1. Edward Rosen, “The Invention of Eyeglasses: Part I,” Journal of the History of Medicine (January 1956): 34–35.
2. Ken Kern, The Owner-Built Home (Oakhurst, Calif.: Owner-Builder Publications, 1972), 78.
3. W. L. Goodman, The History of Woodworking Tools (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1964), 199–201.
4. R. A. Salaman, Dictionary of Tools: used in the woodworking and allied trades, c. 1700–1970 (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1975), 299.
5. Lynn White Jr., “Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages,” Speculum 15 (April 1940): 153.
6. For a dissenting view, see A. G. Drachmann, “The Crank in Graeco-Roman Antiquity,” Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of Joseph Needham (London: Heinemann, 1973), 33–51.
7. Bertrand Gille, “Machines,” in Charles Joseph Singer et al., eds., A History of Technology: Vol. II, The Mediterranean Civilizations and the Middle Ages c. 700 B.C. to c. A.D. 1500 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), 651.
8. Bertrand Gille, “The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries in the Western World,” in Maurice Dumas, ed., A History of Technology & Invention: Vol. II, The First Stages of Mechanization, trans. Eileen B. Hennessy (New York: Crown Publishers, 1969), 23.
9. Graham Hollister-Short, “Cranks and Scholars,” History of Technology 17 (1995): 223–24.
10. Goodman, History of Woodworking Tools, 178.
11. Ibid., 9.
12. “Tools: Later development of hand tools: SCREW-BASED TOOLS: Screwdrivers and wrenches,” Britannica Online, December 1998.
1. Peter Nicholson, Mechanical Exercises: or, the elements and practice of Carpentry, Joinery, Bricklaying, Masonry, Slating, Plastering, Painting, Smithing, and Turning (London: J. Taylor, 1812), 353.
2. Joseph Moxon, Mechanick Exercises: or, the Doctrine of Handy-Works (London: J. Moxon, 1693), A5–6.
3. The Greek Anthology, trans. W. R. Patton (London: William Heinemann, 1916), 405.
4. “Navigation,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 12 (Edinburgh: A. Bell and C. Macfarquhar, 1797), plate 343. The reference is pointed out by Joseph E. Sandford, “Carpenters’ Tool Notes,” in Henry C. Mercer, Ancient Carpenters’ Tools: Together with Lumbermen’s, Joiners’ and Cabinet Makers’ Tools in Use in the Eighteenth Century (Doylestown, Pa.: Bucks County Historical Society, 1975), 311.
5. A Dictionary of American English: on historical principles, vol. 4 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944), 2045.
6. R. A. Salaman, Dictionary of Tools: used in the woodworking and allied trades, c. 1700–1970 (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1975), 450.
7. Ibid., 449.
8. A. J. Roubo, “L’Art du Menuisier en Meubles,” Description des Arts et Métiers, vol. 19 (Paris: Académie des Sciences, 1772), 944 (author’s translation).
9. Encyclopédie: ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 17 (Neuchastel: Samuel Faulche & Co., 1765), 484 (author’s translation).
10. Adolphe Hatzfeld and Arsène Darmesteter, Dictionnaire Général de la Langue Française: du commencement du XVIIe siècle jusqu’à nos jours, vol. 2 (Paris: Librairie Delagrave, 1932), 2171.
11. James M. Gaynor and Nancy L. Hagedorn, Tools: Working Wood in Eighteenth-Century America (Williamsburg, Va.: Colonial Williamsburg Foundation), 11.
12. Linda F. Dyke, Henry Chapman Mercer: An Annotated Chronology (Doylestown, Pa.: Bucks County Historical Society, 1989), 11.
13. Kenneth D. Roberts, Some 19th Century English Woodworking Tools: Edge & Joiner Tools and Bit Braces (Fitzwilliam, N.H.: Ken Roberts Publishing Co., 1980).
14. See Witold Rybczynski, “One Good Turn,” New York Times Magazine, April 18, 1999, 133.
1. Lynn White Jr., “The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities, and Consequences,” Technology and Culture 3 (fall 1963): 486–500.
2. Martha Teach Gnudi, “Agostino Ramelli and Ambrose Bachot,” Technology and Culture 15, no. 4 (October 1974): 619.
3. The Various and Ingenious Machines of Agostino Ramelli (1588), trans. Martha Teach Gnudi (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 508.
4. Bert S. Hall, “A Revolving Bookcase by Agostino Ramelli,” Technology and Culture 11, no. 4 (July 1970): 397.
5. Georgius Agricola, De Re Metallica, trans. H. C. Hoover and L. H. Hoover (New York: Dover Publications, 1950), 364.
6. Christoph Graf zu Waldburg Wolfegg, Venus and Mars: The World of the Medieval Housebook (Munich: Prestel-Verlag, 1998), 8.
7. Hugh B. C. Pollard, Pollard’s History of Firearms, Claude Blair, ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1983), 29.
8. John Keegan, A History of Warfare (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993), 329.
9. Fernand Braudel, The Structures of Everyday Life: Vol. I, The Limits of the Possible, trans. Siân Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), 392.
10. Pollard, Pollard’s History of Firearms, 55.
11. Ibid., 35.
12. Ibid., 18.
13. Joseph Moxon, Mechanick Exercises: or, the Doctrine of Handy-Works (London: J. Moxon, 1693), 33–34.
14. Charles John Ffoulkes, The Armourer and His Craft: From the XIth to the XVIth Century (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1967), 55.
15. Claude Blair, European Armour: circa 1066 to circa 1700 (London: B. T. Batsford Ltd., 1958), 162.
16. Ffoulkes, Armourer and His Craft, 24.
17. Ibid., plate V.
1. Georgius Agricola, De Re Metallica, trans. H. C. Hoover and L. H. Hoover (New York: Dover Publications, 1950), 364.
2. G. H. Baillie, C. Clutton, and C. A. Ilbert, Britten’s Old Clocks and Watches and Their Makers (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1956), 14.
3. Ibid., 64.
4. Joseph Chamberlain, “Manufacture of Iron Wood Screws,” in British Association for the Advancement of Science, Committee on Local Industries, The Resources, Products, and Industrial History of Birmingham and the Midland Hardware District (London: R. Hardwicke, 1866), 605–6.
5. Henry C. Mercer, Ancient Carpenters’ Tools: Together with Lumbermen’s, Joiners’ and Cabinet Makers’ Tools in Use in the Eighteenth Century (Doylestown, Pa.: Bucks County Historical Society, 1975), 259.
6. Quoted by H. W. Dickinson, “Origin and Manufacture of Wood Screws,” Transactions of the Newcomen Society 22 (1941–42): 80.
7. Ibid., 81.
8. Ibid., 89.
9. Ken Lamb, P.L.: Inventor of the Robertson Screw (Milton, Ont.: Milton Historical Society, 1998), 35.
10. Ibid., 16.
11. Henry F. Phillips and Thomas M. Fitzpatrick, “Screw,” U.S. patent number 2,046,839, July 7, 1936.
12. American Screw Company to Henry F. Phillips, March 27, 1933.
13. Mead Gliders, Chicago, to American Screw Company, April 26, 1938.
14. Wentling Woodcrafters, Camden, N.J., to American Screw Company, June 15, 1938.
15. “The Phillips Screw Company” (unpublished paper, Phillips Screw Company, Wakefield, Mass.).
16. Consumer Reports 60, no. 11 (November 1995): 695.
1. L. T. C. Rolt, A Short History of Machine Tools (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965), 59.
2. Robert S. Woodbury, Studies in the History of Machine Tools (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1972), 20–21.
3. Ibid., 49.
4. Christoph Graf zu Waldburg Wolfegg, Venus and Mars: The World of the Medieval Housebook (Munich: Prestel-Verlag, 1998), 88.
5. Jacques Besson, Theatrum Machinarum (Lyon: 1578), plate IX.
6. Charles Plumier, L’art de tourner (Lyon: 1701).
7. Maurice Daumas and André Garanger, “Industrial Mechanization,” in A History of Technology & Invention, Maurice Daumas, ed., trans. Eileen B. Hennessy (New York: Crown Publishers, 1969), 271.
8. James Nasmyth, James Nasmyth, Engineer: An Autobiography (London: John Murray, 1885), 136.
9. Ibid., 144.
10. Ibid., 128.
11. L. T. C. Rolt, Great Engineers (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1962), 105.
12. Samuel Smiles, Industrial Biography: Iron-Workers and Tool-Makers (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1864), 282.
1. Samuel Smiles, Industrial Biography: Iron-Workers and Tool-Makers (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1864), 337.
2. Ibid., 223.
3. Ibid., 312.
4. Ibid., 204 (author’s translation).
5. W. L. Goodman, The History of Woodworking Tools (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1964), 105.
6. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, trans. Morris Hicky Morgan (New York: Dover Publications, 1960), 184.
7. A. G. Drachmann, “Ancient Oil Mills and Presses,” Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Archaeologisk-kunsthistoriske Meddelelser 1, no.1 (1932): 73.
8. Ibid., 76.
9. Bertrand Gille, “Machines,” in A History of Technology, vol. 2, Charles Joseph Singer et al., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), 631–32.
10. John James Hall, “The Evolution of the Screw: Its Theory and Practical Application,” Horological Journal, July 1929, 269–70.
11. Quoted in John W. Humphrey et al., Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcebook (London: Routledge, 1998), 56.
12. A. G. Drachmann, “Heron’s Screwcutter,” Journal of Hellenic Studies 56 (1936): 72–77.
13. Quoted in Humphrey et al., Greek and Roman Technology, 56.
14. Quoted in Hall, “Evolution of the Screw: Its Theory and Practical Application,” Horological Journal, August 1929: 285.
15. Vitruvius, Ten Books, 285.
16. Henry C. Mercer, Ancient Carpenters’ Tools: Together with Lumbermen’s, Joiners’ and Cabinet Makers’ Tools in Use in the Eighteenth Century (Doylestown, Pa.: Bucks County Historical Society, 1975), 273.
1. Derek J. de Solla Price, “Gears from the Greeks: The Antikythera Mechanism—a Calendar Computer from ca. 80 B.C.,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 64, pt. 7 (November 1974): 51.
2. Derek J. de Solla Price, “Clockwork Before the Clock,” Horological Journal (December 1955): 810–14.
3. Derek J. de Solla Price, “An Ancient Greek Computer,” Scientific American, June 1959, 60–67.
4. Ibid., 66.
5. Ibid., 67.
6. Quoted in John W. Humphrey et al., Greek and Roman Technology: A Sourcebook (London: Routledge, 1998), 57–58.
7. Claudius Claudianus, Shorter Poems 51, in Humphrey et al., Greek and Roman Technology, 58.
8. Quoted in The Works of Archimedes, T. L. Heath, ed. (New York: Dover Publications, 1953), xviii.
9. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, trans. Morris Hicky Morgan (New York: Dover Publications, 1960), 254.
10. Quoted in E. J. Dijksterhuis, Archimedes, trans. C. Dikshoorn (Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1956), 13.
11. New York Times, November 11, 1973.
12. Quoted in D. L. Simms, “Archimedes’ Weapons of War and Leonardo,” British Journal of the History of Science 21 (1988): 196.
13. The Times, May 15, 1981.
14. Quoted in A. G. Drachmann, “How Archimedes Expected to Move the Earth,” Centaurus 5, no. 3–4 (1958): 278.
15. Quoted in Dijksterhuis, Archimedes, 15.
16. Drachmann, “How Archimedes Expected to Move the Earth,” 280–81.
17. R. J. Forbes, “Hydraulic Engineering and Sanitation,” A History of Technology, vol. 2, Charles Joseph Singer et al., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1957), 677; A. G. Drachmann, The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity (Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1963), 204.
18. Quoted in A. G. Drachmann, “The Screw of Archimedes,” Actes de VIIIe Congrès International d’Histoire des Sciences, Florence-Milan, 3–9 septembre 1956, vol. 3 (Florence: Vinci, 1958), 940–41.
19. John Peter Oleson, Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of Technology (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1984), 297, 365.
20. Humphrey et al., Greek and Roman Technology, 317.
21. William Giles Nash, The Rio Tinto Mine: Its History and Romance (London: Simpkin Marshall Hamilton Kent & Co., 1904), 35.
22. Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library of Diodorus the Sicilian; in Fifteen Books, trans. G. Booth (London: W. M’Dowall for J. Davis, 1814).
23. See Drachmann, Mechanical Technology, 154.
24. Vitruvius, Ten Books, 297.
25. Joseph Needham and Wang Ling, Science and Civilization in China, Introductory Orientations (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1954), 241.