103–106.
22. Dahl, “Fortsatte,” 542–544; von dem Busch, “Fortgesetzter,” 294–295. Von dem Busch read Dahl as attributing the description of the healthy immigrants from Ranen to Sommerfelt, but Dahl speaks merely of information from “the priest,” and Sommerfelt’s text never mentions Ranen. I do not understand how as many as et par Hundrede (a couple hundred) settlers from Ranen can be reconciled with the rest of Dahl’s (or Sommerfelt’s) population history of Saltdal, or why, if they arrived recently, they are described so vaguely.
23. Dahl, “Fortsatte,” 544, 548–549. On causes of insanity among the peoples of Finnmark, see 601–605.
24. Cathy Gere, “Evolutionary Genetics and the Politics of the Human Archive,” in Daston, ed., Science in the Archives, 211.
25. W. W. Ireland, “Dr. Ludvig Dahl,” JMS 37 (1891), 334.
26. Thirty-First Annual Report of the Directors of James Murray’s Royal Asylum for Lunatics near Perth (June 1858), 24–25. See also Twenty-Seventh Annual Report (June 1854), 8; Thirty-Second Annual Report (June 1859), 50–51; and Thirty-Third Annual Report (June 1860), 27–28.
27. The second was that cures depend on early treatment. First Annual Report of the General Board of Commissioners in Lunacy for Scotland (Edinburgh: HMSO, 1859), x.
28. [John P. Gray], review of (US edition) History of Civilization in England, by Henry Thomas Buckle, AJI 15 (1858–59), 237.
29. Alban Stolz, Ueber die Vererbung sittlicher Anlagen (Freiburg: Universitäts-Buchdruckerei von Hermann Meinhard Poppen & Sohn, 1859), 10–13, 17, 23.
30. Isaac Ray, Mental Hygiene (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1863), 19, 22, 24–25; Butler Hospital for the Insane, Annual Report for 1863 (1864); summarized with quotations in AJI 21 (1864–65), 238–242, quote on 242.
31. Ray, Mental Hygiene, 18; Ray, “Reports of the Trustees . . . ,” in Butler Hospital for the Insane, Annual Report for 1853, published January 1854; final quotation from a summary, “Reports of the Trustees and Superintendent of the Butler Hospital for the Insane, presented to the Corporation at their Annual Meeting, Jan. 25, 1854,” in AJI 11 (1854–55), 181–186, 185–186.
32. “Report to the Commissioners of the Lower Canada Lunatic Asylum at Quebec,” January 1858, by James Douglas, Joseph Morrin, and Charles-Jacques Frémont, in Reports of the Proprietors and Managers of the Lower Canada Lunatic Asylum, to the Commissioners, Quebec (Quebec, 1858), 49–64, 58–59.
33. William W. Ireland, On Idiocy and Imbecility (London: J. & A. Churchill, 1877), 16–17; Scottish Lunacy Commission, Report by Her Majesty’s Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the State of Lunatic Asylums in Scotland (Edinburgh: HMSO, 1857), 186–187. Ireland altered the quotation to remove the hypothetical: “all fatuous females should be restricted.”
34. Adam Kuper, “Incest, Cousin Marriage, and the Origin of the Human Sciences in Nineteenth-Century England,” Past and Present 174 (2002), 158–183; Diane B. Paul and Hamish G. Spencer, “Eugenics without Eugenists? Anglo-American Critiques of Cousin Marriage in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries,” in Müller-Wille and Brandt, Heredity Explored, 40–79; Arthur Mitchell, “On the Influence which Consanguinity in the Parentage exercises upon the Offspring,” Edinburgh Medical Journal 10, no. 2 (1865), 784, 790–791, 903, 1078–1079.
35. Mitchell, “Influence of Consanguinity,” 1080–1082. See Farr to Darwin, 21 May 1868, 6 Aug. 1870, and 16 July 1871; Darwin to Lubbock, 17 and 21 July 1870; Lubbock to Darwin, 23 and 26 July 1870; Letters 6197, 7279, 7281–82, 7286–88, and 7296 in Darwin Correspondence Project, accessed 25 Oct. 2017, www.darwinproject.ac.uk.
36. Kuper, “Incest,” 170; Darwin to Shuttleworth, 12 Feb. 1874, letter 9299A in Darwin Correspondence Project, www.darwinproject.ac.uk; George Darwin, “Marriages between First Cousins in England and their Effects,” Journal of the Statistical Society of London 38 (1875), Galton comment on 184; George Darwin, “On Beneficial Restrictions to Liberty of Marriage,” Contemporary Review 22 (1873), 412–426.
Epigraphs: A. Legoyt, ed., Compte rendu de la deuxième session du Congrès International de Statistique réuni à Paris les 10, 12, 13, 14, et 15 Septembre 1855 (Paris, 1856), 370; Ludwig Wille, “Ueber Einführung einer gleichmässigen Statistik der schweizerischen Irrenanstalten,” Zeitschrift für Schweizerische Statistik (1872), 249–254, 249.
1. Ludvig Dahl, “Om Tilveibringelse af en fælles Sindssygestatistik for Sverige, Danmark og Norge,” Norsk Magazin for Lægevidenskaben 17 (1863), 448–461, for the 1863 Skandinavska Naturforskara-Sällskapets.
2. Ludvig Dahl, “Ueber einige Resultate der Zählung der Geisteskranken in Norwegen, den 31. December 1865,” AZP 25 (1868), quote on 839.
3. Dahl, “Ueber einige Resultate.” For statistics of alcohol he cited an early work of the Norwegian statistician Eilert Sundt, Om Ædrueligheds-Tilstanden i Norge (Christiania: J. Chr. Adelsted, 1859). Dahl summarized the results of the 1865 census in “De Sindssvage i Norge den 31te December 1865,” Norsk Magazin for Lægevidenskaben 23 (1869), 705–724.
4. W. Charles Hood, Statistics of Insanity; Being a Decennial Report of Bethlem Hospital from 1846 to 1855 Inclusive (London: David Batten, 1856); Hood, Statistics of Insanity: Embracing a Report of Bethlem Hospital from 1846 to 1860 Inclusive (London: David Batten, 1862). See also Andrews et al., History of Bethlem, 496–498; Akihito Suzuki, “Framing Psychiatric Subjectivity: Doctor, Patient, and Record-Keeping at Bethlem in the Nineteenth Century,” in Joseph Melling and Bill Forsythe, eds., Insanity, Institutions, and Society, 1800–1914: A Social History of Madness in Comparative Perspective (New York: Routledge, 1999), 115–136.
5. LMA, H11/HLL/A5/1: John Conolly, “[Third] Resident Physician’s Report,” in Fifty-Fourth Report of the Visiting Justices of the County Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell (London, 1840), 5; H11/HLL/A5/2: Conolly, “Fourth Report of the Resident Physician of the County of Middlesex Pauper Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell, October 1st, 1842,” 22; and Conolly, “Sixth Report of the Physician,” in Seventy-Second Report of the Visiting Justices of the County Lunatic Asylum at Hanwell, 37.
6. J.C.B. Bucknill, “The Annual Reports of the County Lunatic Asylums and Hospitals of the Insane in England and Wales, published during the Year 1855,” Asylum Journal of Mental Science 2 (1855–56), 257–285, 258; Bucknill, “Annual Reports . . . for the Year 1856,” Asylum Journal of Mental Science 3 (1856–57), 464–506, 479, quoting Dr. D. C. Campbell of the Essex Asylum.
7. Report of the Metropolitan Commissioners in Lunacy to the Lord Chancellor (London, 1844), 177–195; C. Lockhart Robinson, “Suggestions towards an Uniform System of Asylum Statistics (With Tabular Forms),” JMS 7 (1860–61), 195–211, quote on 197.
8. “Extraordinary Meetings of the Medico-Psychological Society of Paris,” JMS 13 (1867), 285.
9. AN F20 [Statistique]/282/46.
10. AN F20/282/46–47 and 49.
11. AN F20/282/46 and 48.
12. Dr. Ant. Ritti, “Éloge du Dr. L. Lunier,” AMP, 8th ser., 20 (1904), 5–47, 27.
13. Ludger Lunier, “Recherches statistiques sur les aliénés du Département des Deux-Sèvres,” Mémoires de la Société de Statistique du Département des Deux-Sèvres 16 (1853), 27–53; Lunier, Exposé des titres et travaux scientifiques de Docteur L. Lunier . . . (Paris, 1869), 4–19; both of these documents available online from Gallica, BNF, accessed 23 Nov. 2017, http://www.sudoc.fr/164317112.
14. Ludger Lunier, review of “Rapport statistique et critique sur l’Asile des Aliénés de la Grave,” by Gérard Marchant, AMP, 2nd ser., 12 (1848), 147–151, 148; Lunier, Exposé des titres, 16–17.
15. Ludger Lunier, “Asile départemental d’aliénés de Blois (Loir et Cher),” Compte-rendu du Service Médical pour l’année 1863 (Blois, 1864), 6; table of causes, 8–9.
16. Ludger Lunier, De l’influence des grandes commotions politiques et sociales sur le développement des maladies mentales, Mouvement d’aliénation en France pendant les années 1869 à 1873 (Paris: F. Savy, 1874). On madness and political disorder see Jean-Claude Caron, Les feux de la discorde: Conflits et incendies dans la France du XIXe siècle (Paris: Hachette, 2006), chap. 15; Laure Murat, The Man Who Thought He Was Napoleon: Toward a Political History of Madness, trans. Deke Dusinberre (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), esp. 207.
17. Ludger Lunier, “De l’augmentation progressive du chiffre des aliénés et de ses causes,” AMP, 6th ser., 3 (1870), 20–34; see also same title in Journal de la Société de statistique de Paris 15 (1874), 35–40. The official report is Augustin Constans, Ludger Lunier, and Dr. Dumesnil, Rapport générale à M. le Ministre de l’Intérieur sur le Service des Aliénés en 1874 (Paris, 1878), see esp. 63–69. For a sense of the flow of statistics in the asylum reports, see Archives de la Ville de Paris D2X3, e.g., Rapport sur le Service des Aliénés du Département de la Seine pour l’année 1871 (Paris, 1872).
18. Alfred Legoyt, ed., Compte Rendu de la deuxième Session du Congrès Internationale de Statistique, réuni à Paris, Sept. 1855 (Paris, 1856), xxvi, 10, 116–120, 370–375, 383–387. Parchappe’s contribution was reprinted as “Rapport sur la statistique de l’aliénation mentale fait au Congrès International de Statistique,” AMP, 3rd ser., 2 (1856), 1–6.
19. L.F.E. Renaudin, “Observations sur les Recherches Statistiques relatives à l’aliénation mentale,” AMP, 3rd ser., 2 (1856), 486–504. On Trélat, see chap. 6 above.
20. Heinrich Damerow,” Kritisches zur Irrenstatistik aus der Anstalt bei Halle,” AZP 12 (1855), 440–467, 440–441.
21. “Reviews of American Asylums,” a summary of Workman’s 1859 report for the Canada West Provincial Lunatic Asylum, AJI 17 (1860–61), 309–315, 310. The archives of the Toronto asylum are held in the Archives of Ontario at York University, Toronto, under Queen St. Mental Health Centre. RG10–272, microfilmed as MS 640, reel 14, “Records of Medical Superintendent,” contains admission forms for the 1840s and early 1850s. These include a query for the “exciting cause” but nothing on heredity.
22. Theodore M. Porter, “Irrenärzte aller Länder! Tabular Unity and the Nineteenth-Century Struggle to Comprehend Insanity,” Soziale System 18 (2012), 211.
23. Ludger Lunier, “Rapport de M. Lunier . . . ,” AMP, 4th ser., 9 (1867), 284–286; Achille Foville, “Rapport sur la proposition de M. Lunier relative à une réunion des médecins aliénistes de tous les pays,” AMP, 4th ser., 9 (1867), 286–294. The content of the invitation is from “Extraordinary Meetings of the Medico-Psychological Society of Paris,” JMS 13 (1867), 285.
24. Ludger Lunier, report, “Congrès Alieniste International,” AMP, 4th ser., 10 (1867), 428–430; Ludger Lunier, report, “Statistique des aliénés,” AMP, 4th ser., 10 (1867), 512–514.
25. Ludger Lunier, “Projet de statistique applicable à l’étude des maladies mentales arrêté par le Congrès Alieniste International de 1867. Rapport et exposé des motifs,” AMP, 5th ser., 1 (1867), 32–59. The commission of doctors was given as Borrel, John Ch. Buchnill [Bucknill], J. Falret, W. Griesinger, Lombroso, L. Lunier, J. Mundy, Pujadas, Roller, Harrington Tuke, and Motet.
26. Lunier, “Projet,” 42; compare table in Lunier, “Asile de Blois,” 21.
27. Ludwig Wille, Referant on statistics of Swiss asylums, “Vierte Jahresversammlung des Vereins schweizerischer Irrenärzte am 13. und 14. September 1867 in Münsterlingen, Kanton Thurgau,” AZP 25 (1868), 416–419.
28. See “Bericht über die Sammlung deutscher Irrenärzte zu Eisenach am 12. und 13. September 1860,” AZP 17 (1860), Anhang; Braun, Heilung mit Defekt, 74–76, 95–96; Engstrom, Clinical Psychiatry, 42–44.
29. It developed haltingly in the late 1840s and 1850s as a branch of the Schweizerische gemeinnützige Gesellschaft. See J. M. Hungerbühler, Ueber das öffentliche Irrenwesen in der Schweiz (St. Gallen and Bern: Von Huber und Komp., 1846); Ludwig Binswanger, “Bericht über das Irrenwesen der Schweiz; der Schweizerischen Naturforscherversammlung zu Glarus erstattet,” Zeitschrift der schweizerische Naturforschenden Gesellschaft bei ihrer Versammlung in Glarus den 4., 5., und 6. August 1851, 111–117; Hans Jakob Ritter, “Von den Irrenstatistiken zur ‘erblichen Belastung’ der Bevölkerung: Die Entwicklung der schweizerischen Irrenstatistiken zwischen 1850 und 1914,” Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte 10 (2003), 59–70; Ritter, Psychiatrie und Eugenik: Zur Ausprägung eugenischer Denk- und Handlungsmuster in der schweizerischen Psychiatrie, 1850–1950 (Zürich: Chronos Verlag, 2009), 59–62.
30. “Berliner medicinische-psychologische Gesellschaft, Sitzung vom 30. July 1867,” Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 1 (1867–68), 211–216; Heinz-Peter Schmiedebach, Psychiatrie und Psychologie im Widerstreit: Die Auseinandersetzungen in der Berliner medicinisch-psychologischen Gesellschaft (1867–1899) (Husum: Matthiesen, 1986), 75.
31. Wille, “Ueber Einführung,” 249–250.
32. “A Project of a System of Statistics Applicable to the Study of Mental Disease, approved by the International Congress of Alienists of 1867,” AJI 26 (1869), 49–80.
33. Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen, Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, MInn 61955; Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen, “Ueber Statistik der Irrenanstalten mit besonderer Beziehung auf das im Auftrage des internationalen Congresses vom Jahre 1867 vorgeschlagene Schema,” AZP 27 (1871), 267–294.
34. “Sitzung vom 21. December 1869,” Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 2 (1868–69), 517–519, 518.
35. Friedrich Koster and Wilhelm (Guilelmus) Tigges, Geschichte und Statistik der westfälischen Provinzial—Irrenanstalt Marsberg, mit Rücksicht auf die Statistik anderer Anstalten, supplemental issue to vol. 24 of AZP (Berlin: August Hirschwald, 1867), 117–475; Wilhelm (Guilelmus) Tigges, “Die Lunier’schen Vorschläge für die Statistik der Geisteskrankheiten,” AZP 26 (1869), 667–668.
36. [Carl] Pelman (secretary), “Psychiatrischer Verein der Rheinprovinz. Sechste ordentliche Sitzung vom 18. Juni, 1870,” AZP 27 (1871), 595–597; [Heinrich] L[aehr], “Kritik der Zählblättchen der Berliner medicinisch-psychologischen Gesellschaft, betreffend die Geisteskranken der Anstalten,” AZP 27 (1871), 626–637. Also, “Versammlung der Mitglieder des Vereins der Irrenärzte Niedersachsens und Westphalens am 2. Mai 1870,” AZP 27 (1871), 709–711.
37. Werner Nasse, Aerztlicher Bericht über die Wirksamkeit der Irren-Heil-Anstalt zu Siegburg während der Jahre 1867, 1868, und 1869 (Cologne: Druck Franz Greven, 1871), 6–7.
38. “Bericht über die Sitzung des Vereins des deutschen Irrenärzte zu Leipzig am 13. August 1872,” AZP 29 (1873), 458–460. The members were Hagen, Nasse, Roller, Wilhelm Sander, and Tigges. Hagen, from Erlangen in Bavaria and Roller from Illenau in Baden, were seen as representing the south German provinces of the new Reich.
39. Wille, “Ueber Einführung,” 249, excerpted in “Verhandlungen psychiatrischen Vereine. VIII. Versammlung der schweizerischen Irrenärzte am 25. und 26. September d. J. in der Irrenanstalt Burghölzli bei Zürich,” AZP 29 (1873), 579–587; Ritter, Psychiatrie und Eugenik, 65–66.
40. Anton Bumm, “Nekrolog. Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen,” AZP 45 (1889), 298–306, 300.
41. Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen, review of Observations and Essays on the Statistics of Insanity, by John Thurnam, AZP 3 (1846), 677–718; Ritter, “Von den Irrenanstalten,” 62.
42. Quote from Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen review of Statistical Appendix to Report of the Metropolitan Commissioners in Lunacy, 1844, AZP 2 (1845), 523–539, 538; see also his review of the 1844 report itself on 87–141.
43. Further Report of the Commissioners in Lunacy to the Lord Chancellor. Presented to Both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty (London, 1847), 177–222, quotes on 189, 186–187.
44. See Hagen’s review in AZP 6 (1849), 315–333, 325–326.
45. Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen, Der goldene Schnitt in seiner Anwendung auf Kopf- und Gehirnbau, Psychologie, und Pathologie (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1857); G. Specht, “Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen (1814–1888),” in Theodor Kirchhoff, ed., Deutsche Irrenärzte: Einzelbilder ihres Lebens und Wirkens, 2 vols. (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1921–1924), 1: 253–260.
46. I saw the drafts of these reports at the Klinikum am Europakanal, Erlangen, thanks to Dr. Phil. Hans Siemens. The report for 1852–53 is Inventar-Nr. 2240 and for 1856–57 is Inventar-Nr. 2270. His final reports from Erlangen to the Bavarian state are in Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv MInn 62092 and 61941. For development of the basic tables to their definitive form, see MInn 61936.
47. Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen, “Aerztlicher Bericht aus der Kreis-Irrenanstalt Irsee,” AZP 10 (1853), 1–72, esp. 4, 11–12. The statute, dated 30 Jan. 1850, is from Staatsarchiv München RA 56641.
48. Hagen, “Aerztlicher Bericht Irsee,” 15–16; Staatsarchiv Nürnberg, Außenstelle Lichtenau, Patientenakten, Irrenanstalt Erlangen, Acta der Kgl. Verwaltung der Kreisirrenanstalt Erlangen, Regina B, admitted 8 Apr. 1878; see also Joseph H., admitted 25 July 1863.
49. Hagen, “Aerztlicher Bericht Irsee,” 22, 38–39, 41. In 1858 he wrote a longer-term report, directed mainly to the public: Bericht über Bestand und Wirken des Kreis-Irrenanstalt Irsee vom 1. September 1849 bis 30 September 1858 (printed report; no publication information), which I found in the Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv MInn 62102. It was published in a different form in Der Irrenfreund 1 (August 1859), 96–101, 110–112, 118–120.
50. Hagen, “Ueber Statistik der Irrenanstalten,” esp. 269, 272–273, 278–279, 293. See also Porter, “Irrenärzte aller Länder,” 213–215.
51. Friedrich Wilhelm Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen über Geisteskrankheit, nach den Ergebnissen der Ersten Fünfundzwanzig Jahre der Kreis-Irrenanstalt zu Erlangen (Erlangen: Eduard Besold, 1876), 10, 14, 20–23; Lunier, De l’influence.
52. Nasse, Aerztlicher Bericht Siegburg 1871; Nasse, “Vorlage für eine deutsche Irren-Anstalt-Statistik,” AZP 30 (1874), 240–248; Braun, Heilung mit Defekt, 98, 143.
53. Zählkarten und Tabellen für die Statistik der Irrenanstalten aufgestellt von dem Verein der deutschen Irrenärzte, dated 1874. This was bound as a supplement to the sixth issue of AZP 30 (1874). Volker Roelcke, “Unterwegs zur Psychiatrie als Wissenschaft: Das Projekt einer ‘Irrenstatistik’ und Emil Kraepelin’s Neuformulierung des psychiatrischen Klassifikation,” in Eric J. Engstrom and Volker Roelcke, eds., Psychiatrie im 19. Jahrhundert. Forschungen zur Geschichte von psychiatrischen Institutionen, Debatten und Praktiken im deutschen Sprachraum (Mainz: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur, 2003), 169–188, discusses the relation of the international project and Sander’s Prussian project. In “Sitzung vom 21 November 1871,” Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten 3 (1870–71), 503, Sander complained of personal attacks by Tigges in regard to the Zählblättchen. Albert Guttstadt, “Die Geisteskranken in den Irrenanstalten während der Zeit von 1852 bis 1872 und ihre Zählung im ganzen Stadt am 1. December 1871 nebst Vorschlägen zur Gewinnung einer deutschen Irrenstatistik,” Zeitschrift des Königlichen Preussischen Statistischen Bureaus (ZKPSB) (1874), 248a, also refers to the severity of this dispute.
54. Tigges, “Lunier’schen Vorschläge,” 677–681; Braun, Heilung mit Defekt, 301, notes the increasing focus on heredity in revisions of the statistics in the 1870s.
55. Zählkarten und Tabellen, table 5a.
56. Zählkarten und Tabellen, 11.
57. “Statistische Nachrichten über die im Preussischen Staate bestehenden öffentlichen und Privat-Irren-Heilanstalten für das Jahr 1850” and “Ueber die Irrenheilanstalten und die Anzahl der Irren im Preussischen Staate,” Mittheilungen des Statistischen Bureaus in Berlin 5 (1852), 94–131 and 328–331. Damerow held missing institutions responsible for only a fraction of the undercount: AZP 9 (1852), 330–344. On Engel’s early ambitions for Prussian statistics see Ernst Engel, “Die Methoden der Volkszählung, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der im preussischen Staate angewandten,” ZKPSB, no. 7 (1861), 157, 194; Michael C. Schneider, Wissensproduktion im Staat: Das königlich preuβische statistische Bureau 1860–1914 (Frankfurt: Campus Verlag, 2013), 70–73.
58. “Die Gutachten der königlichen Regierungen über die Ausführung der Volkszählung am 1. December 1871,” ZKPSB (1874), 153–196, 161–162; “Die Verhandlungen der Vorstände deutscher statistischer Centralstellen bezüglich der Volkszählungen vom 1. December 1875 im Deutsche Reiche,” ZKPSB (1874), 197–200h, 200e. See also Schneider, Wissensproduktion and Schmiedebach, Psychiatrie, 76.
59. This account is based on Christine von Oertzen, “Machineries of Data Power: Manual versus Mechanical Census Compilation in Nineteenth-Century Europe,” Osiris 32 (2017), 129–150. The sales notice is titled “Zählkarten” in AZP 30 (1874), 716.
60. Guttstadt, “Geisteskranken,” esp. 248a–b. He again asserted the crucial importance of a Centralstelle in the presentation “Statistik der Irrenanstalten in Preussen,” given at a meeting of the Berlin Psychiatric Association on 15 June 1874: AZP 31 (1875), 609. See also Michael C. Schneider, “Medizinalstatistik im Spannungsfeld divergierender Interessen: Kooperationsformen zwischen statistischen Ämtern und dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheistamt/Reichsgesundheitsamt,” in Axel C. Hüntelmann, Johannes Vossen, und Herwig Czech, eds., Gesundheit und Staat: Studien zur Geschichte der Gesundheitsämter in Deutschland, 1870–1930 (Husum: Matthiesen Verlag, 2006), 49–62.
61. [Fischel], review of Statistische Untersuchungen, by Friedrich Hagen, in AZP 34 (1878), 112–116.
Epigraph: “Le plus souvent, la maladie que se transmet se transforme.” Henri Legrand du Saulle, La folie héréditaire: Leçons professés à l’École Pratique (Paris: Adrien Delahaye, 1873), 9.
1. Koster and Tigges, Geschichte und Statistik, 264, and graph, 265.
2. Note the enthusiastic reception of Daniel Pick’s book Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder c. 1848–c. 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
3. B. A. Morel, Traité des dégénérescences physiques, intellectuelles et morales de l’espèce humaine (Paris: J.-B. Baillière, 1857), 323–324, 343–346, 565 and plates 1–5, 7–11; Richard von Krafft-Ebing “Zur Prognose der Geistesstörungen,” Irrenfreund 13, no. 3 (1871), 33–43, brought out some dimensions of this contrast.
4. See epigraph by Legrand du Saulle; Morel, Traité des maladies mentales, 503–573; Pick, Faces of Degeneration, 47–52; Koster and Tigges, Geschichte und Statistik, 213.
5. Morel, Traité des maladies mentales, 634–646; L. F. Calmeil, Traité des maladies inflammatoires du cerveau, 2 vols. (Paris: J.-B. Baillière, 1859), 2: 650. Baillarger remarked in 1867 on the importance of hereditary prognosis for families. Robert Nye, Masculinity and Male Codes of Honor in Modern France (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 76, speaks of this language of marital hygiene as “reproductive eugenics avant la lettre.”
6. Report on the meeting of the Société Médico-Psychologique for 30 Dec. 1867 in AMP, 4th ser., 11 (1868), 272–274.
7. Oscar Schmidt, Descendenzlehre und Darwinismus (Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus, 1873), esp. 164; Tigges, “Bericht über die Irren-Heilanstalt Sachsenberg vom Jahre 1871–1875 mit vergleichender Statistik,” Beiträge zur Statistik Mecklenburgs vom Grossherzoglichen statistischen Bureau zu Schwerin 8 (1876), 80–81.
8. See the census of mental illness taken in 1865 by Tigges’s predecessor, Dr. Löwenhardt, Die Zählung der Geisteskranken im Grossherzogthum Mecklenburg-Schwerin im Jahre 1865 (Berlin: August Hirschwald, 1866), special supplement to AZP 23.
9. Koster and Tigges, Geschichte und Statistik, 210–214 and table 6, 162–165.
10. Koster and Tigges, Geschichte und Statistik, 214 and table 10, 215, 5.9%. Because almost all of the patient records held by this asylum were for mental illness, the very low percentages in the top two rows (labeled Geisteskrankheit, or mental illness) correspond to absolute numbers larger than the sum of the bottom four rows. Poisson’s formula was known to doctors mainly from Jules Gavarret, Principes généraux de statistique medicale (Paris: Bechet Jeune et Labé, 1840), available also in an 1844 German translation.
11. Tigges, “Lunier’schen Vorschläge,” 681.
12. Wilhelm Griesinger, Die Pathologie und Therapie der psychischen Krankheiten für Aerzte und Studirende (Stuttgart: Adolph Krabbe, 1845), 112–115, cited some highly discrepant figures but didn’t challenge the validity of the measure.
13. Legrand du Saulle, Folie héréditaire, 4–6.
14. Legrand du Saulle, Folie héréditaire, 3, 9, 11–12.
15. Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours, La psychologie morbide dans ses rapports avec la philosophie de l’histoire, ou de l’influence des névropathies sur le dynamisme intellectuel (Paris: Librairie Victor Masson, 1859), 116–117. On the uses of medical heredity in French psychology see Martin Staum, Nature and Nurture in French Social Sciences, 1859–1914, and Beyond (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2011), chap. 4.
16. Gabriel Doutrebente, “Etude généalogique sur les aliénés héréditaires,” AMP, 5th ser., 2 (1869), 203, 205, 208, 227; table on 213; Legrand du Saulle modified these tables and printed two of them in Folie héréditaire, 41, 42. The enthusiastic English review is “French Psychological Literature,” JMS 16 (1871), 612–620.
17. Pelman review of La folie héréditaire, AZP 30 (1874), 697–700; Legrand du Saulle, Die erbliche Geistesstörung, trans. Dr. Stark (Stuttgart: H. Lindemann, 1874).
18. Carl Pelman, “Protokoll der Sitzung des Vereins der deutschen Irrenärzte am 27. Mai 1874 zu Eisenach,” AZP 32 (1875), 195.
19. Richard von Krafft-Ebing, “Ueber die prognostische Bedeutung der erblichen Anlage im Irresein,” AZP 26 (1869), 438–456. His reasoning was statistical, based on dividing 292 patients into three categories: hereditary latency, active psychical illness, or anomalies.
20. Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen, Einleitung, 1–77, 10, 38–42. See also discussion of Hagen in chap. 7 above.
21. Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen, 76, 10–11; Heinrich Ullrich, “Ueber Erblichkeitsverhältnisse,” in Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen, 175–244, 179. On issues of homogeneity in the history of statistics see Stephen Stigler, The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).
22. Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen, 48–51, 58. On performances in the asylum, see Friedrich Wilhelm. Hagen, Bericht über die Kreisirrenanstalt Erlangen in den Jahren 1877–1883 (Erlangen, n.d.), in Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv MInn 61941.
23. Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen, 59–60.
24. Ullrich, “Ueber Erblichkeitsverhältnisse,” 176–179, 189–191, 208–210; Ullrich, “Bericht über die psychiatrische Literatur,” “13. Statistik,” AZP 38 (1882), 552–555.
25. Ullrich, “Ueber Erblichkeitsverhältnisse,” 175–177, 181.
26. Ullrich, “Ueber Erblichkeitsverhältnisse,” 178–185, 243.
27. Hagen, Statistische Untersuchungen, 64–75.
28. B. A. Morel, Rapport médical sur l’Asile des Aliénés de Saint-Yon (Rouen, 1870), 8–10, 16–18.
29. Tigges, “Bericht über Sachsenberg,” 80. Reviews by Dr. Kelp in AZP 34 (1878), 109–112; Max Huppert in Schmidt’s Jahrbücher der in- und ausländische gesammten Medicin 173 (1877), 181–184.
30. Tigges, “Statistik der Erblichkeit, betreff. die Kinder und die Geschwister der in die Anstalt Aufgenommenen,” AZP 35 (1879), 487.
31. Tigges, “Statistik der Erblichkeit,” 486–487, 501–502. On Weinberg, see chap. 12 below.
32. Tigges, “Statistik der Erblichkeit,” 487, 501–502, 507, summarized in Dr. Kelp, “Bericht über die Irrenheilanstalt Sachsenberg vom Jahre 1871–75 mit vergleichender Statistik von Med.-Rath Dr. Tigges,” AZP 34 (1878), 109–112, 111.
Epigraphs: Paul Samt, Die naturwissenschaftliche Methode in der Psychiatrie: Vortrag gehalten in der Berliner medicinisch-psychologischen Gesellschaft (Berlin: Verlag von August Hirschwald, 1874), 41; Thomas Mann, Bekentnisse des Hochstaplers Felix Krull (1954), book 2, chapter 5, an episode set in the mid-1890s. On these grounds, a duped military doctor exempts Krull from conscription.
1. Scull, Madness in Civilization, 232; AZP 7 (1850), 534.
2. James H. Mills, Madness, Cannabis, and Colonialism: The “Native-Only” Lunatic Asylums of British India, 1857–1900 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2000), 50, 58–60; Report on the Lunatic Asylums in the Central Provinces for years 1874–1879 and 1895–1899; Triennial Report of the Lunatic Asylums under the Government of Bombay for the Years 1918–1920, both at National Library of Medicine.
3. On heredity in California, see chap. 4 above. On Georgia, see especially Biennial Report of the Trustees of the Georgia Lunatic Asylum for the Fiscal Years from October 1, 1890, to October 1, 1891 and from October 1, 1891, to October 1, 1892 (Augusta, GA, 1892) and Annual Report of the Trustees of the Georgia Lunatic Asylum for the Fiscal Year from September 1, 1896, to September 1, 1897 (Augusta, GA, 1897). Even the asylum report was segregated, and all dissections involved black patients.
4. See reports of the physician at Hanwell for 1853 and 1854, LMA, H11/HLL/A5/4. In 1853, 12 new male patients and only 1 female showed heredity as cause. In 1854, a new physician in the female department recorded causes for only 18 of 82 new patients, compared to 73 of 87 admitted males. For 21 of the males, two or more causes were recorded.
5. Dr. Kreuser, Die Heil- & Pflegeanstalt Winnenthal. Fünfzigjähriger Anstaltsbericht (Tübingen: Franz Fues, 1885), 44, 69. He explained the divergence of his numbers from Hagen’s at Erlangen and Julius Koch’s at Zwiefalten in terms of patient composition.
6. Bethlem Hospital Archives, Case Book: Females, 1854, 29, 153; Bethlem Subcommittee Book, 1854–1856, 9 June 1854.
7. General Report of the Royal Hospitals of Bridewell and Bethlem and of the House of Occupations for the Year Ended 31st December 1852 (London: David Batten, 1853), 43, held in Bethlem archives.
8. LMA, H11/HLL/B19/24, Female Case Book, 1873–74 and H11/HAA/B20/13, Male Case Books, 1873–74.
9. LMA, H11/HLL/B19/24, Female Case Book 1873–74, cases 5313, 5392, 5405; H11/HAA/B20/13, Male Case Book 1873–74, cases 4665, 4693, 4758, 4796.
10. LMA, H11/HLL/B19/39 Female Case Book 1893–94, patients 9281, 9296l; J. Peeke Richards, “Report of the Medical Superintendent of the Female Department” for 1876 MLA H11/HLL/AF/9, 24–25.
11. Bethlem Hospital Archives, Case Book Males 1894. On relatives in asylums see LMA, H11/HLL/B20/20 for Hanwell, 1889–1890, e.g., cases 7555, 7568, 7668, and 7738.
12. LMA, H64/B6/2 St. Luke’s Hospital Case Book 1875–76, 365.
13. “Report of the Committee on the Statistical Tables of the Medico-Psychological Association,” JMS 28 (1882), 463–464; LMA, H12/CH/B2/2, Register of Admissions for Colney Hatch, 1888–1907.
14. These remarks are based on Metropolitan Asylums Board (London) (hereafter, MAB), Report of the Statistical Committee for the Year 1897 (London: McQuordale, 1898), 122–123; also MAB, Annual Report for the Year 1901, vol. 2, 174–175; Annual Report for the Year 1904, 223, 270a; MAB, Annual Report for the Year 1913, foldout table on 230c. The statistical committee of the MAB is briefly described in Gwendoline Ayers, England’s First State Hospital and the Metropolitan Asylums Board, 1867–1930 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1971), 135–136.
15. State of New York, State Commission on Lunacy, Second Annual Report (for 1890; Albany, 1891), 221.
16. See essays in M. Norton Wise, ed., The Values of Precision (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995); Silvana Patriarca, Numbers and Nationhood: Writing Statistics in Nineteenth–Century Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Schneider, Preuβische Statistische Bureau.
17. The lecture was promptly published in the leading German economic journal: Ludwig Wille, “Die Aufgaben und Leistungen der Statistik der Geisteskranken,” Jahrbücher für Nationalökonomie und Statistik 35 (1879), 307–331, see 331. Heinrich Ullrich excerpted from it in his bibliographic report on asylum statistics in “Bericht über die psychiatrische Literatur im 2. Halbjahre 1880,” AZP 37 (1881), 133–135.
18. For asylum administration and statistics in Belgium, see Rapport de la Commission Supérieure d’Inspection des Établissements d’Aliénés, instituée par arrêté royal du 18 November 1851 (dated 30 Jan. 1852), Bulletin de la Société de Gand 20 (1853), 40–75; then, e.g., Deuxième rapport de la Commission Permanent d’Inspection des Établissements d’Aliénés, instituée par arrêté royal du 17 mars 1853 (Bruxelles, 1854) and so on in mostly annual volumes to the eighth for 1862, and thereafter less frequently.
19. Ferdinand Lefebvre, “Des Bases d’une bonne statistique international des maladies mentales: Rapport,” Bulletin de la Société de Médecine Mentale de Belgique 37 (1885), 55–60; “Congress of Psychiatry and Neuro-Pathology at Antwerp,” JMS 31 (1886), 613–626; J. Christian, “Chronique. Le Congrès de phréniatrie et de psychopathologie, tenu à Anvers du 7 au 9 septembre, 1885,” AMP, 7th ser., 2 (1885), 371–385; Albert Guttstadt, “Zur internationalen Irrenstatistik,” AZP 43 (1887), 139–140. Ullrich summarized these reports in “Bericht über die psychiatrische Literature im 2. Halbjahre 1885,” AZP 43 (1887), 115–117.
20. See Karl Westphal, “Vorschläge zur Abänderung der amtlichen Zählkarten für die Irrenanstalten,” AZP 38 (1882), 717–719 and 39 (1883), 612–616. For paradoxes of standardization, see Andrew Lakoff, Pharmaceutical Reason: Knowledge and Value in Global Psychiatry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
21. Prof. Dr. Hasimi Sakaki, “Erläuterungen zu den statistischen Tabellen aus der Städtischen Irrenheilanstalt zu Tokio, Japan,” AZP 48 (1892), 109–133.
22. Carl Pelman, “Ueber Irre und Irrenwesen,” Centralblatt für allgemeine Gesundheitspflege 1 (1882), 16–24, 45–68. For debates on the data cards and on disease classification at meetings of the Verein der Deutschen Irrenärzte see AZP 35 (1879), 529–534; AZP 38 (1882), 717–728.
23. Engstrom, Clinical Psychiatry, 141. Hagen, also a Bavarian, kept a file of verzettelte Krankengeschichten, case histories on individual sheets, which allowed them to be rearranged at will. See Universität Erlangen Handschriftabteilung, Nachlaß F. W. Hagen, A15–16. He also kept records on the insane of the region who were not in asylums. Stadtarchiv Erlangen 156/24, Die Benutzung der Irrenanstalt und die Behandlung der Irren, 1852–1894.
24. Emil Kraepelin, Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aerzte, 5th ed. (Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1896), 318; he spoke here of Geistesstörungen des Rückbildungsalters, mental illnesses of age reversion. See also Matthias M. Weber and Eric J. Engstrom, “Kraepelin’s ‘Diagnostic Cards’: The Confluence of Clinical Research and Preconceived Categories,” History of Psychiatry 8 (1997), 375–385; Engstrom, “Die Ökonomie klinischer Inskription. Zu diagnostischen und nosologischen Schreibpraktiken in der Psychiatrie,” in Cornelius Borck and Armin Schäfer, eds., Psychographien (Zürich/Berlin: Diaphanes, 2005), 219–240; Volker Roelcke, “Quantifizierung, Klassifikation, Epidemiologie: Normierungsversuch des Psychischen bei Emil Kraepelin,” in Werner Sohn and Herbert Mehrtens, eds., Normalität und Abweichung: Studien zur Theorie und Geschichte der Normalisierungsgesellschaft (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1999), 183–200.
25. Emil Kraepelin, Die psychiatrischen Aufgaben des Staates (Jena: Fischer, 1900), trans. by Stewart Paton as The Duty of the State in the Care of the Insane in AJI 57 (1900–1901), 235–280, 249; Eric J. Engstrom, “Organizing Psychiatric Research in Munich (1903–1925): A Psychiatric Zoon Politicon between State Bureaucracy and American Philanthropy,” in Volker Roelcke, Paul Weindling, and Louise Westwood, eds., International Relations in Psychiatry: Britain, Germany, and the United States to World War II (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2010), 48–66.
26. Samt, Naturwissenschaftliche Methode, 59.
27. “Reviews and Notices of Books,” Lancet 1 (28 Apr. 1866), 459–460; Granville, Care and Cure, 2: 212, 206. Granville also rejected the distinction between exciting and predisposing causes.
28. Supplement to the Thirty-Sixth Annual Report of the General Board of Commissioners in Lunacy for Scotland (Edinburgh: HMSO, 1895), letter of transmittal by Sir George Otto Trevelyan, vii.
29. ALVR, 1157, Bericht der ständische Commission, 14 June 1843, 29–31; Bemerkungen des Ober-Medicinal-Raths Jacobi zu dem Berichte der ständischen Untersuchungs-Commission über die Irren-Heilanstalt zu Siegburg (undated), 16 pp., 2–3, 5. On these issues see Braun, Heilung mit Defekt, 78.
30. Pliny Earle, The Curability of Insanity. A Series of Studies (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1887), “Study First (written in 1876),” 7–63, 19–29, 10. See also Gerald Grob, Mental Illness and American Society (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 39.
31. Medical Center of New York-Presbyterian / Weill Cornell, New York, NY, Medical Register of the Bloomingdale Asylum, 31 Dec. 1844—Aug. 1866.
32. Earle, Curability, 38–39, 60–61; D. Hack Tuke, “Presidential Address, delivered at the Annual Meeting of the Medico-Psychological Association . . . August 2nd, 1881,” JMS 27 (1881), 336; see also T. C. Shaw, “The New Statistical Tables,” JMS 29 (1883), 324–325.
33. Franklin Sanborn, Memoirs of Pliny Earle with Extracts from his Diary and Letters (1830–1892) and Selections from his Professional Writings (1839–1891) (Boston: Damrell and Upham, 1898), 158; John G. Park, “Superintendent’s Report,” Forty-Seventh Annual Report of the Trustees of the State Lunatic Hospital of Worcester, for year ending October 1879 (Boston: Rand Avery, 1880), 14.
34. Pliny Earle, “Curability of Insanity,” AJI 34 (1877), 101–102 and comments on Vermont asylum, 536–530; [John Gray] review of Earle’s 1877 report, AJI 35 (1877), 542–544.
35. Weber and Engstrom, “Kraepelin’s ‘Diagnostic Cards.’ ”
36. See Kraepelin’s letter to the minister of justice, religion, and instruction, 12 Nov. 1902, in Wolfgang Burgmair, Eric J. Engstrom, and Matthias M. Weber, eds., Emil Kraepelin in Heidelberg, 1891–1903. Vol. 5 of Edition Emil Kraepelin (Munich: Belleville Verlag, 2005), 150–152.
37. I thank Nikolaus Braun of the Archiv des Bezirks Oberbayern (ABO) in Munich for explaining this procedure and for helping me with the files there.
38. ABO, Akten der Heil- und Pflege-Anstalt Eglfing No. 5916, patient 2518, Zugang Buch (Frauen) No. 212. For relations to the census in Bavaria, see Georg Mayr, comp., Die Verbreitung der Blindheit, der Taubstummheit, des Blödsinns und der Irrsinns in Bayern, nebst einer allgemeinen internationalen Statistik dieser vier Gebrechen (Munich: Commissionsverlag von Adolf Ackermann, 1877), esp. 1–5.
39. ABO, Akten Patient 2413 and corresponding Zugang volumes. The Aufnahmszählkarte used here is for Johann A. and is dated 14 Aug. 1891. On the keeping of patient files see Sophie Ledebur, “Schreiben und Beschreiben: Zur epistemischen Funktion von psychiatrischen Krankenakten, ihrer Archivierung und deren Übersetzungen in Fallgeschichten,” Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte 34 (2011), 102–124.
40. Annual Report of the Trustees of the Taunton State Hospital, 1893 (Boston: Rand, Abery), 5.
41. Adolf Meyer, “A Review of the Signs of Degeneration and of Methods of Registration,” AJI 52 (1895–96), 344–363; Meyer, “The Treatment of the Insane” (from a report to the governor of Illinois, 2 Aug. 1894), reprinted in Eunice E. Winters, ed., The Collected Papers of Adolf Meyer, 4 vols. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1951), 2: 37–57, 45.
42. Sixty-Third Annual Report of the Trustees of the Worcester Lunatic Hospital, October 1895 (Boston, 1896), 15; Sixty-fourth Annual Report . . . 1896, 16–18; S. D. Lamb, Pathologist of the Mind: Adolf Meyer and the Origins of American Psychiatry (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014), 41–58.
43. State of New York, State Commission in Lunacy, Thirteenth Annual Report, 1900–1, 20. Noll, American Madness, 159, notes that Meyer focused on patient data.
44. A. H. Newth, M. D., “Systematic Case-taking,” JMS 46 (1900), 255–256.
45. Newth, “Case-taking,” 257–259. See also the Annual Reports of James Murray’s Royal Asylum from 1886 to 1909.
Epigraph: Francis Galton, Natural Inheritance (London: Macmillan, 1889), 66.
1. Two textbook histories are Robert Olby, Origins of Mendelism, 2nd. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985) and Peter Bowler, The Mendelian Revolution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989). Will Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) judges Pearson’s biometric school favorably, as does Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985), while (for example) Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), treats it as misguidedly anti-Mendelian.
2. Bert Theunissen, “Breeding without Mendelism: Theory and Practice of Dairy Cattle Breeding in the Netherlands, 1900–1950,” Journal of the History of Biology 41 (2008), 637–676.