Notes

Chapter 1

1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008–09 edition; Aid to recovery: the economic impact of IT, software, and the Microsoft ecosystem on the global economy. Springfield, MA: Interactive Data Corporation, 2009.

2. Stuart Shapiro and Steven Woolgar. “Balancing acts: reconciling competing visions of the way software technologists work,” in Proceedings of the Eighth IEEE International Workshop on Incorporating Computer Aided Software Engineering (Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1997): 364–370; Stephen Barley and Gideon Kunda, Gurus, Hired Guns, and Warm Bodies: Itinerant Experts in a Knowlege Economy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004).

3. Jackson Granholm, “How to Hire a Programmer,” Datamation 8, no. 8 (1962): 31–32; Sherry Turkle, The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984); Ron Eglash, “Race, Sex, and Nerds: From Black Geeks to Asian American Hipsters,” Social Text 2, no. 20 (2002): 49–64; Steve Lohr, Go To: The Story of the Math Majors, Bridge Players, Engineers, Chess Wizards, Maverick Scientists, and Iconoclasts—The Programmers Who Created the Software Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 2001).

4. Deborah Lupton, “The Embodied Computer User,” Body and Society 1, no. 3–4 (1995): 97–112; Fergus Murray and David Knights, “Inter-managerial Competition and Capital Accumulation: IT Specialists, Accountants, and Executive Control,” Critical Perspectives on Accounting 1, no. 2 (June 1990): 167–189.

5. Steve Silberman, “The Geek Syndrome,” Wired 9, no. 12 (2001): 175–183; Majia Holmer Nadesan, Constructing Autism: Unravelling the “Truth” and Understanding the Social (London: Routledge, 2005), 199.

6. David Anderegg, Nerds: Who They Are and Why We Need More of Them (New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2007); Benjamin Nugent, American Nerd: The Story of My People (New York: Scribner, 2008).

7. Joseph Weizenbaum, Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation (New York: Penguin, 1976); Steven Levy, Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution (Garden City, NY: Anchor Press, 1984); Katie Hafner, CYBERPUNK: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier, Revised (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).

8. Philip Scranton, “None-too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology,” Technology and Culture 29, no. 744–778 (1988); Stephen Barley, “Technicians in the Workplace: Ethnographic Evidence for Bringing Work into Organization Studies,” Administrative Science Quarterly 41, no. 3 (1996): 404–441; Nelly Oudshoorn and Trevor Pinch, eds., How Users Matter: The Co-construction of Users and Technologies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).

9. Michael S. Mahoney, “What Makes the History of Software Hard,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 30, no. 3 (2008): 8–18.

10. Thomas Haigh, “Software in the 1960s as Concept, Service, and Product.” Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE 24, no. 1 (2002): 5–13.

11. Andrew Friedman and Dominic Cornford, Computer Systems Development: History, Organization, and Implementation (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 1989), 10.

12. Martin Campbell-Kelly, From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog: A History of the Software Industry (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003).

13. John Tukey, “The Teaching of Concrete Mathematics,” American Mathematical Monthly 65, no. 1 (1958): 1–9.

14. Bernard Galler, “Definition of Software,” Communications of the ACM 5, no. 1 (1961): 6.

15. Richard Christian, “The Computer and the Marketing Man,” Journal of Marketing 26, no. 3 (1962): 79–82; “Hardware and Software,” British Medical Journal 1, no. 5449 (1965): 1509; Robert Hayes, Ralph H. Parker, and Gilbert W. King. “Automation and the Library of Congress: Three Views,” Library Quarterly 34, no. 3 (1964): 229–239; George Mitchell, “Exogenous Forces in the Development of Our Banking System,” Law and Contemporary Problems 32, no. 1 (1967): 3–14.

16. J. H. Spigelman, “Implications of Recent Advances in Electronic Data Processing,” Financial Analysts Journal 20, no. 5 (1964): 137–143; Arthur Nesse, “A User Looks at Software,” Datamation 14, no. 10 (1968): 48–51; Allen Forte, “Review: Conference on the Use of Computers in Humanistic Research,” Computers and the Humanities 1, no. 3 (1967): 110–112; “Abstracts of Papers for the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Radiation Research Society, Coronado, California February 13–16, 1966,” Radiation Research 27, no. 3 (1966): 487–554; Maurice Ronayne, “‘Leads’ to Pertinent ADP Literature for the Public Administrator,” Public Administration Review 24, no. 2 (1964): 119–125.

17. John Law, “Technology and Heterogeneous Engineering: The Case of the Portuguese Expansion,” in The Social Construction of Technical Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Trevor Pinch, and Thomas Hughes (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987), 111–134; John Law, “Notes on the Theory of Actor-Network: Ordering, Strategy, and Heterogeneity,” Systems Practice 5, no. 4 (1992): 379–393.

18. Richard Canning, “The Maintenance ‘Iceberg,’” EDP Analyzer 10, no. 10 (1972): 1–14.

19. J. H. Spigelman, “Implications of Recent Advances in Electronic Data Processing: Part II,” Financial Analysts Journal 20, no. 6 (1964): 87–93; Richard Jones, “Practical Control of Preparatory Programming Time for a Computer Installation,” NAA Bulletin 43, no. 8 (1962): 71; Ned Chapin, “Teaching Business Data Processing with the Aid of a Computer,” Accounting Review 38, no. 4 (1963): 835–839.

20. Ralph Lewis, “Never Overestimate the Power of a Computer,” Harvard Business Review 35, no. 5 (1957): 77–84.

21. Lewis, “Never Overestimate the Power of a Computer”; Felix Kaufman, “EDP and the Disenchanted,” California Management Review 1, no. 41 (1959): 67; Arnold Keller, “Crisis in Machine Accounting,” Management and Business Automation 5, no. 6 (1961): 30–31; Frederick P. Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1975).

22. Friedman and Cornford, Computer Systems Development, 162.

23. Donald Ervin Knuth, The Art of Computer programming. Addison-Wesley Series in Computer Science and Information Processing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1968).

24. Kaufman, “EDP and the Disenchanted.”

25. Thomas Whisler, “The Impact of Information Technology on Organizational Control.” In The Impact of Computers on Management, ed. Charles A. Myers, 16–48 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967).

26. John Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management” (master’s thesis, Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania, 1965), 34.

27. Kaufman, “EDP and the Disenchanted.”

28. JoAnne Yates, Structuring the Information Age: Life Insurance and Technology in the Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005).

29. Thierry Bardini, Bootstrapping: Douglas Englebart, Coevolution, and the Origins of Personal Computing (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), 103.

30. John Dwyer, “Analysts Couched” (letter to the editor), Datamation 16, no. 1 (1970): 47; Gene Altshuler, “Programmers and Analysts” (letter to the editor), Datamation 16, no. 1(1970): 47.

31. Tukey, “The Teaching of Concrete Mathematics.”

32. David Allan Grier, “The ENIAC, the Verb to Program, and the Emergence of Digital Computers,” Annals of the History of Computing 18, no. 1 (1996): 53.

33. H. S. Tropp, “ACM’s 20th Anniversary: 30 August 1967,” Annals of the History of Computing 9, no. 3 (1988): 269.

34. John Backus, quoted in J. Howlett and Gian-Carlo Rota, eds., A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Essays (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 126.

35. Thomas Haigh, “Technology, Information and Power: Managerial Technicians in Corporate America: 1917–2000” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2002).

36. JoAnne Yates, Control through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989).

37. Arvid Jacobson, ed., Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1955).

38. Robert Patrick, “The Gap in Programming Support,” Datamation 7, no. 5 (1961): 37.

39. Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967): 141.

40. Hal Sackman, “Conference on Personnel Research,” Datamation 14, no. 7 (1968): 74–76, 81.

41. Hal Sackman, W. J. Erickson, and E. E. Grant, “Exploratory Experimental Studies Comparing Online and Offline Programming Performance,” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 1 (1968): 3–11.

42. Dean Dauw, “Vocational Interests of Highly Creative Computer Personnel,” Personnel Journal 46, no. 10 (1967): 653–659.

43. Stephen Barley and Julian Orr, eds., Between Craft and Science: Technical Work in US Settings (Ithaca, NY: ILR Press, 1997).

44. Richard Hamming, “One Man’s View of Computer Science,” in ACM Turing Award Lectures: The First Twenty Years, 1966–1985 (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, 1987), 207–218.

45. Nathan Ensmenger, “The ‘Question of Professionalism’ in the Computer Fields,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4, no. 23 (2001): 56–73.

46. Daniel McCracken, “The Human Side of Computing,” Datamation 7, no. 1 (1961): 9–11.

47. Willis Ware, “As I See It: A Guest Editorial,” Datamation 11, no. 5 (1965): 27–28.

48. E. Burton Swanson and Cynthia Mathis Beath, “Departmentalization in software development and maintenance.” Communications of the ACM 33, no. 6 (1990): 658–667; Raymond Berger, “Computer Personnel Selection and Criteria Development,” in Proceedings of the 2nd SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1964), 65–77.

49. McCracken, “The Human Side of Computing,” 9–10.

50. Nathan Ensmenger, “Letting the ‘Computer Boys’ Take Over: Technology and the Politics of Organizational Transformation,” International Review of Social History 48, no. S11 (2003): 153–180.

51. Harold Leavitt and Thomas Whisler, “Management in the 1980’s,” Harvard Management Review 36, no. 6 (1958): 41–48.

52. Whisler, “The Impact of Information Technology on Organizational Control.”

53. Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management,” 34.

54. Rosemary Stewart, How Computers Affect Management (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), 196.

55. Thomas Alexander, “Computers Can’t Solve Everything,” Fortune 80, no. 5 (1969): 169.

56. McKinsey and Company, “Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential,” Computers and Automation 16, no. 7 (1969): 33.

57. Ibid., 33.

58. Harry Larson, “EDP: A 20 Year Ripoff!” Infosystems (1974): 26.

59. Ensmenger, “Letting the ‘Computer Boys’ Take Over.”

60. Barry Boehm, “Software and Its Impact: A Quantitative Assessment,” Datamation 19, no. 5 (1973): 48–59; Michael Mahoney, “Software: The Self-Programming Machine,” in From 0 to 1: An Authoritative History of Modern Computing, ed. Atsushi Akera and Frederik Nebeker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

61. Edsger Dijkstra, “The Humble Programmer,” Communications of the ACM 15, no. 10 (1972): 873.

62. Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 201.

63. W. Saba, “Letter to the Editor,” IEEE Computer 29, no. 9 (1996): 10; Edward Nash Yourdon, ed., Classics in Software Engineering (New York: Yourdon Press, 1979); Herbert Freeman and Phillip Lewis, Software Engineering (New York: Academic Press, 1980).

64. Frank Wagner, “Letter to the Editors,” Communications of the ACM 33, no. 6 (1990): 628–629.

65. Ann Dooley, “100% over Budget,” Computerworld 21, no. 7 (1987): 5.

66. David Morrison, “Software Crisis,” Defense 21, no. 2 (1989): 72.

67. John Shore, “Why I Never Met a Programmer I Could Trust,” Communications of the ACM 31, no. 4 (1988): 372.

Chapter 2

1. I. Bernard Cohen, Howard Aiken: Portrait of a Computer Pioneer (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).

2. Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics, or, Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (Cambridge, MA: Technology Press, 1948).

3. Edmund Callis Berkeley, Giant Brains; or, Machines That Think (New York: Wiley, 1949).

4. Steven P. Schnaars and Sergio Carvalho, “Predicting the Market Evolution of Computers: Was the Revolution Really Unforeseen,” Technology in Society 26, no. 1 (2004): 1–16.

5. Roddy Osborn, “GE and UNIVAC: Harnessing the High-Speed Computer,” Harvard Business Review 32, no. 4 (1954): 99–107; M. L. Hurni, “Some Implications of the Use of Computers in Industry,” Accounting Review, 29, no. 3 (1954): 447; John S. Coleman, “Computers as Tools for Management,” Management Science 2, no. 2 (1956): 107.

6. “Office Robots,” Fortune, 1952, 82–87, 112, 114, 116, 118.

7. Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1988).

8. James W. Cortada, “Commercial Applications of the Digital Computer in American Corporations, 1945–1995,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18, no. 2 (Summer 1996): 18–29.

9. Bruce Gilchrist and Richard Weber, eds., The State of the Computer Industry in the United States (New York: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, 1972).

10. Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967): 141.

11. See Raul Rojas and Ulf Hashagen, eds., The First Computers: History and Architectures (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).

12. Adele Goldstine, A Report on the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) (technical report, Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, June 1, 1946).

13. Richard F. Clippinger, A Logical Coding System Applied to the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) (technical report, Ballistic Research Laboratories, Ordnance Department, Aberdeen Proving Ground, 1948).

14. John von Neumann, First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC (Philadelphia: Moore School of Electrical Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, June 30, 1945).

15. B. Randell, “The Origins of Computer Programming,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 16, no. 4 (1994): 6–14.

16. W. Barkley Fritz, “The Women of Eniac,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18, no. 3 (1996): 13–23.

17. David Allan Grier, “The ENIAC, the Verb to Program, and the Emergence of Digital Computers,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18, no. 1 (1996): 53.

18. Ibid., 52.

19. W. Barkley Fritz, “The Women of Eniac,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18, no. 3 (1996): 20.

20. Henry S. Tropp, “ACM’s 20th Anniversary: 30 August 1967,” Annals of the History of Computing 9, no. 3 (1988): 269.

21. Margery W. Davies, Woman’s Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870–1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Sharon Hartman Strom, Beyond the Typewriter: Gender, Class, and the Origins of Modern American Office Work, 1900–1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992); Elyce J. Rotella, From Home to Office: U.S. Women at Work, 1870–1930. Volume No. 25 (Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1981).

22. Thomas Haigh, “The Chromium-Plated Tabulator: Institutionalizing an Electronic Revolution, 1954–1958,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4, no. 23 (2001), 75–104.

23. Remington Rand Univac, Introduction to Programming: Programming for the UNIVAC, Part 1, (1949), Hagley Museum Archives, Accession 1825, Box 372.

24. B. Conway, J. Gibbons, and D. E. Watts, Business Experience with Electronic Computers: A Synthesis of What Has Been Learned from Electronic Data Processing Installations (New York: Price Waterhouse, 1959), 81.

25. Ibid., 89–90.

26. Ibid., 90.

27. John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s: Some Personal Impressions,” in A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Essays, ed. N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota (New York: Academic Press,1980), 126.

28. Conway, Gibbons, and Watts, Business Experience with Electronic Computers.

29. Willis Ware, “As I See It: A Guest Editorial,” Datamation 11, no. 5 (1965): 27–28.

30. George Trimble and Elmer Kubie, “Principles of Optimum Programming of the IBM Type 650,” IBM Applied Science Division Technical Newsletter 8 (1954), 5–16.

31. J. N. Patterson Hume, “Development of Systems Software for the Ferut Computer at the University of Toronto, 1952 to 1955,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 16, no. 2 (1994): 13–19.

32. Backus, “Programming in the 1950s.”

33. Martin Campbell-Kelly, “The Airy Tape: An Early Chapter in the History of Debugging,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 14, no. 4 (1992): 16–26.

34. Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill, Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1951).

35. Campbell-Kelly, “The Airy Tape.”

36. Frederick P. Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 20.

37. G. J. Meyers, Software Reliability: Principles and Practices (John Wiley and Sons, 1976).

38. Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month, 7.

39. Ibid., 7.

40. Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” 141.

41. John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s: Some Personal Impressions,” In A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Essays, ed. N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 126.

42. George F. Weinwurm, ed., On the Management of Computer Programmers (London: Auerbach Publishers, 1970).

43. P. Mody, “Is Programming an Art?” Software Engineering Notes 17, no. 4 (1992): 19–21; Maurice Black, “The Art of Code” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2002).

44. Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” 141.

45. Frederick Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 7.

46. Brian Randall and J. N. Buxton, Software Engineering: Proceedings of the NATO Conferences (New York: Petrocelli/Carter, 1976).

Chapter 3

1. Brendan Gill and Andy Logan, “Talk of the Town,” New Yorker 5 (January 1957): 18–19.

2. IBM Corporation, “Are You the Man to Command Electronic Giants?” New York Times, May 13, 1956, 157.

3. Gill and Logan, “Talk of the Town.”

4. Ibid.

5. Mark I. Halpern, “Memoirs (Part 1),” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 13, no. 1 (1991): 101–111.

6. Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967): 445–556.

7. Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (New York: Basic Books, 1996).

8. Bruce Webster, “The Real Software Crisis,” Byte Magazine 21, no. 1 (1996): 218.

9. Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers”; Stanley Englebardt, “Wanted: 500,000 Men to Feed Computers,” Popular Science, January 1965, 106–109.

10. Robert Patrick, “The Gap in Programming Support,” Datamation 7, no. 5 (1961): 37; Don Madden, “The Population Problem: Inexperience Will Dominate,” Datamation 8, no. 1 (1962): 26.

11. “Software Gap: A Growing Crisis for Computers,” Business Week, November 5, 1966, 127.

12. Arvid Jacobson, ed., Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1955).

13. Ibid.

14. G. Truman Hunter, “Manpower Requirements by Computer Manufacturers,” in Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field, ed. Arvid Jacobson (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1955), 16.

15. Milton E. Mengel, “Present and Projected Computer Manpower Needs in Business and Industry,” in Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field, ed. Arvid Jacobson (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1955), 7.

16. Charles R. Gregg, “Personnel Requirements in Government Agencies in Machine Computation,” in Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field, ed. Arvid Jacobson (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1955), 14.

17. M. Paul Chinitz, “Contributions of Industrial Training Courses in Computers,” in Proceedings of the First Conference on Training Personnel for the Computing Machine Field, ed. Arvid Jacobson (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1955).

18. Mengel, “Present and Projected Computer Manpower Needs in Business and Industry,” 8.

19. Ibid., 8.

20. Hunter, “Manpower Requirements by Computer Manufacturers.”

21. Ibid., 14–18.

22. Mengel, “Present and Projected Computer Manpower Needs in Business and Industry,” 6.

23. Ibid., 6.

24. Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer.

25. Gregg, “Personnel Requirements in Government Agencies in Machine Computation.”

26. Richard Canning, “The Persistent Personnel Problem,” EDP Analyzer 5, no. 5 (1967): 1–14.

27. Herbert Benington, “Production of Large Computer Programs” (reprint), IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 5, no. 4 (1983): 350– 361.

28. Martin Campbell-Kelly, “Development and Structure of the International Software Industry, 1950–1990,” Business and Economic History 24, no. 2 (1995): 73–110.

29. Claude Baum, The Systems Builders: The Story of SDC (Santa Monica, CA: System Development Corporation, 1981).

30. Ibid., 47.

31. Thomas C. Rowan, “The Recruiting and Training of Programmers,” Datamation 4, no. 3 (1958): 16–18; Chinitz, “Contributions of Industrial Training Courses in Computers.”

32. Benington, “Production of Large Computer Programs.”

33. Baum, The Systems Builders, 52.

34. Thomas Hughes and Agatha Hughes, eds., Systems, Experts, and Computers: The Systems Approach in Management and Engineering, World War II and After (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000).

35. Baum, The Systems Builders, 48.

36. Rowan, “The Recruiting and Training of Programmers.”

37. C. M. Sidlo, “The Making of a Profession” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 4, no. 8 (1961): 366–367.

38. L. L. Thurstone, Primary Mental Abilities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938).

39. Henry Eilbert, “The Development of Personnel Management in the United States,” Business History Review 33 (1959): 345–364.

40. Thomas C. Rowan, “Psychological Tests and Selection of Computer Programmers,” Journal of the ACM 4, no. 3 (1957): 350.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Walter L. McNamara and John L. Hughes, “A Review of Research on the Selection of Computer Programmers,” Personnel Psychology 14, no. 1 (1961): 39–51.

44. Charles Lawson, “A Survey of Computer Facility Management,” Datamation 8, no. 7 (1962): 29–32.

45. Walter J. McNamara, “The Selection of Computer Personnel: Past, Present, Future,” in SIGCPR ‘67: Proceedings of the Fifth SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1967), 52–56.

46. Allan Bloom, “Advances in Use of Programmer Aptitude Tests,” in Advances in Computer Programming Management, ed. Thomas Rullo (London: Heyden, 1980).

47. Gerald Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming (New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold, 1971), 174.

48. Ibid., 175.

49. William Paschell, Automation and Employment Opportunities for Office Workers: A Report on the Effect of Electronic Computers on Employment of Clerical Workers (Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1958).

50. Joseph O’Shields, “Selection of EDP Personnel,” Personnel Journal 44, no. 9 (1965): 472.

51. Jack Wolfe, “Perspectives on Testing for Programming Aptitude,” in Proceedings of 1971 ACM Annual Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1971), 268–277.

52. Raymond M. Berger and Robert C. Wilson, “Correlates of Programmer Proficiency,” in SIGCPR ‘66: Proceedings of the Fourth SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1966), 83–95.

53. McNamara and Hughes, “A Review of Research on the Selection of Computer Programmers.”

54. Richard Brandon, “The Problem in Perspective,” in Proceedings of the 1968 23rd ACM National Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1968), 332–334.

55. Hal Sackman, “Conference on Personnel Research,” Datamation 14, no. 7 (1968): 76.

56. Robert A. Dickmann and J. Lockwood, 6 Survey of Test Use in Computer Personnel Selection. Technical Report (Computer Personnel Research Group, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Lab, 1966).

57. Robert N. Reinstedt et al., Computer Personnel Research Group Programmer Performance Prediction Study. Technical Report. (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 1964).

58. Report, “The Computer Personnel Research Group,” Datamation 9, no. 1 (1963): 130; Markku Tukiainen and Eero Mönkkönen, “Programming Aptitude Testing as a Prediction of Learning to Program,” in Proceedings of the 14th Annual Workshop of the Psychology of Programming Interest Group, eds. Jasna Kuljis and Lynne Baldwin and Rosa Scoble (Berlin: Springer, 2002), 130; Garland Y. DeNelsky and Michael G. McKee, “Prediction of Computer Programmer Training and Job Performance Using the AAPB Test,” Personnel Psychology 27, no. 1 (1974): 130.

59. Ascher Opler, “Testing Programming Aptitude,” Datamation 9, no. 10 (1963): 28–31.

60. George P. Hollenbeck and Walter J. McNamara, “Cucpat and Programming Aptitude,” Personnel Psychology 18, no. 1 (1965): 101–106.

61. Bloom, “Advances in Use of Programmer Aptitude Tests.”

62. “Programmer Aptitude and Competence Test Systems (PACTS),” in Proceedings of the Ninth Annual SIGCPR (New York: ACM Press, 1971), 3–25.

63. Berger and Wilson, “Correlates of Programmer Proficiency.”

64. O’Shields, “Selection of EDP Personnel.”

65. Terrence Polin, Robert Morse, and John Zenger, “Selecting Programmers from In-Plant Employees,” Personnel Journal 41, no. 8 (1962): 398–400.

66. Enid Mumford and Thomas Ward, Computers: Planning for People (London: B. T. Batsford, 1968).

67. Report, “The Computer Personnel Research Group.”

68. Dallis Perry and William Cannon, “Vocational Interests of Computer Programmers,” Journal of Applied Psychology 51, no. 1 (1967): 28–34.

69. Ibid.

70. Ibid., 30.

71. Ibid.

72. Dallis Perry and William Cannon, “Vocational Interests of Female Computer Programmers,” Journal of Applied Psychology 52, no. 1 (1968): 31.

73. Brandon, “The Problem in Perspective.”

74. Theodore Willoughby, “Are Programmers Paranoid?” in Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference on SIGCPR (New York: ACM Press, 1972), 47–54.

75. Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming.

76. Reinstedt et al., Computer Personnel Research Group Programmer Performance Prediction Study.

77. David Mayer and Ashford Stainaker, “Selection and Evaluation of Computer Personnel: The Research History of SIG/CPR,” in Proceedings of the 1968 23rd ACM National Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1968), 657–670.

78. Patrick, “The Gap in Programming Support.”

79. “Careers in Computers” (ad), Datamation 8, no. 1 (1962): 21.

80. G. W. Brown, cited in Martin Greenberger, Management and the Computer of the Future (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1962), 278.

81. “Software Gap: A Growing Crisis for Computers,” Business Week, November 5, 1966, 127.

82. “Not Quite All about MIS” (editorial), Datamation 13, no. 5 (1967): 21.

83. Edward Markham, “EDP Schools: An Inside View,” Datamation 14, no. 4 (1968): 22–27.

84. Richard Tanaka, “Fee or Free Software,” Datamation 13, no. 10 (1967): 205–206.

85. Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” 141.

86. Canning, “The Persistent Personnel Problem.”

87. Tanaka, “Fee or Free Software,” 205–206.

88. Canning, “The Persistent Personnel Problem”; John Johnsrud, “Computer Makers Set Up Own ‘Universities,’” New York Times (September 24, 1961): F1.

89. James Saxon, “Programming Training: A Workable Approach,” Datamation 9, no. 12 (1963): 48.

90. Canning, “The Persistent Personnel Problem,” 9.

91. Gary Popkin, “The Junior College as a Source of Programming Personnel,” in Proceedings of the Ninth Annual SIGCPR Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1971), 130.

92. Richard Canning, “Managing Staff Retention and Turnover,” EDP Analyzer 15, no. 8 (1977): 1–13.

93. John Fike, “Vultures Indeed,” Datamation 13, no. 5 (1967): 12.

94. Robert M. Knoebel, “The Federal Government’s Role in the Education of Data Processing Personnel,” in SIGCPR ‘67: Proceedings of the Fifth SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1967), 77–84.

95. Theodore Willoughby, “Staffing the MIS Function,” ACM Computing Surveys 4, no. 4 (1972): 253.

96. Robert N. Reinstedt, “1966 Survey of Test Use in Computer Personnel Selection,” in Proceedings of the 4th Annual Computer Personnel Research Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1966), 1–8.

97. Canning, “The Persistent Personnel Problem”; Willoughby, “Staffing the MIS Function.”

98. McNamara, “The Selection of Computer Personnel.”

99. Malcolm Gotterer and Ashford W. Stalnaker, “Predicting Programmer Performance among Non-Preselected Trainee Groups,” in SIGCPR ‘64: Proceedings of the Second SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1964), 29–37.

100. Jean P. Gilbert and David B. Mayer, “Experiences in Self-selection of Disadvantaged People into a Computer Operator Training Program,” in SIGCPR ‘69: Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Conference on SIGCPR (New York: ACM Press, 1969), 79–90.

101. George Heller, “Organizing a Local Program in Computing Education,” Datamation 9, no. 1 (1963): 57–61.

102. “First Programmer Class at Sing-Sing Graduates,” Datamation 14, no. 6 (1968): 97–98.

103. Lois Mandel, “The Computer Girls,” Cosmopolitan, 1967, 52–56.

104. Sackman, “Conference on Personnel Research.”

105. Peggy Randall, “Need for Warm Bodies,” Datamation 9, no. 10 (1963): 14.

106. John Callahan, “Letter to the Editor,” Datamation 7, no. 3 (1961): 7.

107. Edward Markham, “Selecting a Private EDP School,” Datamation 14, no. 5 (1968): 33–40.

108. Ibid.

109. Markham, “EDP Schools: An Inside View.”

110. Markham, “Selecting a Private EDP School.”

111. “Roseman Takes Firm Position against Private EDP Schools,” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 3 (April 1968): 206–207.

112. “Report from the ACM Ad-hoc Committee on Private EDP Schools,” (January 20, 1970), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 21, Folder 38, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

113. Hans A. Rhee, Office Automation in Social Perspective: The Progress and Social Implications of Electronic Data Processing (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1968).

114. Paschell, Automation and Employment Opportunities for Office Workers; Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming.

115. Daniel Nelson, “A Newly Appreciated Art: The Development of Personnel Work at Leeds & Northrup, 1915–1923,” Business History Review 94, no. 4 (1970), 520–535.

116. Daniel J. Kevles, “Testing the Army’s Intelligence: Psychologists and the Military in World War I,” Journal of American History 55, no. 3 (1968): 565–581; Donald S. Napoli, “The Mobilization of American Psychologists, 1938–1941,” Military Affairs 42, no. 1 (1978): 32–36.

117. Theodore Willoughby, “Psychometric Characteristics of the CDP Examination,” in Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual SIGCPR Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1975), 152–160.

Chapter 4

1. Daniel McCracken, “The Software Turmoil: Nine Predictions for ‘62,” Datamation 8, no. 1 (1962): 21–22; Robert Patrick, “The Gap in Programming Support,” Datamation 7, no. 5 (1961): 37.

2. RAND Symposium, “On Programming Languages, Part II,” Datamation 8, no. 11 (1962): 85.

3. Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 182.

4. H. S Tropp, “ACM’s 20th Anniversary: 30 August 1967,” Annals of the History of Computing 9, no. 3 (1988): 269.

5. Maurice Wilkes, David Wheeler, and Stanley Gill, Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1951).

6. Richard Wexelblat, ed., History of Programming Languages (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 10.

7. Frederick P. Brooks, “No Silver Bullet: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering,” IEEE Computer 20, no. 4 (1987), 10–19.

8. Remington Rand Univac. An Introduction to Programming the UNIVAC 1103A and 1105 Computing Systems (1958) Hagley Museum Archives, Accession 1825, Box 368.

9. John Backus, cited in Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 82.

10. RAND Symposium, “On Programming Languages, Part II,” 25–26.

11. “Editor’s Readout: A Long View of a Myopic Problem,” Datamation 8, no. 5 (1962): 21–22.

12. Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967): 141.

13. See, for example, John Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Republican Values in America, 1776–1900 (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976); Ruth Milkman, Gender at Work: The Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex during World War II. History E-Book Project (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); and indeed, most of the rest of the history of labor and technology.

14. Valerie Rockmael, “The Woman Programmer,” Datamation 9, no. 1 (1963): 41.

15. Preliminary Report: Specifications for the IBM Mathematical Formula Translating System. New York: Programming Research Group, Applied Science Division, IBM Corporation, November 10, 1954.

16. John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s: Some Personal Impressions,” in A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Essays, ed. Nicholas Metropolis, Jack Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota, 125–135. (New York: Academic Press, 1980).

17. Jean Sammet, Programming Languages: History and Fundamentals (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1969), 148.

18. Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 28.

19. Sammet, Programming Languages, 144.

20. Herbert Grosch, “Magic Languages,” Datamation 9, no. 2 (1963), 27.

21. Grace Mitchell, The FORTRAN Automatic Coding System for the IBM 704 EDPM: Programmer’s Primer (IBM Corporation, 1956), cited in Sammet, Programming Languages, 150.

22. Grace Mitchell, The 704 FORTRAN II Automatic Coding System (Yorktown Heights, NY: IBM Research Center, 1959), 50.

23. “Automatic Programming: Properties and Performance of FORTRAN Systems I and II,” in Proceedings of Symposium on the Mechanization of the Thought Processes (Middlesex, UK: National Physical Laboratory Press, 1958).

24. H. Oswald, “The Various FORTRANS,” Datamation 10, no. 8 (1964): 25–29; “Survey of Programming Languages and Processors,” Communications of the ACM 6, no. 3 (1965): 93–99.

25. USA Standard FORTRAN, United States of America Standards Institute, USAS X3.9–1966, New York, March 1966.

26. John Backus et al., “The FORTRAN Automatic Coding Language,” in Proceedings of the West Joint Computer Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1957), 188–198.

27. Sammet, Programming Languages, 149.

28. Daniel McCracken, “Is There FORTRAN In Your Future?” Datamation 19, no. 5 (1973): 236–237.

29. I. Edward Block, “Report on Meeting Held at University of Pennsylvania Computing Center” (1959).

30. Charles Phillips, Report from the Committee on Data Systems Languages (presentation to the Association for Computing Machinery, Boston, September 1, 1959), cited in Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 200.

31. Charles Phillips, Minutes, Meeting of the Executive Committee of the Conference on Data Systems Languages (1959), cited in Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 202.

32. Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 204.

33. Jean Sammet, “Brief Summary of the Early History of COBOL.” Annals of the History of Computing 7, no. 4 (1985): 288–203.

34. Jean Sammet, cited in Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 219.

35. Jean Sammet, cited in ibid., 234.

36. Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 231.

37. Minutes of Meeting of the Intermediate-Range Task Force of the Committee for Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) Dayton, Ohio. October 8–9, 1959. Reprinted in Annals of the History of Computing 7, no. 4 (1985): 329–341.

38. Robert Bemer, Computers and Crisis: How Computers Are Shaping Our Future (New York: ACM Press, 1971).

39. Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine, 192.

40. Stanley Naftaly, “How to Pick a Programming Language,” in Data Processing, Practically Speaking, ed. Stanley Naftaly and Fred Gruenberger (Los Angeles: Data Processing Digest, 1967): 79–90; “What’s Happening with COBOL?” Business Automation 14, no. 4 (1966), 42–43.

41. Allan Tucker, Programming Languages (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1977).

42. Ben Shneiderman, “The Relationship between COBOL and Computer Science,” Annals of the History of Computing 7, no. 4 (1985): 350.

43. Ibid., 351.

44. John Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management” (master’s thesis, Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania, 1965), 34, 85; Robert Gordon, “Personnel Selection,” in Data Processing, Practically Speaking (1967), 34, 85.

45. Alan Perlis, cited in Wexelblat, History of Programming Languages, 60.

46. Alan Perlis, cited in ibid., 82.

47. “Angels, Pins, and Language Standards,” Datamation 9, no. 4 (1963): 23–25.

48. Jack Little, cited in RAND Symposium, “On Programming Languages, Part II,” 29–30.

49. Bernard Galler, cited in ibid., 27.

50. Fred Gruenberger, cited in ibid., 28.

51. Jean E. Sammet, “Programming Languages History,” Annals of the History of Computing 13, no. 1 (1991): 49.

52. Herbert Grosch, “Software in Sickness and Health,” Datamation 7, no. 7 (1961): 32–33.

53. Ibid., 33.

54. Brooks, “No Silver Bullet,” 10.

55. Brad Cox, “There Is a Silver Bullet,” Byte Magazine 15, no. 10 (1990): 209.

56. David Morrison, “Software Crisis,” Defense 21, no. 2 (1989): 72.

57. The thirty-three-page report, titled “Bugs in the Program: Problems in Federal Government Computer Software Development and Regulation,” was written by two staff members, James H. Paul and Gregory C. Simon, of the Subcommittee on Investigations and Oversight of the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. The content of the report was covered in the Washington Post (October 17, 1989), D1, and Science (November 10, 1989), 753, among many other publications. For example, see Gary Chapman, “Bugs in the Program,” Communications of the ACM 33, no. 3 (1989): 251–252.

58. Ibid., 72.

59. John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s: Some Personal Impressions,” in A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Essays, ed. N. Metropolis, J. Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 127.

60. Willis Ware, “As I See It: A Guest Editorial,” Datamation 11, no. 5 (1965): 27.

61. Edsger Dijkstra, “Go to Statement Considered Harmful,” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 3 (1968): 147–148.

Chapter 5

1. Edsger W. Dijkstra, “Communication with an Automatic Computer” (PhD diss., University of Amsterdam, 1959).

2. Edsger Dijkstra, “The Humble Programmer,” Communications of the ACM 15, no. 10 (1972): 859–866.

3. Edsger Dijkstra, “Programming as a Discipline of Mathematical Nature,” American Mathematical Monthly 81, no. 6 (1974): 608–612.

4. Dijkstra, “The Humble Programmer.”

5. Michael Mahoney, “In Our Own Image: Creating the Computer,” in The Changing Image of the Sciences, ed. Ida Stamhuis, Teun Koetsier, and Kees de Pater (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2002), 9–27.

6. Geoffrey Bowker, “How to Be Universal: Some Cybernetic Strategies, 1943–1970,” Social Studies of Science 23, no. 1 (1993): 107–127.

7. RAND Symposium, “Is It Overhaul or Trade-in Time: Part I,” Datamation 5, no. 4 (1959), 24–33.

8. Ibid.

9. Harold Wilensky, “The Professionalization of Everyone?” American Journal of Sociology 70, no. 2 (1964): 137–158.

10. Malcolm Gotterer, “The Impact of Professionalization Efforts on the Computer Manager,” in Proceedings of 1971 ACM Annual Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1971), 371–372.

11. C. M. Sidlo, “The Making of a Profession” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 4, no. 8 (1961): 367.

12. Hal Sackman, “Conference on Personnel Research,” Datamation 14, no. 7 (1968): 74–76, 81.

13. Susan B. Carter et al., Historical Statistics of the United States Millennial Edition Online (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).

14. Jack W. Carlson, “On Determining C. S. Education Programs,” Communications of the ACM 9, no. 3 (1966): 135.

15. Ibid.

16. Anthony Oettinger, “President’s Letter to the ACM Membership,” Communications of the ACM 9, no. 12 (1966): 838–839.

17. Robert Rosin, “Relative to the President’s December Remarks,” Communications of the ACM 10, no. 6 (1967): 342.

18. Anthony Oettinger, “The Hardware-Software Complexity,” Communications of the ACM 10, no. 10 (1967): 604.

19. Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, vol. 1968 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1969).

20. George E. Forsythe, “What to Do Till the Computer Scientist Comes,” American Mathematical Monthly 75, no. 5 (1968): 454–462.

21. William Aspray, “Was Early Entry a Competitive Advantage? US Universities That Entered Computing in the 1940s,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 22, no. 3 (2000): 65.

22. Andrew Abbott, The Systems of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

23. Louis Fein, “The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related Fields,” Communications of the ACM 2, no. 10 (1959): 7–14.

24. Ibid.

25. Quentin Correll, “Letters to the Editor,” Communications of the ACM 1, no. 7 (1958): 2; Peter Naur, “The Science of Datalogy (Letter to Editor),” Communications of the ACM 9, no. 7 (1966): 485; P. A. Zaphyr, “The Science of Hypology” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 2, no. 1 (1959): 4; Editors of DATA-LINK, “What’s in a Name? (Letter to Editor),” Communications of the ACM 1, no. 4 (1958): 6.

26. Correll, “Letters to the Editor.”

27. Gopal Gupta, “Computer Science Curriculum Developments in the 1960s,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 29, no. 2 (2007): 40–54.

28. David Allan Grier, When Computers Were Human (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), viii, 411.

29. Aspray, “Was Early Entry a Competitive Advantage?” 66, 68.

30. I. Bernard Cohen, Gregory W. Welch, and Robert V. D. Campbell, Makin’ Numbers: Howard Aiken and the Computer (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).

31. Ibid., 186.

32. Aspray, “Was Early Entry a Competitive Advantage?” 52, 55.

33. Larry Owens, “Where Are We Going Phil Morse? Changing Agendas and the Rhetoric of Obviousness in the Transformation of Computing at MIT, 1939–1957,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 18, no. 4 (1996): 34–41.

34. Aspray, “Was Early Entry a Competitive Advantage?” 49.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid., 76.

37. Atsushi Akera, “Calculating a Natural World: Scientists, Engineers, and Computers in the United States, 1937–1968” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998).

38. Peter Galison, “Computer Simulations in the Trading Zone,” in The Disunity of Science, ed. Peter Galison and David Stump (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), 118–157.

39. Dijkstra, “The Humble Programmer,” 860.

40. Charles Yood, “Attack of the Giant Brains,” Research Penn State Online 24, no. 3 (September 2003), available at http://www.rps.psu.edu/0309/brains.html.

41. David Parnas, “On the Preliminary Report of C3S” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 9, no. 4 (1966): 242–243.

42. John Backus et al., “The FORTRAN Automatic Coding System,” in Proceedings of the West Joint Computer Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1957), 188–198.

43. Brent Jesiek, “The Sociotechnical Boundaries of Hardware and Software: A Humpty-Dumpty History,” Bulletin of Science, Technology, and Society 26, no. 6 (2006): 497–509.

44. Anthony Oettinger, “President’s Reply to Louis Fein,” Communications of the ACM 10, no. 1 (1967): 1, 61.

45. William F. Atchison and John W. Hamblen, “Status of Computer Sciences Curricula in Colleges and Universities,” Communications of the ACM 7, no. 4 (1964): 225–227.

46. Frank Harary, cited in Gerald M. Weinberg, An Introduction to General Systems Thinking (New York: Wiley, 1975).

47. Peter Wegner, “Undergraduate Programs in Computer Science,” in SIGCPR ‘66: Proceedings of the Fourth SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1966), 121–129.

48. Ibid.

49. Herbert A. Simon, Allen Newell, and Alan Perlis, “Computer Science” (letter to editor), Science 157, no. 3795 (1967): 1373–1374; Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial.

50. In fact, although this quote is widely repeated and attributed to Edsger Dijkstra, it does not appear in any of his published writings. For one of many references, see Nick Parlante, “What Is Computer Science?” SIGCSE Bulletin 37, no. 2 (2005), 24.

51. Louis Fein, “Computer-Related Sciences (Synnoetics) at a University in 1975,” Datamation 7, no. 9 (1961): 34–41.

52. Fein, “The Role of the University in Computers, Data Processing, and Related Fields.”

53. ACM Curriculum Committee, “An Undergraduate Program in Computer Science: Preliminary Recommendations,” Communications of the ACM 8, no. 9 (1965): 543–552.

54. “Will You Vote for an Association Name Change to ACIS?” (editorial), Communications of the ACM 8, no. 7 (1965): 424–426.

55. Michael Mahoney, “Computer Science: The Search for a Mathematical Theory,” in Science in the Twentieth Century, ed. John Krige and Dominique Pestre (Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1997), 617–634.

56. Walter J. McNamara and John L. Hughes, “A Review of Research on the Selection of Computer Programmers,” Personnel Psychology 14, no. 1 (1961): 41–42.

57. Christopher Shaw, “Programming Schisms,” Datamation 8, no. 9 (1962): 32.

58. Atchison and Hamblen, “Status of Computer Sciences Curricula in Colleges and Universities.”

59. Michael Mahoney, “Software as Science–Science as Software,” in Mapping the History of Computing: Software Issues, ed. Ulf Hashagen, Reinhard Keil-Slawik, and Arthur Norberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2002), 25–48.

60. ACM Curriculum Committee, “An Undergraduate Program in Computer Science.”

61. Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, A Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1949).

62. Lily Kay, “Who Wrote the Book of Life? Information and the Transformation of Molecular Biology,” Science in Context 8 (1995): 609–634; Ronald Kline, “Cybernetics, Management Science, and Technology Policy: The Emergence of ‘Information Technology’ as a Keyword, 1948–1985,” Technology and Culture 47, no. 3 (2006): 513–535.

63. Karl Steinbuch, INFORMATIK: Automatische Informationsverarbeitung (Berlin: SEG-Nachrichten, 1957).

64. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 138.

65. Donald Ervin Knuth, The Art of Computer programming, Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1968).

66. Paul Ceruzzi, “Electronics Technology and Computer Science, 1940–1975: A Coevolution,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 10, no. 4 (1989): 257–275.

67. Peter Wegner, “Three Computer Cultures: Computer Technology, Computer Mathematics, and Computer Science,” Advances in Computers 10 (1970): 7–78.

68. Gupta, “Computer Science Curriculum Developments in the 1960s.”

69. David Hemmendinger, “The ACM and IEEE-CS Guidelines for Undergraduate CS Education,” Communications of the ACM 50, no. 5 (2007), 49.

70. Richard H. Austing, Bruce H. Barnes, and Gerald L. Engel, “A Survey of the Literature in Computer Science Education since Curriculum ‘68,” Communications of the ACM 20, no. 1 (1977): 13–21.

71. RAND Symposium (1969), “RAND Symposia on Computing Transcripts,” Charles Babbage Institute Archives, CBI 78, Box 3, Folder 4.

72. Sackman, “Conference on Personnel Research,” 76.

73. Richard Hamming, “One Man’s View of Computer Science,” Journal of the ACM 16, no. 1 (1969), 3–12.

74. J. A. McMurrer and J. R. Parish, “The People Problem,” Datamation 16, no. 7 (1970): 57.

75. Abraham Kandel, “Computer Science: A Vicious Circle,” Communications of the ACM 15, no. 6 (1972): 470–471.

76. Robert Forest, “EDP People: Review and Preview,” Datamation 18, no. 6 (1972): 68.

77. Fred Gruenberger, “Problems and Priorities,” Datamation 18, no. 3 (1972): 49.

78. Mahoney, “Computer Science.”

79. Daniel McCracken, “The Human Side of Computing,” Datamation 7, no. 1 (1961): 9–11.

Chapter 6

1. “The Thinking Machine,” Time magazine, January 23, 1950, 54–60.

2. J. Lear, “Can a Mechanical Brain Replace You?” Colliers, no. 131 (1953), 58–63.

3. “Office Robots,” Fortune 45 (January 1952), 82–87, 112, 114, 116, 118.

4. Cheryl Knott Malone, “Imagining Information Retrieval in the Library: Desk Set in Historical Context,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 24, no. 3 (2002): 14–22.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid.

7. Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: McMillan, 1899).

8. Thomas Haigh, “The Chromium-Plated Tabulator: Institutionalizing an Electronic Revolution, 1954–1958,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4, no. 23 (2001), 75–104.

9. James W. Cortada, Information Technology as Business History: Issues in the History and Management of Computers (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1996).

10. Kenneth Flamm, Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1988).

11. Thomas Alexander, “Computers Can’t Solve Everything,” Fortune 80, no. 5 (1969), 126–129, 168, 171.

12. Gordon Moore, “Cramming More Components onto Integrated Circuits,” Electronics 38, no. 8 (1965), 114–117.

13. McKinsey and Company, “Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential,” Computers and Automation 16, no. 7 (1969): 24–33.

14. Alexander, “Computers Can’t Solve Everything.”

15. John Dearden, “How to Organize Information Systems,” Harvard Business Review 43, no. 2 (1965): 65–73; John Dearden, “Myth of Real-Time Management Information,” Harvard Business Review 44, no. 3 (1966): 123–132; John Dearden, “MIS is a Mirage,” Harvard Business Review 50, no. I1 (1972): 90–99.

16. John Diebold, “Bad Decisions on Computer Use,” Harvard Business Review 47, no. 1 (1969): 14–21.

17. David Hertz, New Power for Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969).

18. Arnold Ditri and Donald Woods, The End of the Beginning–The Fizzle of the “Computer Revolution” (Touche Ross and Company, 1959).

19. McKinsey and Company, “Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential.”

20. Editorial, “Trouble . . . I Say Trouble, Trouble in DP City,” Datamation 14, no. 7 (1968): 21.

21. William R. King and David I. Cleland, “The Design of Management Information Systems: An Information Analysis Approach,” Management Science 22, no. 3 (1975): 286–297; E. Vanlommel and Bert De Brabander, “The Organization of Electronic Data Processing (EDP) Activities and Computer Use,” Journal of Business 48, no. 3 (1975): 391–410; Bert De Brabander and Anders Edstrom, “Successful Information System Development Projects,” Management Science 24, no. 2 (1977): 191–199; Michael J. Ginzberg, “Key Recurrent Issues in the MIS Implementation Process,” MIS Quarterly 5, no. 2 (1981): 47–59.

22. Robert Patrick, “The Gap in Programming Support,” Datamation 7, no. 5 (1961): 37; Daniel McCracken, “The Software Turmoil: Nine Predictions for ‘62,” Datamation 8, no. 1 (1962): 21–22.

23. Brian Randall and John Buxton, Software Engineering: Proceedings of the NATO Conferences (New York: Petrocelli/Carter, 1976).

24. Thomas Haigh, “Software in the 1960s as Concept, Service, and Product,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 24, no. 1 (2002): 5–13.

25. Richard Christian, “The Computer and the Marketing Man,” Journal of Marketing 26, no. 3 (1962): 79–82; Robert Hayes, Ralph H. Parker, and Gilbert W. King, “Automation and the Library of Congress: Three Views,” Library Quarterly 34, no. 3 (1964): 229–239; J. H. Spigelman, “Implications of Recent Advances in Electronic Data Processing,” Financial Analysts Journal 20, no. 5 (1964): 137–143; Maurice Ronayne, “‘Leads’ to Pertinent ADP Literature for the Public Administrator,” Public Administration Review 24, no. 2 (1964): 119–125; “Hardware And Software,” British Medical Journal 1, no. 5449 (1965): 1509; “Abstracts of Papers for the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Radiation Research Society, Coronado, California February 13–16, 1966,” Radiation Research 27, no. 3 (1966): 487–554; Allen Forte, “Review: Conference on the Use of Computers in Humanistic Research,” Computers and the Humanities 1, no. 3 (1967): 110–112.

26. JoAnne Yates, “Application Software for Insurance in the 1960s and Early 1970s,” Business And Economic History 24 (1) (1995): 123–134.

27. McKinsey and Company, “Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential,” 33.

28. John Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management” (master’s thesis, Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania, 1965), 34.

29. Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967): 141.

30. Charles Keelan, “Controlling Computer Programming,” Journal of Systems Management 20, no. 1 (1969): 30–33; Hertz, New Power for Management; Richard Canning, “Managing the Programming Effort,” EDP Analyzer 6, no. 6 (1968): 1–15; Charles Lecht, The Management of Computer Programming Projects (New York: American Management Association, 1967).

31. Malcolm Gotterer, “The Impact of Professionalization Efforts on the Computer Manager,” in Proceedings of 1971 ACM Annual Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1971), 368.

32. Dallis Perry and William Cannon, “Vocational Interests of Computer Programmers,” Journal of Applied Psychology 51, no. 1 (1967): 28–34.

33. W. R. Walker, “MIS Mysticism” (letter to editor), Business Automation 16, no. 7 (1969): 8.

34. Herbert Grosch, “Programmers: The Industry’s Cosa Nostra,” Datamation 12, no. 10 (1966): 202.

35. Richard Canning, “The Persistent Personnel Problem,” EDP Analyzer 5, no. 5 (1967): 1–14.

36. Ibid.

37. Roger Guarino, “Managing Data Processing Professionals,” Personnel Journal 48, no. 12 (1969): 972–975; P. Bradford and L. R. Cottrell, “Factors Influencing Business Data Processors Turnover: A Comparative Case History,” in Proceedings of the 1977 Annual Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1977), 202–205.

38. H. V. Reid, “Problems in Managing the Data Processing Department,” Journal of Systems Management 21, no. 5 (1970): 8–11; Richard Canning, “Managing Staff Retention and Turnover,” EDP Analyzer 15, no. 8 (1977): 1–13.

39. Editorial, “EDP’s Wailing Wall,” Datamation 13, no. 7 (1967): 21.

40. Guarino, “Managing Data Processing Professionals.”

41. John Fike, “Vultures Indeed,” Datamation 13, no. 5 (1967): 12.

42. Deutsch and Shea, Inc., “A Profile of the Programmer,” Communications of the ACM 6, no. 10 (1963): 592–594, 647.

43. Avner Porat and James Vaughan, “Computer Personnel: The New Theocracy—or Industrial Carpetbaggers,” Personnel Journal 48, no. 6 (1968): 540–543.

44. Hertz, New Power for Management, 169.

45. McKinsey and Company, “Unlocking the Computer’s Profit Potential,” 33.

46. Jerry L. Ogdin, “The Mongolian Hordes versus Superprogrammer,” Infosystems 19, no. 12 (1973): 20.

47. Editorial, “The Facts of Life,” Datamation 14, no. 3 (1968): 21.

48. Hal Sackman, W. J. Erickson, and E. E. Grant, “Exploratory Experimental Studies Comparing Online and Offline Programming Performance,” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 1 (1968): 3–11.

49. Edwin E. David, cited in Randall and Buxton, Software Engineering, 33.

50. Robert Gordon, “Personnel Selection,” in Data Processing, Practically Speaking, ed. Stanley Naftaly and Fred Gruenberger (Los Angeles: Data Processing Digest, 1967), 88.

51. Joseph O’Shields, “Selection of EDP Personnel,” Personnel Journal 44, no. 9 (1965): 472.

52. Perry and Cannon, “Vocational Interests of Computer Programmers.”

53. Richard Brandon, “The Problem in Perspective,” in Proceedings of the 1968 23rd ACM National Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1968), 332–334.

54. “Office Robots,” Fortune 45, January 1952, 114.

55. See, for example, Gerald Weinberger, The Psychology of Computer Programming (New York: Von Nostrand Rheinhold, 1971).

56. Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” 141.

57. Lecht, The Management of Computer Programming Projects, 9.

58. Robert Gordon, “Review of Charles Lecht, The Management of Computer Programmers,” Datamation 14, no. 4 (1968): 200.

59. John Backus, “Programming in America in the 1950s: Some Personal Impressions,” in A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century: A Collection of Essays, ed. Nicholas Metropolis, Jack Howlett, and Gian-Carlo Rota (New York: Academic Press, 1980), 125–135.

60. Frederick Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 7.

61. Donald Ervin Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming. Addison-Wesley Series in Computer Science and Information Processing (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1968); Donald Knuth, Literate Programming (Stanford, CA: Center for the Study of Language/Information, 1992).

62. P. Mody, “Is Programming an Art?” Software Engineering Notes 17, no. 4 (1992): 19–21; Steve Lohr, Go to: The Story of the Math Majors, Bridge Players, Engineers, Chess Wizards, Maverick Scientists, and Iconoclasts—The Programmers Who Created the Software Revolution (New York: Basic Books, 2001).

63. Carl Reynolds, cited in Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967), 142.

64. Daniel McCracken, “The Human Side of Computing,” Datamation 7, no. 1 (1961): 9–11; Enid Mumford and Thomas Ward, Computers: Planning for People (London: B. T. Batsford, 1968); Gene Altshuler, “Programmers and Analysts” (letter to the editor), Datamation 16, no. 1(1970): 47; Raymond Berger, “Computer personnel selection and criteria development,” in Proceedings of the 2nd SIGCPR Conference on Computer Personnel Research (New York: ACM Press, 1964), 65–77.

65. B. Conway, J. Gibbons, and D. E. Watts, Business Experience with Electronic Computers: A Synthesis of What Has Been Learned from Electronic Data Processing Installations (New York: Price Waterhouse, 1959), 81–83.

66. Felix Kaufman, “EDP and the Disenchanted,” California Management Review 1, no. 4 (1959): 67.

67. Harold Leavitt and Thomas Whisler, “Management in the 1980s,” Harvard Management Review 36, no. 6 (1958): 41–48.

68. Ibid., 44.

69. Philip Mirowski, Machine Dreams: Economics Becomes a Cyborg Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

70. Herbert Alexander Simon, Administrative Behavior: A Study of Decision-Making Processes in Administrative Organization (New York: Macmillan, 1947).

71. Herbert Alexander Simon, The New Science of Management Decision (New York: Harper, 1960), 22.

72. John Diebold, “ADP: The Still-Sleeping Giant,” Harvard Business Review 42, no. 5 (1964): 64.

73. Thomas Haigh, “Inventing Information Systems: The Systems Men and the Computer, 1950–1968,” Business History Review 75, no. 1 (2001): 18.

74. Thomas Whisler, “The Impact of Information Technology on Organizational Control,” in The Impact of Computers on Management, ed. Charles A. Myers (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1967), 48, 44.

75. L. R. Fiock, “Seven Deadly Dangers of EDP,” Harvard Business Review 40, no. 3 (1962), 90.

76. “Is the Computer Running Wild?” U.S. News and World Report, February 1964.

77. Robert McFarland, “Electronic Power Grab,” Business Automation 12, no.2 (February 1965), 30–39.

78. Michael Barnett, Computer Programming in English (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1969), 3.

79. Rosemary Stewart, How Computers Affect Management (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971), 196.

80. Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management,” 34.

81. Alexander, “Computers Can’t Solve Everything,” 169.

82. Michael Rose, Computers, Managers, and Society (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1969), 207.

83. Porat and Vaughan, “Computer Personnel,” 542.

84. Editorial, “The Thoughtless Information Technologist,” Datamation 12, no. 8 (1966): 21.

85. Haroun Jamous and Bernard Peliolle, “Changes in the French University Hospital System,” in Professions and Professionalisation, ed. J. A. Jackson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 111–152.

86. Barnett, Computer Programming in English, 5.

87. Perry and Cannon, “Vocational Interests of Computer Programmers.”

88. Gotterer, “The Impact of Professionalization Efforts on the Computer Manager,” 368.

89. Gordon, “Personnel Selection,” 85.

90. Brian Rothery, Installing and Managing a Computer (London: Business Books, 1968), 83.

91. Editorial, “The Thoughtless Information Technologist,” 21–22.

92. Ibid.

93. Walker, “MIS Mysticism,” 8.

94. Editorial, “The Thoughtless Information Technologist,” 21–22.

95. Hertz, New Power for Management, 169.

96. H. L. Morgan and J. V. Soden, “Understanding MIS Failures,” Database 5, no. 2 (1973), 159.

97. Harry Larson, “EDP: A 20 Year Ripoff!” Infosystems (1974), 28.

98. Editorial, “Trouble . . . I Say Trouble, Trouble in DP City.”

99. Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management,” 34.

100. Larson, “EDP: A 20 Year Ripoff!” 26.

101. Hertz, New Power for Management, 169.

102. Robert Boguslaw and Warren Pelton, “Steps: A Management Game for Programming Supervisors,” Datamation 5, no. 6 (1959): 13–16.

103. Gordon, “Personnel Selection,” 200.

104. Keelan, “Controlling Computer Programming,” 30.

Chapter 7

1. Editorial, “Editor’s Readout: The Certified Public Programmer,” Datamation 8, no. 3 (1962): 23–24.

2. Ibid.

3. Calvin Elliott, “DPMA: Its Function and Future,” Datamation 9, no. 6 (1963): 35–36.

4. Ibid.

5. Report, “Certificate in Data Processing,” Datamation 9, no. 8 (1963): 59.

6. Jerome Geckle, “Letter to the Editor,” Datamation 11, no. 9 (1965): 12–13.

7. John A. Guerrieri, “Certification: Evolution, Not Revolution,” Datamation 14, no. 11 (1973): 101; “DPMA Certificate Panel,” (1964), CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 17, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

8. Richard Canning, “Professionalism: Coming or Not?” EDP Analyzer 14, no. 3 (1976): 1–12.

9. Richard Canning, “The Question of Professionalism,” EDP Analyzer 6, no. 12 (1968): 1–13.

10. Richard Canning, “The DPMA Certificate in Data Processing,” EDP Analyzer 3, no. 7 (1965): 1–12.

11. Charles M. Sidlo, “The Making of a Profession” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 4, no. 8 (1961): 366.

12. Hal Sackman, “Conference on Personnel Research,” Datamation 14, no. 7 (1968): 74–76, 81.

13. Report, “Certificate in Data Processing,” 38.

14. Editorial, “Learning a Trade,” Datamation 12, no. 10 (1966): 21.

15. James Jenks, “Starting Salaries of Engineers Are Deceptively High,” Datamation 13, no. 1 (1967): 13.

16. Louis Kaufman and Richard Smith, “Let’s Get Computer Personnel on the Management Team,” Training and Development Journal 20, no. 11 (1966): 25–29.

17. Bendix Computer Division, “Is Your Programming Career in a Closed Loop?” Datamation 8, no. 9 (1962): 86.

18. Mitre Corporation, “Are You Working Your Way toward Obsolescence?” Datamation 12, no. 6 (1966): 99.

19. Xerox Corporation, “At Xerox, We Look at Programmers . . . and See Managers” (ad), Datamation 14, no. 4 (1968).

20. Richard Canning, “Issues in Programming Management,” EDP Analyzer 12, no. 4 (1974): 1–14.

21. Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).

22. Harold Wilensky, “The Professionalization of Everyone?” American Journal of Sociology 70, no. 2 (1964): 137–158.

23. David Ross, “Certification and Accreditation,” Datamation 14, no. 9 (1968): 183–184.

24. Canning, “Professionalism: Coming or Not?” 2.

25. Editorial, “Professionalism Termed Key to Computer Personnel Situation,” Personnel Journal 51, no. 2 (1971): 156–157.

26. George Palmer, “Programming, The Profession That Isn’t,” Datamation 21, no. 4 (1975): 23–24.

27. Eric Weiss, “Publications in Computing: An Informal Review,” Communications of the ACM 15, no. 7 (1972): 492–497.

28. Saul Gass, “ACM Class Structure” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 2, no. 5 (1959): 4.

29. “The Certificate and Undergraduate Program,” (1959), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 1, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

30. “RAND Symposium, 1959” (1959).

31. George DiNardo, “Software Management and the Impact of Improved Programming Technology,” in Proceedings of 1975 ACM Annual Conference Software Management and the Impact of Improved Programming Technology (New York: ACM Press, 1975), 288–289.

32. Editorial, “The Cost of Professionalism,” Datamation 9, no. 10 (1963): 23.

33. Anthony Oettinger, “On ACM’s Responsibility” (president’s letter to ACM membership 1966), Communications of the ACM 9, no. 8 (1966): 545–546.

34. Emphasis added. Paul Armer, “Thinking Big” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 2, no. 1 (1959).

35. Herbert Grosch, “Plus and Minus,” Datamation 5, no. 6 (1959): 51.

36. Robert Payne, “Reaction to Publication Proposal” (letter to editor), Communications of the ACM 8, no. 1 (1965): 71.

37. Anthony Oettinger, “ACM Sponsors Professional Development Program” (president’s letter to ACM membership), Communications of the ACM 9, no. 10 (1966): 712–713.

38. Bernard Galler, “The Journal” (president’s letter to ACM membership), Communications of the ACM 12, no. 2 (1969): 65–66.

39. “Will You Vote for an Association Name Change to ACIS?” Communications of the ACM 8, no. 7 (1965): 424–426; Daniel McCracken, “Vote on ACM Name Change,” (1978), CBI 43, “Daniel D. McCracken Papers, 1958–1983,” Box 3, Folder 10, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

40. Anthony Oettinger, “President’s Reply to Louis Fein,” Communications of the ACM 10, no. 1 (1967): 1, 61.

41. Raymond Wishner, “Comment on Curriculum 68,” Communications of the ACM 11, no. 10 (1968): 658; Report, “Curriculum 68,” Datamation 14, no. 5 (1968): 114–116; Richard Hamming, “One Man’s View of Computer Science,” Journal of the ACM 16, no. 1 (1969), 3–12.

42. John Postley, “Letter to Editor,” Communications of the ACM 3, no. 1 (1960): A6.

43. “Why Are Business Users Turned Off by ACM?” (1974), CBI 23, “George Glaser Papers, 1960–1989,” Box 1, Folder 3, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

44. Ibid.

45. Ibid.

46. “Six Measures of Professionalism,” (1962), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 21, Folder 40, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

47. “Local Chapter CDP Publicity,” (1964), CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 17, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

48. “Letter Re: Four Year Degree Requirement,” (1970), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 27, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; R. Higgins, “Letter to the DPMA” (1973) CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 17, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

49. J. D. Madden, “Letter to Calvin Elliot,” (June 27, 1967), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 1, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

50. “Notes on ACM/DPMA merger” (1964), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 2, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; “Correspondence re: ACM/DPMA liason,” (1966), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 1, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; “Discussion of DPMA/ACM Merger,” (1970), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 3, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

51. “RAND Symposium, 1975: Problems of the AFIPS Societies Revisited,” (1975), CBI 78, “RAND Symposia on Computing Transcripts,” Box 3, Folder 7, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

52. “CDP Advisory Council, Minutes of the Third Annual Meeting, Jan. 17–18, 1964,” (1964), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 3, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

53. “DPMA Certification Council minutes, 23rd meeting, April 1-4, 1970,” (1970) CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 26, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

54. “DPMA Revises CDP Test Requirements,” Data Management (1967): 34–35.

55. Higgins, “Letter to the DPMA.”

56. Paul Armer, “Editor’s Readout: Suspense Won’t Kill Us,” Datamation 19, no. 6 (1973): 53.

57. Robert Reinstedt and Raymond Berger, “Certification: A Suggested Approach to Acceptance,” Datamation 19, no. 11 (1973): 97–100.

58. Alan Taylor, “DPMA Should be Saved Now, If At All Possible,” Computerworld (1971), found in CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 30, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; Alan Taylor; “Taylor Replies,” Computerworld (1971), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 30, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; William Claghorn, “Rough draft of a reply to Alan Taylor,” (1971), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 47, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis; “Letter to the editors of Computerworld,” (1971, unpublished), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 47, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

59. Alan Taylor. “Members Look More Like Markets From Park Ridge.” Computerworld (April 14, 1971). CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 30, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

60. “SCDP Draft Legislation,” (1974), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 11, Folder 42, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

61. Ross, “Certification and Accreditation”; T.D.C. Kuch, “Unions or Licensing? or Both? or Neither?” Infosystems 20, no. 1 (1973): 42–43.

62. “SCDP Draft Legislation,” CBI 116, Box 11, Folder 42.

63. D.J. MacPherson, “Letter to R. C. Elliot re: unauthorized use of CDP initials,” (October 26, 1970), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 22, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

64. Kenniston W. Lord, cited in Canning, “Professionalism: Coming or Not?”

65. “DPMA Board of Directors, 9th Meeting, March 11–12, 1966,” (1966), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 7, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

66. “DPMA Board of Directors, 12th Meeting, 1967 Las Vegas,” (1967), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 22, Folder 8, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

67. Ibid.

68. Malcolm Smith, “Complaint about Boston exam,” (1969), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 19, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

69. “The Certificate and Undergraduate Program,” (1959); “The Certificate and Undergraduate Program,” (1959), CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 13, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

70. “Notes on ACM/DPMA merger,” CBI 88, Box 22, Folder 2.

71. “DPMA Board of Directors, 10th Meeting, 1966” (minutes), (June 19–20, 1966), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 2, Folder 8, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

72. “Letter from Jack Yarbrough to John Swearingen,” (1964), CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 17, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

73. “Response to Business Automation article on CDP,” (1964), CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 16, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

74. “Notes on ACM/DPMA merger,” CBI 88, Box 22, Folder 2.

75. Report, “Certificate in Data Processing,” 59.

76. R. C. Heterick, “Letter to Ben Payne,” (September 17, 1971), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 22, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

77. “Computerworld Survey,” (1970), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 22, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

78. Herbert Grosch, cited in “New CDP Requirements ‘Unduly Harsh’ Professionals Protest,” (1970), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 27, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

79. Alex Orden, “The Emergence of a Profession,” Communications of the ACM 10, no. 3 (1967): 145–146.

80. Sidlo, “The Making of a Profession,” 367.

81. Edward Menkhaus, “EDP: Nice Work If You Can Get It,” Business Automation 12, no. 3 (1969): 43.

82. Thomas White, “The 70’s: People,” Datamation 16, no. 7 (1970): 42–43.

83. Robert Forest, “EDP People: Review and Preview,” Datamation 18, no. 6 (1972): 65–67.

84. Edward Markham, “Selecting a Private EDP School,” Datamation 14, no. 5 (1968): 33.

85. “Executive Meeting Summary” (1966), CBI 46, “John K. Swearingen Papers, 1936–1993,” Box 1, Folder 3, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

86. Charles Babbage Institute Archives, box 88, folder 18, file 28.

87. “Correspondence re: Improper Use of CDP Initials,” (1966), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 22, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

88. “Correspondence re: Academic and Experience Req’s,” (1966), CBI 88, “Data Processing Management Association records,” Box 18, Folder 22, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

89. Canning, “The DPMA Certificate in Data Processing.”

90. Ibid.; “Letter from Jack Yarbrough,” CBI 46, Box 1, Folder 17.

91. Milt Stone, “In Search of an Identity,” Datamation 18, no. 3 (1972): 53–54.

92. Fred Gruenberger, cited in “RAND Symposium, 1975: Problems of the AFIPS Societies Revisited,” CBI 78, Box 3, Folder 7.

93. Ibid.

94. “DPMA Certificate Panel,” CBI 46, Box 1, Folder 17.

95. Arthur Kaupe, “Letter to the Editors of Computerworld, March 1, 1972” (1972), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 30, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

96. John Seitz, “Should DPMA Control Certification Process?” (letter to the editor), Computerworld (1971), CBI 116, “Institute for Certification of Computer Professionals Records, 1960–1993,” Box 1, Folder 30, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

97. Willis Ware, “AFIPS in Retrospect,” Annals of the History of Computing 8, no. 3 (1986): 304.

98. ARPA Survey, 1968, cited in “AFIPS Constitution Letter,” Communications of the ACM 12, no. 3 (1969), 4.

99. Bernard Galler, “The AFIPS Constitution (President’s Letter to ACM Membership),” Communications of the ACM 12, no. 3 (1969): 188.

100. Robert Rector, “Personal Reflections on the First Quarter Century of AFIPS,” Annals of the History of Computing 8, no. 3 (1986): 261–269.

101. Richard Jones, “A Time to Assume Responsibility,” Datamation 13, no. 9 (1967): 160.

102. “Survey on the Use of Service Bureaus,” Wall Street Journal (November 4, 1969): 24.

103. RAND Symposium, “Is It Overhaul or Trade-in Time: Part I,” Datamation 5, no. 4 (1959), 24–33.

104. Christopher Shaw, “Programming Schisms,” Datamation 8, no. 9 (1962): 32.

105. Wolf Flywheel, “Letter to the Editor (on Professionalism),” Datamation 5, no. 5 (1959): 2.

106. Harry Tropp, cited in “AFIPS Presidents Discussion” (1985) CBI 114, “Walter M. Carlson Papers, 1960–1990,” Box 1, Folder 4, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

107. Herbert Grosch, cited in RAND Symposium, “Is It Overhaul or Trade-in Time: Part I.”

108. Editorial, “Professional Societies . . . or Technician Associations?” Datamation 11, no. 8 (1965): 23.

109. Hans A. Rhee, Office Automation in Social Perspective: The Progress and Social Implications of Electronic Data Processing (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1968), 118.

110. “Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Certification Advisory Council” (1967).

111. Gotterer, “The Impact of Professionalization Efforts on the Computer Manager,” 368.

112. Louis Fein, “ACM Has a Crisis of Identity?” Communications of the ACM 10, no. 1 (1967): 1.

113. John Backus, cited in Richard Wexelblat, ed., History of Programming Languages (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 69.

114. Canning, “Professionalism: Coming or Not?” 2.

115. “Why Are Business Users Turned Off by ACM?” (1974) CBI 23, Box 1, Folder 3.

116. George Glaser, “Letter to W. Carlson,” (July 15, 1974), CBI 23, “George Glaser Papers, 1960–1989,” Box 1, Folder 3, Archives of the Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.

Chapter 8

1. Ronald Graham, cited in Peter Naur, Brian Randall, and John Buxton, ed., Software Engineering: Proceedings of the NATO Conferences (New York: Petrocelli/Charter, 1976), 32.

2. Robert Glass, “Is There Really a Software Crisis?” IEEE Software 15, no. 1 (1998): 104–105.

3. Robert Bemer, Computers and Crisis: How Computers Are Shaping Our Future (New York: ACM Press, 1971).

4. Robert Gordon, “Review of Charles Lecht, The Management of Computer Programmers,” Datamation 14, no. 4 (1968): 200–202.

5. Ibid., 7.

6. Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, Computer: A History of the Information Machine (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 210.

7. W. Saba, “Letter to the Editor,” IEEE Computer 29, no. 9 (1996): 10; Edward Nash Yourdon, ed., Classics in Software Engineering (New York: Yourdon Press, 1979); Herbert Freeman and Phillip Lewis, Software Engineering (New York: Academic Press, 1980).

8. M. Douglas McIlroy, cited in ibid, 7.

9. Douglas McIroy, cited in Naur, Randall, and Buxton, Software Engineering, 7.

10. Ibid.

11. Brad Cox, “There Is a Silver Bullet,” Byte 15, no. 10 (1990): 209.

12. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1911).

13. Richard Canning, “Issues in Programming Management,” EDP Analyzer 12, no. 4 (1974): 1–14.

14. Stuart Shapiro, “Splitting the Difference: The Historical Necessity of Synthesis in Software Engineering,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 19, no. 1 (1997): 25–54.

15. Gerald Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming (New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold, 1971).

16. Claude Baum, The Systems Builders: The Story of SDC (Santa Monica, CA: System Development Corporation, 1981), 52.

17. Ibid., 48.

18. Thomas C. Rowan, “The Recruiting and Training of Programmers,” Datamation 4, no. 3 (1958): 16–18.

19. Baum, The Systems Builders, 47.

20. Philip Kraft, Programmers and Managers: The Routinization of Computer Programming in the United States (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1977), 39.

21. Philip Metzger, Managing a Programming Project (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973).

22. Richard Canning, “Issues in Programming Management,” EDP Analyzer 12, no. 4 (1974): 1–14.

23. Joel Aron, Part I: The Individual Programmer (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1974); Joel Aron, Program Development Process: The Programming Team (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1983).

24. Canning, “Issues in Programming Management.”

25. Richard Canning, “Professionalism: Coming or Not?” EDP Analyzer 14, no. 3 (1976): 1–12.

26. Brian Rothery, Installing and Managing a Computer (London: Business Books, 1968), 80.

27. Robert Gordon, “Personnel Selection,” in Data Processing: Practically Speaking, ed. Stanley Naftaly and Fred Gruenberger (Los Angeles: Data Processing Digest, 1967): 85.

28. B. Conway, J. Gibbons, and D. E. Watts, Business Experience with Electronic Computers: A Synthesis of What Has Been Learned from Electronic Data Processing Installations (New York: Price Waterhouse, 1959), 81.

29. Ibid., 81–82.

30. Gene Bylinsky, “Help Wanted: 50,000 Programmers,” Fortune 75, no. 3 (1967): 141.

31. H. V. Reid, “Problems in Managing the Data Processing Department,” Journal of Systems Management 21, no. 5 (1970): 8–11; Richard Canning, “Managing Staff Retention and Turnover,” EDP Analyzer 15, no. 8 (1977): 1–13.

32. Editorial, “EDP’s Wailing Wall,” Datamation 13, no. 7 (1967): 21.

33. Baum, The Systems Builders, 52.

34. Martin Campbell-Kelly, cited in Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer, 144.

35. Thomas Wise, “IBM’s $5,000,000,000 Gamble,” Time, September 1966, 226.

36. Thomas Watson Jr., cited in Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer, 199.

37. Frederick Brooks, cited in Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer, 200; Emerson Pugh, Lyle Johnson, and John Palmer, IBM’s 360 and Early 370 Systems (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991).

38. Frederick P. Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 17.

39. Ibid., 31.

40. Ibid., 34–35.

41. Ibid., 42, 7.

42. Frederick P. Brooks, “No Silver Bullet: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering,” IEEE Computer 20, no. 4 (1987), 10–19.

43. F. Terry Baker and Harlan Mills, “Chief Programmer Teams,” Datamation 19, no. 12 (1973): 198–199.

44. Ibid., 200.

45. Ibid., 201.

46. Clement McGowan and John Kelly, Top-down Structured Programming Techniques (New York: Petrocelli/Carter, 1975), 148.

47. Barbara Barry and John Naughton, Structured Programming Series. Volume X. Chief Programmer Team Operations Description (Gaithersburg, MD.: IBM Ferderal Systems, 1975), 12–13.

48. Stuart Shapiro, “Splitting the Difference,” 25.

49. Barry Boehm, “Software Engineering,” IEEE Transactions on Computers, no. 12 (1976): 349; Yourdon, Classics in Software Engineering, 63.

50. J. L. Ogdin, “The Mongolian Hordes versus Superprogrammer,” Infosystems 19, no. 12 (1973): 23.

51. Daniel Couger and Robert Zawacki, “What Motivates DP Professionals?” Datamation 24, no. 9 (1978): 116–123; Canning, “Issues in Programming Management.”

52. C. Anthony Hoare, “Software Engineering: A Keynote Address.” In Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Software Engineering (Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 1978): 1–4.

53. Carma McClure, Managing Software Development and Maintenance (New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold, 1981), 77.

54. Ibid., 77–78, 86.

55. John Golda, “The Effects of Computer Technology on the Traditional Role of Management” (master’s thesis, Wharton School of Business, University of Pennsylvania, 1965), 34.

56. Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming, 56.

57. Ibid., 53.

58. Ibid.

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid.

61. Ogdin, “The Mongolian Hordes versus Superprogrammer,” 23.

62. Canning, “Issues in Programming Management,” 6.

63. Rudolph Hirsch, “Programming Performance: Monitoring, Maximization, and Prediction,” in Special Interest Group on Computer Personnel Research Annual Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1972), 36–46.

64. Steve McConnell, Code Complete: A Practical Handbook of Software Construction (Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press, 1993), 287; Girish Parikh, Programmer Productivity: Achieving an Urgent Priority (Reston, VA: Reston Publishing, 1984), 209; Edward Yourdon, Writings of the Revolution: Selected Readings on Software Engineering (New York, Prentice Hall, 1986), 288.

65. Anthony Jay, Corporation Man (New York: Random House, 1971).

66. Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960).

67. Ogdin, “The Mongolian Hordes versus Superprogrammer,” 23.

68. Bo Sanden, “Programming Masters Break Out of the Managerial Mold,” Computerworld (1986): 73.

69. Henry Lucas, “On the Failure to Implement Structured Programming and Other Techniques,” in Proceedings of 1975 ACM Annual Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1975), 291–293.

70. McClure, Managing Software Development and Maintenance, 74–75.

71. Edsger Dijkstra, cited in Eloina Paleaz, “A Gift from Pandora’s Box: The Software Crisis” (PhD diss., University of Edinburgh, 1988), 175.

72. Donald MacKenzie, “A View from the Sonnenbichl: On the Historical Sociology of Software and System Dependability,” in History of Computing:Software Issues, ed. Ulf Hashagen, Reinhard Keil-Slawik, and Arthur L. Norberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2002): 97–122.

73. Friedrich L. Bauer, “Software Engineering: A Conference Report,” Datamation 15, no. 10 (1969).

74. John N. Buxton, cited in Paleaz, “A Gift from Pandora’s Box,” 185.

75. Douglas Ross, cited in Paleaz, “A Gift from Pandora’s Box,” 182.

76. Campbell-Kelly and Aspray, Computer, 201.

77. Michael Mahoney, “The Roots of Software Engineering,” CWI Quarterly 3, no. 4 (1980): 325–334.

78. Christopher Strachey, cited in Randall and Buxton, Software Engineering, 147.

79. Ibid.

80. Ibid.

81. Ann Dooley, “100% Over Budget,” Computerworld (1987): 5.

82. Gary Chapman, “Bugs in the Program,” Communications of the ACM 33, no. 3 (1990): 251–252.

83. David Morrison, “Software Crisis,” Defense 21, no. 2 (1989): 72.

84. William Wayt Gibbs, “Software’s Chronic Crisis,” Scientific American 271, no. 3 (1994): 86.

Chapter 9

1. J. Jimms, “Could Y2K cause a global recession?” Fortune 138, no. 7 (1998): 172–176.

2. Fred Kaplan, “Military on Year 2000 alert,” Boston Globe (June 21, 1998): A1.

3. David Edgerton, The Shock of the Old: Technology and Global History since 1900 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).

4. B. P. Lientz, E. B. Swanson, and G. E. Tompkins, “Characteristics of application software maintenance,” Communications of the ACM 21, no. 6 (1978): 466–471; Girish Parikh, “Software Maintenance: Penny Wise, Program Foolish,” SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes 10, no. 5 (1985): 89–98; Ruchi Shukla and Arun Kumar Misra, “Estimating Software Maintenance Effort: A Neural Network Approach,” In ISEC ‘08: Proceedings of the 1st Conference on India Software Engineering Conference (Hyderabad, India: ACM, 2008), 107–112.

5. Richard Canning, “The Maintenance ‘Iceberg,’” EDP Analyzer 10, no. 10 (1972): 1–13.

6. Gerardo Canfora and Aniello Cimitile, Software Maintenance (Technical report, University of Sannio, 2000).

7. Maurice Wilkes, Memoirs of a Computer Pioneer (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1985).

8. David Rine, “A Short Overview of a History of Software Maintenance: As It Pertains to Reuse,” SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes 16, no. 4 (1991): 60–63.

9. Canning, “The Maintenance ‘Iceberg’” (1972).

10. E. Burton Swanson, “The Dimensions of Maintenance,” in ICSE ‘76: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Software Engineering (San Francisco: IEEE Computer Society Press, 1976), 492–497.

11. Girish Parikh, “What Is Software Maintenance Really? What Is in a Name?” SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes 9, no. 2 (1984): 114–116.

12. Frederick Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1975), 7.

13. Bjarne Stroustrup, “A History of C++,” in History of Programming Languages, ed. Thomas M. Bergin and R.G. Gibson (New York, ACM Press, 1996).

14. Michael Swaine, “Is Your Next Language COBOL?” Dr. Dobbs Journal (2008).

15. Andrew Pollack, “Year 2000 Problem Tests Professionalism of Programmers,” New York Times (May 3, 1999): C1; Mark Manion and William M. Evan, “The Y2K Problem: Technological Risk and Professional Responsibility,” ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society 29, no. 4 (1999): 24–29.

16. John Shore, “Why I Never Met a Programmer I Could Trust,” Communications of the ACM 31, no. 4 (1988): 372.

17. Shoshana Zuboff, In the Age of the Smart Machine: The Future of Work and Power (New York: Basic Books, 1988).

18. Thomas Gieryn, “Boundary-Work and the Demarcation of Science from Non-Science: Strains and Interests in Professional Ideologies of Scientists,” American Sociological Review 48, no. 4 (1983): 781–795.

19. Ibid.

20. Andrei P. Ershov, “Aesthetics and the Human Factor in Programming,” Communications of the ACM 15, no. 7 (1972): 502.

21. Gieryn, “Boundary work,” 792.

22. Harold Wilensky, “The Professionalization of Everyone?” American Journal of Sociology 70, no. 2 (1964): 137–158.

23. Nathan Ensmenger, “The ‘Question of Professionalism’ in the Computer Fields,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 23, no. 4 (2001): 56–73.

24. Magali Sarfatti Larson, The Rise of Professionalism: A Sociological Analysis. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977).

25. Robert Zussman, Mechanics of the Middle Class: Work and Politics among American Engineers. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).

26. “Professionalism Termed Key to Computer Personnel Situation,” Personnel Journal 51, no 2. (1971): 156–157.

27. Wanda Orlikowski and Baroudi, Jack, “The Information Systems Profession: Myth or Reality?” Office: Technology & People 4 (1989): 13–30.

28. William Aspray, “The History of Computer Professionalism in America,” (unpublished manuscript, 2001).

29. Philip Kraft, Programmers and Managers: The Routinization of Computer Programming in the United States (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1977), 26– 28.

30. Joan Greenbaum, “On Twenty-five Years with Braverman’s ‘Labor and Monopoly Capital.’ (Or, How Did Control and Coordination of Labor Get into the Software so Quickly?),” Monthly Review 50, no. 8 (1999).

31. Wanda Orlikowski, “The DP Occupation: Professionalization or Proletarianization?” Research in the Sociology of Work 4 (1988): 95–124.

32. Brian Rothery, Installing and Managing a Computer (London: Business Books, 1968), 152.

33. Kraft, Programmers and Managers, 26.

34. Enid Mumford, Job Satisfaction: A Study of Computer Specialists (London: Longman Group Limited, 1972), 175.

35. Robert Head, “Controlling Programming Costs,” Datamation 13, no. 7 (1967): 141.

36. Andrew Friedman and Dominic Cornford, Computer Systems Development: History, Organization, and Implementation (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 1989); M. Beirne, H. Ramsay, and A. Panteli, “Developments in Computing Work: Control and Contradiction in the Software Labour Process,” in Developments in Computing Work: Control and Contradiction in the Software Labour Process, ed. P. Thompson and C. Warhurst (New York: Macmillan, 1998), 142–162.

37. Andrew Abbott, The Systems of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Paul DiMaggio, “Review of Andrew Abbott, Systems of Professions,” American Journal of Sociology 95, no. 2 (1989): 534–535.

38. Nathan Ensmenger, “The ‘Question of Professionalism’ in the Computer Fields,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 4, no. 23 (2001): 56–73.

39. Stephen Barley, “Technicians in the Workplace: Ethnographic Evidence for Bringing Work into Organization Studies,” Administrative Science Quarterly 41 (1996): 404–441.

40. Ibid.

41. Stacia Zabusky and Stephen Barley, “Redefining Success: Ethnographic Observations on the Careers of Technicians,” in Broken Ladders: Managerial Careers in the New Economy, ed. Paul Osterman (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 185–214.

42. Barley, “Technicians in the Workplace,” 422.

43. Ibid., 430.

44. Ibid., 427.

45. Adele Mildred Koss, “Programming on the Univac 1,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing , no. 1 (2003): 48–59; Scott M. Campbell, “Beatrice Helen Worsley,” IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 25, no. 4 (2003): 51–62.

46. Nathan Ensmenger, “Making Programming Masculine,” in Gender Codes: Women and Men in the Computing Professions, ed. Thomas Misa (New York: Wiley, forthcoming).

47. Richard Canning, “Issues in Programming Management,” EDP Analyzer 12, no. 4 (1974): 1–14.

48. Bruce Gilchrist and Richard Weber, “Enumerating Full-Time Programmers,” Communications of the ACM 17, no. 10 (1974): 592–593.

49. Valerie Rockmael, “The Woman Programmer,” Datamation 9, no. 1 (1963): 4.

50. Lois Mandel, “The Computer Girls,” Cosmopolitan (April 1967): 52–56.

51. Ibid., 52.

52. Ibid., 51.

53. Ibid., 56.

54. Margaret Rossiter, Women Scientists in America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); Jeffrey Hearn, “Notes on Patriarchy, Professionalization and the Semi-Professions,” Sociology 16, no. 2 (1982): 184–202; Ruth Oldenziel, Making Technology Masculine (Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 1999).

55. Claudia Goldin, Lawrence Katz, and Ilyana Kuziemko, “The Homecoming of American College Women,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 4 (2006): 133–156.

56. Thomas D’Auria, “ACM Membership Profile Report,” Communications of the ACM 20, no. 10 (1977): 688–692.

57. Theodore Willoughby, “Psychometric Characteristics of the CDP Examination,” Proceedings of the Thirteenth Annual SIGCPR Conference (New York: ACM Press, 1975), 152–160.

58. Gerald Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming (New York: Van Nostrand Rheinhold, 1971).

59. Carol Cohn, “War, Wimps, and Women,” in Gendering War Talk, ed. M. Cooke and A. Woolcott (Princeton: Princeton University Press Princeton, 1993), 227–246.

60. Ensmenger, “Making Programming Masculine.”

61. Edith Martin and Albert Badre, “Problem Formulation for Programmers,” in Proceedings of the 7th SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education (New York: ACM Press, 1977), 133–138.

62. Frederick Brooks, “No Silver Bullet: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering,” IEEE Computer 20, no 4 (1987): 18.

63. Jack Little, cited in RAND Symposium, “On Programming Languages, Part I,” Datamation 8, no. 10 (1962): 29–30.

64. Morrison, “Software Crisis,” 72.

65. Brad Cox, “There Is a Silver Bullet,” Byte Magazine 15, no. 10 (1990): 209.

66. Maurice Black, “The Art of Code” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2002); Scott Rosenberg, Dreaming in Code: Two Dozen Programmers, Three Years, 4,732 Bugs, and One Quest for Transcendent Software (New York: Crown Publishers, 2007).

67. James Paul and Gregory Simon, “Bugs in the Program: Problems in Federal Government Computer Software Development and Regulation,” Staff Study for the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, September 1989.

68. Gibbs, “Software’s Chronic Crisis.”