1. Peter D. Shaver, “National Register of Historic Places Registration: Carrie Chapman Catt House,” New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation (October 2003). Carrie Chapman Catt later confirmed that there was a link between buying the property and the onset of Prohibition: “I know that the juniper is useful in making liquor, and that is why I bought the place—so that no one else would have opportunity to use the trees for that purpose.” “Mrs. Catt Receives Women Picnickers,” New York Times, June 26, 1921, 14.
2. The rationale for the placement of the plaques is described in Clara Hyde to Mary Gray Peck, September 29, 1919, Edna Lamprey Stantial Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
3. At some point after Catt sold the property, the plaques were taken off the trees. They eventually came to the Schlesinger Library as part of the Edna Lamprey Stantial Papers. Along the way, the plaques for Susan B. Anthony, Aletta Jacobs, Minna Cauer, and Lucy Stone went missing.
4. The New York Times article on June 26, 1921, mentions two additional plaques—to Wyoming suffragist Esther Morris and NAWSA lobbyist Maud Wood Park—but there is no further documentation of their existence.
5. See Neil MacGregor, A History of the World in 100 Objects (New York: Penguin, 2010) and Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Evan Gaskell, Sara J. Schechner, and Sarah Anne Carter, Tangible Things: Making History through Objects (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
6. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, Well-Behaved Women Seldom Make History (New York: Knopf, 2007). Often the slogan is rendered as “well-behaved women rarely make history,” but I follow her original formulation.
7. Winnifred Harper Cooley, “The Younger Suffragists,” Harper’s Weekly 58 (September 27, 1913), 7–8, quoted in Nancy F. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), 15; Estelle B. Freedman, No Turning Back: The History of Feminism and the Future of Women (New York: Ballantine Books, 2002), 7.
8. Cott, Grounding of Modern Feminism, 5. Cott’s definition of feminism is more specific to the 1910s, and it is broader than just gender consciousness. It is discussed at greater length in the chapter on Charlotte Perkins Gilman.
9. Susan Ware, “The Book I Couldn’t Write: Alice Paul and the Challenge of Feminist Biography,” Journal of Women’s History 24, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 27.
10. Oreola Williams Haskell, Banner Bearers: Tales of the Suffrage Campaigns (Geneva, NY: W. F. Humphrey, 1920), 3–4. Little is known about Haskell (1875–1957). She was president of the Brooklyn-based Kings County Political Equality League, served as head of the Press Bureau of the New York City Woman Suffrage Party from 1915 to 1917, and joined the League of Women Voters at its inception. Ida Husted Harper, ed., History of Woman Suffrage: 1900–1920, vol. 6 (New York: National American Woman Suffrage Association, 1922), 459.
11. Haskell, Banner Bearers, 3–4.
1. Mari Jo Buhle and Paul Buhle, eds., The Concise History of Woman Suffrage (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005), 91–98.
2. Martin Naparsteck, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony: An Illegal Vote, a Courtroom Conviction, and a Step toward Women’s Suffrage (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2014), 57–58; Angela G. Ray, “The Rhetorical Ritual of Citizenship: Women’s Voting as Public Performance, 1868–1875,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 93, no. 1 (February 2007): 1–26.
3. Naparsteck, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 51.
4. Ibid., 52.
5. Faye E. Dudden, Fighting Chance: The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011) and Laura E. Free, Suffrage Reconstructed: Gender, Race, and Voting Rights in the Civil War Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2015).
6. Lynn Sherr, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony (Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2003), xi.
7. Ibid., xv.
8. Voters did not technically vote for the president, casting ballots instead for delegates to the electoral college. Direct election of US senators did not happen until 1913, but there was no senatorial candidate on the 1872 ballot.
9. Naparsteck, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 100.
10. Ibid., 185.
11. Sherr, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 66; Naparsteck, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 185.
12. Sherr, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 82, 84.
13. County Post, June 27, 1873, quoted in History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 2, ed. Susan B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Matilda Joslyn Gage (Rochester, NY: Susan B. Anthony, 1887), 944.
14. Angela G. Ray and Cindy Koenig Richards, “Inventing Citizens, Imagining Gender Justice: The Suffrage Rhetoric of Virginia and Francis Minor,” Quarterly Journal of Speech 93, no. 4 (November 2007): 375–402.
15. Naparsteck, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 206.
16. Ellen Carol DuBois, “Outgrowing the Compact of the Fathers: Equal Rights, Woman Suffrage, and the United States Constitution, 1820–1878” and “Taking the Law into Our Own Hands: Bradwell, Minor, and Suffrage Militance in the 1870s,” both reprinted in Woman Suffrage and Women’s Rights, ed. Ellen Carol DuBois (New York: New York University Press, 1998); Sherr, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, xxiv.
17. Naparsteck, The Trial of Susan B. Anthony, 173.
1. Margaret Washington, Sojourner Truth’s America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 366.
2. Nell Irvin Painter, Sojourner Truth: A Life, a Symbol (New York: Norton, 1996), 198–199.
3. For an excellent overview of Sojourner Truth’s cartes de visite, see Darcy Grimaldo Grigsby, Enduring Truths: Sojourner’s Shadows and Substance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015). I have relied on her research and chronology to date the various versions. For general background on cartes de visite, see Kenneth Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia: An Illustrated Historical Study (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013), 61–65.
4. Grigsby, Enduring Truths, 29.
5. Ibid., 15, 123–142.
6. Ibid., 15; Allison Lange, “Images of Change: Picturing Woman’s Rights from American Independence through the Nineteenth Amendment” (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2014), 145–146.
7. There is some uncertainty about Truth’s actual date of freedom. Between 1826 and 1828, she had negotiated an exit date with her penultimate owner, but he reneged when she injured herself.
8. Painter, Sojourner Truth, 125, 139. Painter discusses the implications of the competing renditions of “Ar’n’t I a Woman” on pages 258–287. She forcefully rejects Gage’s version as historically inaccurate and demeaning.
9. Washington, Sojourner Truth’s America, 334. The quote is from 1866.
10. Ibid., 337; Painter, Sojourner Truth, 220.
11. Painter, Sojourner Truth, 233.
12. Lange, “Images of Change,” 186, 197.
1. Ladies of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, “Mormon” Women’s Protest: An Appeal for Freedom, Justice and Equal Rights (Salt Lake City: Deseret News Print, 1886), iii.
2. It’s even more complicated when the story of Utah’s organized antipolygamy groups are factored in. They actually opposed woman suffrage because they saw women’s votes as upholding the power of the Mormon Church on public life. See Lola Van Wagenen, Sister-Wives and Suffragists: Polygamy and the Politics of Woman Suffrage, 1870–1896 (Provo, UT: Joseph Fielding Smith Institute for Latter-day Saint History and Brigham Young University Studies, 2003); and Carol Cornwall Madsen, ed., Battle for the Ballot: Essays on Woman Suffrage in Utah, 1870–1896 (Logan: Utah State University Press, 1997).
3. Lola Van Wagenen, “In Their Own Behalf: The Politicization of Mormon Women and the 1870 Franchise,” in Battle for the Ballot, ed. Madsen, 60–74.
4. Sarah Barringer Gordon, The Mormon Question: Polygamy and Constitutional Conflict in Nineteenth-Century America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 54. See also Nancy F. Cott, Public Vows: A History of Marriage and the Nation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000).
5. Twelve out of fifteen of the women who spoke were plural wives, as well as at least eight out of the nine additional speakers whose remarks were only included in the printed manifesto. Every participant was married or widowed, reflecting the total absence of single Mormon women, a sharp contrast to women’s groups elsewhere in nineteenth-century America.
6. Laurel Thatcher Ulrich, A House Full of Females: Plural Marriage and Women’s Rights in Early Mormonism, 1835–1870 (New York: Knopf, 2017).
7. Ladies of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, “Mormon” Women’s Protest, 37–38, 54.
8. Ibid., 14.
9. Ibid., 87.
10. Ibid., 76.
11. Carol Cornwall Madsen, An Advocate for Women: The Public Life of Emmeline B. Wells, 1870–1920 (Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 2006) and Madsen, Emmeline B. Wells: An Intimate History (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2017).
12. Leonard J. Arrington, “Emmeline B. Wells: Mormon Feminist and Journalist,” in Forgotten Heroes: Inspiring American Portraits from Our Leading Historians, ed. Susan Ware (New York: Free Press, 1998), 125.
13. Another example was Stanton and Anthony’s short-lived but controversial association with the free-love advocate Victoria Woodhull. See Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, “Victoria Woodhull: Free Love in the Feminine, First-Person Singular,” Forgotten Heroes, ed. Ware, 111–120, and Horowitz, Rereading Sex: Battles over Sexual Knowledge and Suppression in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Knopf, 2002).
14. Van Wagenen, Sister-Wives and Suffragists, 137.
15. Ibid., 135; Madsen, An Advocate for Women, 248.
16. Madsen, An Advocate for Women, 332.
1. Agnes E. Ryan, The Torchbearer: A Look Forward and Back at the Woman’s Journal, the Organ of the Woman’s Movement (Boston: Woman’s Journal and Suffrage News, 1916).
2. Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), preface.
3. Ibid., xix.
4. There is no biography of Alice Stone Blackwell. For information about her life, see Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul Boyer, eds., Notable American Women: 1607–1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971) as well as the extensive documentation in the Blackwell Family Papers at the Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University and the Library of Congress. Marlene Deahl Merrill, Growing Up in Boston’s Gilded Age: The Journal of Alice Stone Blackwell, 1872–1874 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990) introduces a younger Alice. See also Sally G. McMillen, Lucy Stone: An Unapologetic Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015).
5. Diary entry, December 31, 1873, quoted in Merrill, Growing Up in Boston’s Gilded Age, 216.
6. For background, see Susan Schultz Huxman, “The Woman’s Journal, 1870–1890: The Torchbearer for Suffrage,” in A Voice of Their Own: The Woman Suffrage Press, 1840–1910, ed. Martha M. Solomon (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991).
7. Merrill, Growing Up in Boston’s Gilded Age, 237.
8. McMillen, Lucy Stone, 215; Marsha Vanderford, “The Woman’s Column, 1888–1904: Extending the Suffrage Community,” in Solomon, A Voice of Their Own.
9. Alice Stone Blackwell, “Some Reminiscences,” New Armenia 5, no. 2 (February 1918): 20–21.
10. Alice Stone Blackwell to Professor Peabody, September 29, 1893, Ohannes Chatschumian student file, Harvard University Archives; Alice Stone Blackwell to Isabel Barrows, September 8, 1893, Barrows Family Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University.
11. Isabel Barrows to Professor Everett, March 1, 1893 and Alice Stone Blackwell to Professor F. G. Peabody, September 29, 1893, Ohannes Chatschumian student file, Harvard University Archives; Alice Stone Blackwell to Henry Browne Blackwell, May 30, 1896, Alice Stone Blackwell Papers, Schlesinger Library.
12. My thanks to Hayk Demoyan, director of the Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute and a visiting fellow at the Davis Center at Harvard University, and Harvard Professor James Russell for their help in deciphering the coat of arms.
13. Alice Stone Blackwell, Armenian Poems (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1896), ii. Blackwell retained the copyright to the volume. Extensive documentation of the preparation of the translations is found in the Blackwell Family Papers, Library of Congress.
14. Blackwell, Armenian Poems, i.
15. The Woman’s Journal announced his death on the first page of the May 30, 1896 issue. “Some Reminiscences” tells the story of his death from Isabel Barrows’s point of view, without mentioning that Alice was there too. Alice’s letters to family from onboard ship and after they received the telegram focus much more on Isabel Barrows and her grief, saying hardly anything about her own feelings. She certainly didn’t act like someone who had just lost her life mate.
16. “Editor’s note” by Edna Stantial, found in “Chatschumian, Ohannes” file, Blackwell Family Papers, Library of Congress.
17. See Merrill, Growing Up in Boston’s Gilded Age for a discussion of the importance of Alice’s relationship with Kitty Barry.
18. Woman’s Journal, May 11, 1896.
19. “The Women of Armenia,” Woman’s Journal, July 14 and July 28, 1894. The quote is from July 28.
20. Balakian, The Burning Tigris, 66–67, 97–98, 126–132.
21. Rebecca Jinks, “ ‘Marks Hard to Erase’: The Troubled Reclamation of ‘Absorbed’ Armenian Women, 1919–1927,” American Historical Review 123, no. 1 (February 2018): 86–123.
22. Ohannes Chatschumian to Isabel Barrows, June 8, 1894, Barrows Family Papers, Houghton Library; Woman’s Journal, March 14, 1896. This article, written from Germany, had originally been published in Nor-Dar (New Age), an Armenian paper published at Tufts University.
23. Alice Stone Blackwell to Isabel Barrows, June 17, 1894, Barrows Family Papers, Houghton Library.
24. Carrie Chapman Catt wrote, “Mrs. Park told me he was an Armenian.” See Catt to Mrs. La Rue Brown, April 18, 1935. For a reference to the “Gulesian mess,” see Ida Porter Boyer to Maud Wood Park, July 25, 1935. Both documents are included in Melanie Gustafson, ed., Maud Wood Park Archive: The Power of Organization, Part Two: Maud Wood Park in a Nation of Women Voters (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2014).
25. Merrill, Growing Up in Boston’s Gilded Age, 237–238; Alice Stone Blackwell to Barrows, June 17, 1894, Barrows Family Papers, Houghton Library.
1. This soon became Trans World Airlines (TWA). Cynthia J. Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman: A Biography (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010), 383.
2. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, The Living of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: An Autobiography (New York: Appleton-Century, 1935; New York: Harper, 1975), 333, 334. All references are to the 1975 Harper edition.
3. Iris I. J. M. Gibson, “Death Masks Unlimited,” British Medical Journal 291, no. 6511 (December 21–28, 1985): 1785–1787.
4. Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 395; Jill Bergman, Charlotte Perkins Gilman and a Woman’s Place in America (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2017), 63.
5. Ann Lane made this point in “The Fictional World of Charlotte Perkins Gilman,” in The Charlotte Perkins Gilman Reader, ed. Ann J. Lane (New York: Pantheon, 1980), ix. For Gilman’s use of the word living, see Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, xv.
6. The best introduction to Gilman’s feminism is Judith A. Allen, The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Sexualities, Histories, Progressivism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
7. Gilman, Living, 8; Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 61.
8. Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 89, 96–97. See also Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Wild Unrest: Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Making of “The Yellow Wall-Paper” (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
9. Gilman, Living, 110, 165.
10. Ibid., 165; Susan Ware, “Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The Early Lectures, 1890–1893,” unpublished seminar paper, May 29, 1973.
11. Gilman, Living, 294.
12. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Women and Economics: The Economic Factor between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution (New York: Harper, 1966), 149, 340. The book was originally published under the name of Charlotte Perkins Stetson.
13. Gilman, Living, 281.
14. Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 266.
15. Gilman, Living, 198.
16. The tally is from Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, xii.
17. Ibid., 289.
18. Allen, The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 156.
19. “Something to Vote For” is included in On to Victory: Propaganda Plays of the Woman Suffrage Movement, ed. Bettina Friedl (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1987), 143–161. The quotes are from p. 161.
20. Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 290, 287.
21. Allen, The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, ix, 1. The quotation is from unpublished notes, c. 1908, found in the Charlotte Perkins Gilman Papers at the Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. That date suggests that the term was circulating before the 1910s.
22. See Nancy Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), especially the introduction and chapter 1. The term gets even more slippery when it is appropriated by the National Woman’s Party to describe supporters of the Equal Rights Amendment, first introduced in 1923. Because many women we would now call feminists disavowed the ERA because of its impact on protective legislation for women, they shunned the term, even though they all would have agreed with Eleanor Roosevelt’s straightforward definition in 1935: “Fundamentally, the purpose of Feminism is that a woman should have an equal opportunity and Equal Rights with any other citizen of the country.” Quoted in Ruby A. Black, “Is Mrs. Roosevelt a Feminist?,” Equal Rights (July 27, 1935), 163.
23. Davis, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 339. Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism also discusses Heterodoxy extensively.
24. This title was inspired by a suffrage cartoon by Lou Rogers. See the chapter on Nina Allender and suffrage cartoonists.
25. Allen, The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 169.
26. Ibid., 191, 183–84. Note the reference to menstruation (“curse”).
27. Judith Allen talks about Gilman’s shifting reputation in The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman. See especially Susan S. Lanser, “Feminist Criticism, ‘The Yellow Wallpaper,’ and the Politics of Color in America,” Feminist Studies 15 (Fall 1989): 415–441.
28. Allen, The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 193.
29. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Suffrage Songs and Verses (New York: The Charlton Company, 1911), 33.
1. Oreola Williams Haskell, Banner Bearers: Tales of the Suffrage Campaigns (Geneva, NY: Humphrey, 1920), 218.
1. Mary Johnston, Hagar (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1913), 314–315, 316.
2. Ibid., 318.
3. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler, “Mary Johnston, Suffragist,” The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 100, no. 1 (January 1992): 103; Wallace Hettle, “Mary Johnston and ‘Stonewall’ Jackson: A Virginia Feminist and the Politics of Historical Fiction,” Journal of Historical Biography 3 (Spring 2008): 46.
4. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler, New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), xiii; Wheeler, “Mary Johnston, Suffragist,” 100; Clayton McClure Brooks, Samuel P. Menefee, and Brenda Wolfe, “Mary Johnston (1870–1936),” Encyclopedia Virginia, ed. Brendan Wolfe, Virginia Humanities and Library of Virginia, www
5. C. Ronald Cella, Mary Johnston (Boston: Twayne, 1981), 21.
6. Annie Kedrick Walker, “Mary Johnston in Her Home,” New York Times, March 24, 1900.
7. “Miss Mary Johnston: A Suffrage Worker,” New York Times, June 11, 1911. For a general introduction to the history of suffrage in Virginia, see Wheeler, New Women of the New South, and Suzanne Lebsock, “Woman Suffrage and White Supremacy: A Virginia Case Study,” in Visible Women: New Essays on American Activism, ed. Nancy A. Hewitt and Suzanne Lebsock (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 62–100.
8. Mary Johnston, “The Woman’s War,” The Atlantic Monthly (April 1910), 568, 570.
9. For discussions of Hagar by literary scholars, see Cella, Mary Johnston; Martha Patterson, Beyond the Gibson Girl: Reimagining the American New Woman, 1895–1915 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2005); and Anne Goodwyn Jones, Tomorrow Is Another Day: The Woman Writer in the South, 1859–1936 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981).
10. Patterson, Beyond the Gibson Girl, 134.
11. Mary Chapman and Angela Mills, eds., Treacherous Texts: US Suffrage Literature, 1846–1946 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2012); Leslie Petty, Romancing the Vote: Feminist Activism in American Fiction, 1870–1920 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006).
12. Jones, Tomorrow Is Another Day, 186, 187–188.
13. Helen Bullis, “A Feminist Novel: Miss Johnston’s ‘Hagar’ a Tale and a Theory,” New York Times, November 2, 1913.
14. This summary of the southern suffrage movement draws heavily on Wheeler, New Woman of the New South. See also Anne Firor Scott, The Southern Lady: From Pedestal to Politics, 1830–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970) and Elna C. Green, Southern Strategies: Southern Women and the Woman Suffrage Question (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
15. Wheeler, “Mary Johnston, Suffragist,” 104.
16. In addition to Wheeler and Green, see also Paul E. Fuller, Laura Clay and the Woman’s Rights Movement (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975).
17. A short story called “Nemesis” published in Century magazine in 1923 spoke out against lynching (earning her praise from the NAACP), and the novel Slave Ship (1924) tackled the issue of slavery. See Wheeler, “Mary Johnston, Suffragist,” 108.
18. Ibid., 109.
19. “Miss Mary Johnston: A Suffrage Worker,” New York Times, June 11, 1911; Wheeler, “Mary Johnston, Suffragist,” 118, quoting a speech entitled “The Woman Movement in the South.”
1. “Vote Yes” flier, Mary Earhart Dillon Collection, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
2. Alfreda M. Duster, ed., Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 345.
3. Wanda A. Hendricks, “Ida B. Wells-Barnett and the Alpha Suffrage Club of Chicago,” in One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement, ed. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler (Troutdale, OR: New Sage Press, 1995), 267; Duster, Crusade for Justice, 345.
4. Paula J. Giddings, Ida: A Sword among Lions: Ida B. Wells and the Campaign against Lynching (New York: Amistad, 2008), 516.
5. Hendricks, “Ida B. Wells-Barnett and the Alpha Suffrage Club of Chicago,” 269.
6. Giddings, Ida: A Sword among Lions, 516, 517; Hendricks, “Ida B. Wells-Barnett and the Alpha Suffrage Club of Chicago,” 269; “Illinois Women Feature Parade; Delegation from the State Wins High Praise by Order in Marching; Cheered by Big Crowd; Question of Color Line Threatens for While to Make Trouble in Ranks,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 4, 1913. To the newspaper’s credit, it did not duck the racial issue in its headline, even though its readership was predominantly white.
7. “Illinois Women Feature Parade,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 4, 1913; “Illinois Women Participants in Suffrage Parade; This State Was Well Represented in Washington,” Chicago Daily Tribune, March 5, 1913.
8. Ida Wells-Barnett to Catherine Waugh McCullough, March 15, 1913, Mary Earhart Dillon Collection, Schlesinger Library.
9. In addition to Giddings, see Patricia A. Schecter, Ida B. Wells-Barnett and American Reform, 1880–1930 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); and Mia Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009).
10. Giddings, Ida: A Sword among Lions, 489.
11. For an overview, see Lisa G. Materson, For the Freedom of Her Race: Black Women and Electoral Politics in Illinois, 1877–1932 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).
12. Duster, Crusade for Freedom, 346.
13. Giddings, Ida: A Sword among Lions, 534.
14. Lisa Materson makes this point in For the Freedom of Her Race, which also reproduces the cartoon from The Crisis.
15. Ibid., 80.
16. Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, “African American Women and the Vote: An Overview,” in African American Women and the Vote, 1837–1965, ed. Ann D. Gordon and Bettye Collier-Thomas (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997), 21.
17. Duster, Crusade for Justice, xxxix.
18. Her daughter Alfreda Duster was instrumental in guiding the manuscript to print, almost four decades later, as part of a series of black autobiographies published by the University of Chicago Press under the general editorship of John Hope Franklin. It appeared in 1970 and quickly became an influential text on early women’s history syllabi.
1. Kenneth Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia: An Illustrated Historical Study (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013), 31.
2. Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia, 32. The Alice Park Papers are housed at the Huntington Library in San Marino, California.
3. Biographical material is found in their two (competing) autobiographies: Maud Nathan, Once upon a Time and Today (New York: Putnam, 1933), and Annie Nathan Meyer, It’s Been Fun (New York: Henry Schuman, 1951). See also Robert Cross, “Maud Nathan,” in Notable American Women: 1607–1950, ed. Edward T. James, Janet Wilson James, and Paul Boyer (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971) and Linda Kerber, “Annie Nathan Meyer,” in Notable American Women: The Modern Period, ed. Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980). The quotation is from Meyer, It’s Been Fun, 11.
4. Meyer, It’s Been Fun, 121, 120.
5. See Lynn D. Gordon, “Annie Nathan Meyer and Barnard College: Mission and Identity in Women’s Higher Education, 1889–1950,” History of Education Quarterly 26, no. 4 (Winter 1986): 503–522; and Rosalind Rosenberg, Changing the Subject: How the Women of Columbia Shaped the Way We Think about Sex and Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004).
6. Nathan, Once upon a Time, 94–95, 42.
7. Meyer, It’s Been Fun, 188; Carla Kaplan, Miss Anne in Harlem: The White Women of the Black Renaissance (New York: HarperCollins, 2013), 170. Kaplan found the captioned picture in the Barnard archives.
8. Nathan, Once upon a Time, 178.
9. Kaplan, Miss Anne in Harlem, 177; Nathan, Once upon a Time, 112–113.
10. Nathan, Once upon a Time, 181–182. In 1911 she beat out 27,452 entrants to win a contest for the best letter supporting woman suffrage, which is quoted above.
11. “In all the work that I did for the cause, my husband was at my side aiding and abetting me” (Nathan, Once upon a Time, 179). In the summer of 1912, the Nathans embarked on a cross-country automobile trip to speak for suffrage. Frederick Nathan attended the first International Men’s League for Woman Suffrage gathering in Stockholm in 1911, as well as the meeting of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance in Budapest in 1913. Gravely ill by the time of the November 1917 referendum, he insisted upon being wheeled to the polls so he could vote in its favor. It was the last vote he cast.
12. Clipping, May 12, 1911, scrapbook, Maud Nathan Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
13. Joyce Antler, The Journey Home: Jewish Women and the American Century (New York: Free Press, 1997), 69.
14. Manuela Thurner, “Better Citizens without the Ballot,” in One Woman, One Vote: Rediscovering the Woman Suffrage Movement, ed. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler (Troutdale, OR: New Sage Press, 1995); Meyer, It’s Been Fun, 205. See also Annie Nathan Meyer, “Woman’s Assumption of Sex Superiority,” North American Review (January 1904).
15. The best source is Susan Goodier, No Votes for Women: The New York State Anti-Suffrage Movement (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2013).
16. Thurner, “Better Citizens without the Ballot,” 209.
17. Ibid., 205–206.
18. Harriot Stanton Blatch and Alma Lutz, Challenging Years: The Memoirs of Harriot Stanton Blatch (New York: Putnam, 1940), 173.
19. Goodier, No Votes for Women, chapter 5.
20. Ibid., chapter 6. See also the discussion of the rightwing attack on Progressive women’s politics in the 1920s in Nancy Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).
21. Annie Nathan Meyer, “The Anti-Suffragist Replies,” The New Republic (December 1, 1917): 124–125; Meyer, It’s Been Fun, 207.
1. Linda J. Lumsden, Inez: The Life and Times of Inez Milholland (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004).
2. Harriot Stanton Blatch and Alma Lutz, Challenging Years: The Memoirs of Harriot Stanton Blatch (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1940), 132–133.
3. Claiborne Catlin Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 2, 4, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University. By the time Claiborne Catlin Elliman wrote this account from notes and clippings she kept at the time, she had remarried; however, in this account, I refer to her by the name she was known by in 1914.
4. Ibid., 3.
5. Sharon Hartman Strom, “Leadership and Tactics in the American Woman Suffrage Movement: A New Perspective from Massachusetts,” Journal of American History 62, no. 2 (September 1975): 296–315. See also Barbara F. Berenson, Massachusetts in the Woman Suffrage Movement: Revolutionary Reformers (Charleston, SC: The History Press, 2018).
6. Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 4.
7. Ibid., 3.
8. Clippings, Boston Journal, June 30, 1914, and Boston Herald, June 30, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library; Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 9.
9. Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 9.
10. Note the use of the somewhat derogatory term suffragette here and in later newspaper coverage. See the discussion of the term in Chapter 10 on Raymond and Gertrude Foster Brown.
11. Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 18.
12. Ibid., 25.
13. Clipping, Fall River Daily Globe, July 7, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library.
14. Clipping, New Bedford Evening Standard, July 5, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library.
15. Clipping, Boston Daily Advertiser, September 19, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library; Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 93.
16. Carrie Chase Sheridan to Mrs. Carson, July 25, 1914, reproduced in Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” [111].
17. Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 78, 87.
18. Ibid., 54, 81.
19. Ibid., 95–96.
20. Ibid., 31, 37.
21. Ibid., 90.
22. Clipping, Boston Evening Record, September 19, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library; Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 93. She had lost thirteen pounds over the past eleven weeks.
23. Clipping from a Fitchburg newspaper [title illegible], October 23, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library.
24. Clipping, Worcester Daily Telegram, October 26, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library. See also “Mrs. Catlin’s Horse Killed; Tour Ends,” Boston Evening Record, October 27, 1914, Claiborne Catlin Elliman Papers, Schlesinger Library.
25. Elliman, “Stirrup Cups,” 5.
26. Ibid., 3, 69.
27. Ibid., postscript, 120.
1. Jill Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman (New York: Knopf, 2014), 11.
2. Brooke Kroeger, The Suffragents: How Women Used Men to Get the Vote (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2017), 101, 241.
3. Arthur Raymond Brown [Him, pseud.], How It Feels to Be the Husband of a Suffragette (New York: George H. Doran, 1915), 7–8.
4. Mary Chapman’s and Angela Mills’s Treacherous Texts: US Suffrage Literature, 1846–1946 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2011) includes an excerpt which it says “probably” (231) was written by Arthur Brown. (His full name was Arthur Raymond Brown, but he was always known as Ray.) Conclusive confirmation is found in the Gertrude Foster Brown Papers at the Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
5. Material about Ray Brown, especially his distinguished New England lineage, is found in the Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library.
6. Gertrude Foster Brown, “Suffrage and Music—My First Eighty Years,” draft manuscript, 42, Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library. The manuscript includes some editorial additions by Mildred Adams, Brown’s niece.
7. Ibid., 71, 97.
8. Ibid., 103.
9. Gertrude Foster Brown to Ray Brown, November 20, 1904, Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library; Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 111.
10. Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 119; Ray Brown to Gertrude Foster Brown [undated, but probably 1905], Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library. In the original, the order of the two sentences is reversed.
11. Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 128–129. Brown, How It Feels to Be the Husband of a Suffragette has practically a verbatim version (22).
12. Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 129; Brown, How It Feels to Be the Husband of a Suffragette, 20; Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 129a.
13. Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 129a.
14. Ibid., 136.
15. Ibid., 158–159.
16. See Johanna Neuman, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote (New York: New York University Press, 2017).
17. Mrs. Raymond Brown, Your Vote and How to Use It (New York: Harper, 1918).
18. Kroeger, The Suffragents, provides thumbnail photos of 157 male suffragists as chapter openers. Ray Brown is not included.
19. Brown, “Suffrage and Music,” 210–211; Brown, How It Feels to Be the Husband of a Suffragette, 9, 39.
20. Ray Brown to Gertrude Foster Brown, April 16, 1910, Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library.
21. Brown, How It Feels to Be the Husband of a Suffragette, 51; Ray Brown to Gertrude Foster Brown, March 1, 1913 and March 13, 1914, Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library.
22. Brown, How It Feels to Be the Husband of a Suffragette, 63.
1. Henry David Thoreau, entry for April 3, 1852, The Writings of Henry David Thoreau: Journal, vol. 3, ed. Bradford Torrpy (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1906), 386, available online as The Journal of Henry David Thoreau, Walden Woods Project, www
2. I am using the term in its modern usage as “outside of properly normative behavior.” Stina Soderling, “Queer Rurality and the Materiality of Time,” in Queering the Countryside: New Frontiers in Rural Queer Studies, ed. Mary L. Gray, Colin R. Johnson, and Brian J. Gilley (New York: New York University Press, 2016), 339.
3. Moss Acre scrapbook, in possession of Virginia Bourne, Castine, Maine. Unless otherwise noted, all material is drawn from Susan Ware, Partner and I: Molly Dewson, Feminism, and New Deal Politics (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).
4. Wellesley ’97 Classbook (1910), found in Molly Dewson Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
5. Molly Dewson, Suffrage Scrapbook, Woman’s Rights Collection, Schlesinger Library.
6. Ibid.
7. Molly Dewson to Helen Gahagan Douglas, February 23, 1944, Papers of Mary W. Dewson, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York; Dewson, note on letter from Carrie Chapman Catt to Molly Dewson, July 26, 1934, in possession of Virginia Bourne, Castine, Maine.
8. Molly Dewson to Lucy Stebbins, September 1917, letter in possession of Virginia Bourne.
9. Molly Dewson to Lucy Stebbins, October 15, 1917, letter in possession of Virginia Bourne.
10. Molly Dewson to Lucy Stebbins, November 18, 1917, and Molly Dewson to William D. Porter, Jr., December 3, 1917, letters in possession of Virginia Bourne.
11. Queer theory sits at the intersection of gender studies and gay history. See Sharon Marcus, “Queer Theory for Everyone: A Review Essay,” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 31, no. 1 (2005): 191–218; Annamarie Jagose, Queer Theory: An Introduction (New York: New York University Press, 1996); and Nikki Sullivan, A Critical Introduction to Queer Theory (New York: New York University Press, 2003). Foundational texts include Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990) and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Epistemology of the Closet (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
12. Biographical material on Catt is found in Jacqueline Van Voris, Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life (New York: Feminist Press, 1987) and Robert Booth Fowler, Carrie Catt: Feminist Politician (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1986). The monument quotation is found in Van Voris, Carrie Chapman Catt, 219.
13. Jean H. Baker, Sisters: The Lives of America’s Suffragists (New York: Hill and Wang, 2005), 61, 89.
14. Susan Ware, “The Book I Couldn’t Write: Alice Paul and the Challenge of Feminist Biography,” Journal of Women’s History 24, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 13–36.
15. For more on Stevens and her active sex life, see Mary K. Trigg, Feminism as Life’s Work (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2014).
16. Molly Dewson to Herbert Kahn, December 4, 1958, Molly Dewson Papers, Schlesinger Library.
1. Leila J. Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 22.
2. Jacqueline Van Voris, Carrie Chapman Catt: A Public Life (New York: Feminist Press, 1987), 110.
3. Mary Church Terrell, A Colored Woman in a White World (Washington, DC: Ransdell, 1940; Amherst, NY: Humanity Books, 2005), 237–238.
4. Ibid., 239.
5. Rupp, Worlds of Women, 71; Terrell, A Colored Woman, 241. In 1896 the H. J. Heinz Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania introduced “57 Varieties of Pickles” as an advertising slogan to highlight the range of products it offered. Soon after it was shortened to “Heinz 57 Varieties.” That slogan was likely the inspiration for the comment.
6. Mary Church Terrell, “The International Congress of Women,” Voice of the Negro (December 1904), 460, quoted in Alison M. Parker, Mary Church Terrell: Woman Suffrage and Civil Rights Pioneer (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2015); Terrell, A Colored Woman, 244. Sources refer to it both as congress and council, but International Council of Women is the correct term.
7. Terrell, A Colored Woman, 243–244. In the official proceedings, her talk was titled “Die Fortschritte der Farbigen Frauen,” but when it was later translated back into English, the translator used the phrase “white crow.”
8. Mary Church Terrell, “The Progress of Colored Women,” June 13, 1904, in Parker, Mary Church Terrell.
9. Regine Deutsch, The International Woman Suffrage Alliance: Its History from 1904 to 1929 (London: Stephen Austin and Sons, 1929), 14.
10. Rupp, Worlds of Women, 75.
11. Biographical information is found in Terrell’s autobiography and the Alexander Street documents collection curated by Alison Parker, who is writing a biography of Terrell. See also Joan Quigley, Just Another Southern Town: Mary Church Terrell and the Struggle for Racial Justice in the Nation’s Capital (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).
12. Terrell, A Colored Woman, 132.
13. Ibid., 137.
14. Alison Parker, “ ‘The Picture of Health’: The Public Life and Private Ailments of Mary Church Terrell,” Journal of Historical Biography 13 (Spring 2013): 164–207; Treva B. Lindsey, Colored No More: Reinventing Black Womanhood in Washington, DC (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2017), especially chapter 3.
15. Mary Church Terrell, “Woman Suffrage and the 15th Amendment,” Crisis (August 1915): 191.
16. For general background, see Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994 (New York: Norton, 1999); and Paula J. Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: William Morrow, 1985). See also Stephanie J. Shaw, “Black Club Women and the Creation of the National Association of Colored Women,” Journal of Women’s History 3, no. 2 (Fall 1991): 11–25.
17. Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 65–66.
18. Terrell, A Colored Woman, 29, 349.
19. Alison Parker, Mary Church Terrell, 2; Terrell, A Colored Woman, 471–472.
20. Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 123.
21. Terrell, A Colored Woman, 371–372.
22. Ibid., 375.
1. Willa Cather, Not under Forty (New York: Knopf, 1936), preface.
1. Washington Women’s Cook Book (Seattle: Washington Equal Suffrage Association, 1909), frontispiece and preface; Jennifer M. Ross-Nazzal, Winning the West for Women: The Life of Suffragist Emma Smith Devoe (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2011), 130.
2. Acknowledgements, Washington Women’s Cook Book. For an overview of suffrage cookbooks, see Kenneth Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia: An Illustrated Historical Study (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013).
3. Paula Becker, “Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition in Seattle Celebrates Suffrage Day on July 7, 1909,” HistoryLink.org: Online Encyclopedia of Washington State History, May 3, 2008, www
4. Paula Becker, “Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition (1909): Woman Suffrage,” HistoryLink.org, May 6, 2008, www
5. Rebecca Brown, Women on High: Pioneers of Mountaineering (Boston: Appalachian Mountain Club, 2002), 121; Rachel da Silva, Jill Lawrenz, and Wendy Roberts, “A Brief History of Women Climbing in the Coast and Cascade Ranges,” in Leading Out: Women Climbers Reaching for the Top, ed. Rachel da Silva (Seattle: Seal Press, 1992), 69–70. For more background on early women climbers and explorers, see Bill Birkett and Bill Peascod, Women Climbing: 200 Years of Achievement (Seattle: Mountaineers Books, 1990); and Elizabeth Flagg Olds, Women of the Four Winds (Boston: Mariner Books, 1985).
6. Da Silva, Lawrenz, and Roberts, “A Brief History,” 78; Anne Foster, “Suffragettes in Yellowstone: Dr. Cora Smith Eaton,” Yellowstone, June 10, 2014 (Washington, DC: National Park Service, US Department of the Interior), www
7. Paula Becker, “Suffragists Join the Mountaineers Outing to Mount Rainier and Plant an A-Y-P Exposition Flag and a ‘Votes for Women’ Banner at the Summit of Columbia Crest on July 30, 1909,” Historylink.org, April 25, 2008, www
8. Biographical material on Eaton is found in da Silva, Lawrenz, and Roberts, “A Brief History,” and Ross-Nazzal, Winning the West for Women. See also Judy Bentley, Joan Burton, Lace Thornber, and Carla Firey, “The First Ladies,” Washington Trails (March–April 2011): 22.
9. Ross-Nazzal, Winning the West for Women, 213, 126.
10. Ibid., 124; Eaton to Carrie Chapman Catt, October 24, 1909, Emma Smith Devoe Collection, Washington State Library, Tumwater, WA, quoted in Ross-Nazzal, Winning the West for Women, 124.
11. Cora Smith Eaton to Mrs. M. A. Hutton, June 17, 1909, Emma Smith Devoe Collection, Washington State Library; Rebecca J. Mead, How the Vote Was Won: Woman Suffrage in the Western United States, 1868–1914 (New York: New York University Press, 2004), 111. According to a handwritten note on the top, this letter was crafted with the advice of three lawyers.
12. Eaton to Hutton, June 17, 1909, Emma Smith Devoe Collection, Washington State Library; Mead, How the Vote Was Won, 111.
13. Ross-Nazzal, Winning the West for Women, 128.
14. Ida Husted Harper, ed., History of Woman Suffrage, Volume 6: 1900–1920 (New York: National American Woman Suffrage Association, 1922), 676.
15. Ross-Nazzal, Winning the West for Women, 143; J. D. Zahniser and Amelia R. Fry, Alice Paul: Claiming Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 269–270, 285.
16. Hannah Kimberley, A Woman’s Place Is at the Top: A Biography of Annie Smith Peck, Queen of the Climbers (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2017), 277; Brown, Women on High, 184, 198. Smith was noted for her intense rivalry with fellow American climber Fanny Bullock Workman. Perhaps not to be outdone by Smith’s feat, Workman included a photograph of herself reading a newspaper at twenty-one thousand feet in the eastern Karakoran that clearly showed the headline “Votes for Women.”
17. Brown, Women on High, 192.
1. Hazel MacKaye, “Pioneering in Pageantry,” 7, MacKaye Family Papers, Rauner Special Collections Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH.
2. Rebecca Coleman Hewett, “Progressive Compromises: Performing Gender, Race and Class in Historical Pageants of 1913” (PhD diss., University of Texas-Austin, 2010), 79; Annelise K. Madsen, “Columbia and Her Foot Soldiers: Civic Art and the Demand for Change at the 1913 Suffrage Pageant-Procession,” Winterthur Portfolio 48, no. 4 (2014): 303.
3. MacKaye, “Pioneering in Pageantry,” 7.
4. Ibid.
5. Sarah J. Moore, “Making a Spectacle of Suffrage: The National Woman Suffrage Pageant, 1913,” Journal of American Culture 20, no. 1 (March 1997): 93; MacKaye, “Pioneering in Pageantry,” 8.
6. MacKaye, “Pioneering in Pageantry,” 8.
7. Karen J. Blair, “Pageantry for Women’s Rights: The Career of Hazel MacKaye, 1913–1923,” Theatre Survey 31 (May 1990): 37; Woman’s Journal, March 8, 1913.
8. Harriet Connor Brown, ed., Official Program of the Woman’s Suffrage Procession, Washington, DC, March 3, 1913 (Washington, DC: National American Woman Suffrage Association, 1913).
9. Karen J. Blair, The Torchbearers: Women and their Amateur Arts Associations in America, 1890–1930 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 118; Blair, “Pageantry for Women’s Rights,” 43.
10. Hewett, “Progressive Compromises,” 66.
11. Hazel MacKaye, “Pageants as a Means of Suffrage Propaganda,” The Suffragist 2, no. 48 (November 28, 1914): 6.
12. MacKaye, “Pageants as a Means of Suffrage Propaganda,” 7, 8; Hazel MacKaye, “Campaigning with Pageantry,” Equal Rights 1, no. 39 (November 10, 1923): 309. MacKaye was specifically referring to the Seneca Falls commemoration.
13. Blair, “Pageantry for Women’s Rights,” 30; Mary Simonson, Body Knowledge: Performance, Intermediality, and American Entertainment at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), 66; Percy MacKaye, “Art and the Woman’s Movement,” Forum 49, no. 6 (June 1913): 683.
14. Hewett, “Progressive Compromises,” 50.
15. “Real Beauty Show in League Pageant,” New York Times, April 18, 1914.
16. Six Periods of American Life: A Woman Suffrage Program (1914) and “Program: Pageant and Ball, April 17th, 1914” in MacKaye Family Papers, Rauner Special Collections Library.
17. “Program: Pageant and Ball, April 17th, 1914.” Recently married, she was now known as Inez Milholland Boissevain.
18. MacKaye, “Pioneering in Pageantry,” preface, 10. MacKaye estimated that a budget of $600 would be adequate to mount a production, provided organizers could secure local contributions and gifts in kind. Blair, Torchbearers, 141.
19. MacKaye, “Pioneering in Pageantry,” 14–16. For the place of Seneca Falls in women’s history, see Lisa Tetrault, The Myth of Seneca Falls: Memory and the Women’s Suffrage Movement, 1848–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014).
20. Hazel MacKaye, “Confessions of a Convert,” Equal Rights 1, no. 14 (May 19, 1923): 109–110.
1. Florence H. Luscomb, “Brief Biographical Sketch” (1945), Women’s Rights Collection, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
2. Rose Schneiderman with Lucy Goldwaithe, All for One (New York: Paul Eriksson, 1967), 100–101.
3. Biographical information drawn from Nancy Schrom Dye, “Rose Schneiderman,” in Notable American Women: The Modern Period, ed. Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Schneiderman, All for One; Joyce Antler, The Journey Home: Jewish Women and the American Century (New York: Free Press, 1997); and Annelise Orleck, Common Sense and a Little Fire: Women and Working-Class Politics in the United States, 1900–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995). See also Rose Schneiderman, “A Cap Maker’s Story,” The Independent (April 27, 1905).
4. See Orleck, Common Sense and a Little Fire. Another person who butted heads with a middle-class ally was Clara Lemlich, who had a falling out with Mary Beard.
5. Ellen Carol DuBois, Harriot Stanton Blatch and the Winning of Woman Suffrage (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 94.
6. Ellen Carol DuBois first made this point in her 1987 article “Working Women, Class Relations, and Suffrage Militance: Harriot Stanton Blatch and the New York Woman Suffrage Movement, 1894–1909,” which is reprinted in Ellen Carol DuBois, Woman Suffrage and Women’s Rights (New York: New York University Press, 1998).
7. Linda J. Lumsden, Inez: The Life and Times of Inez Milholland (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004), 1–2.
8. Harriot Stanton Blatch and Alma Lutz, Challenging Years: The Memoirs of Harriot Stanton Blatch (New York: Putnam, 1940), 108.
9. Orleck, Common Sense and a Little Fire, 53; Johanna Newman, Gilded Suffragists: The New York Socialites Who Fought for Women’s Right to Vote (New York: New York University Press, 2017).
10. Orleck, Common Sense and a Little Fire, 87, 104.
11. John Thomas McQuire, “From Socialism to Social Justice Feminism: Rose Schneiderman and the Quest for Urban Equity, 1911–1933,” Journal of Urban History 35, no. 7 (2009): 1001; Orleck, Common Sense and a Little Fire, 105.
12. See Susan Goodier and Karen Pastorello, Women Will Vote: Winning Suffrage in New York State (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2017).
13. Susan Ware, Beyond Suffrage: Women in the New Deal (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981). Three of the women in this book (Schneiderman, Molly Dewson, and Sue Shelton White) belonged to the women’s network in the New Deal.
14. Schneiderman, All for One, viii, 125. Annelise Orleck includes the “bread and roses” remark in her entry on Rose Schneiderman in the Jewish Women’s Archive encyclopedia (https://
1. “Learning New Tricks,” Christian Science Monitor (February 1, 1920), www
2. Alice Sheppard, Cartooning for Suffrage (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994), 53.
3. In addition to the three cartoonists discussed here, Sheppard also highlights Rose O’Neill (who invented the Kewpie Doll), Fredrikke Palmer, Mary Ellen Sigsbee, Nell Brinkley, and Ida Sedgwick Proper, among others.
4. For biographical information, see Sheppard, Cartooning for Suffrage, and Alice Sheppard, “Political and Social Consciousness in the Woman Suffrage Cartoons of Lou Rogers and Nina Allender,” Studies in American Humor 4, no. 1–2 (Spring / Summer 1985): 39–50. Also of interest is Allender’s anonymously published “Lightning Speed through Life,” Nation 124 (April 13, 1927): 395–397, which is reprinted in Elaine Showalter, These Modern Women (New York: Feminist Press, 1978).
5. For more on the connections between Wonder Woman and the suffrage campaign, see Jill Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman (New York: Knopf, 2014); the Woman’s Journal quote is on 84.
6. “Meanwhile They Drown,” Woman’s Journal, June 5, 1915. For biographical information, see Anne Biller Clark, My Dear Mrs. Ames: A Study of Suffragist Cartoonist Blanche Ames (New York: Peter Lang, 2001).
7. Sheppard, Cartooning for Suffrage, 116; Sheppard, “Political and Social Consciousness in the Woman Suffrage Cartoons of Lou Rogers and Nina Allender,” 39.
8. Inez Haynes Irwin, quoted in Sheppard, Cartooning for Suffrage, 116. See also J. D. Zahniser and Amelia R. Fry, Alice Paul: Claiming Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 127–128.
9. “The Summer Campaign,” The Suffragist, June 6, 1914; “The Inspiration of the Suffrage Worker,” The Suffragist, June 13, 1914; “Child Saving Is Woman’s Work—Votes for Women,” The Suffragist, July 25, 1914; “Woman’s Place is the Home,” The Suffragist, August 29, 1914.
10. Sheppard, “Political and Social Consciousness in the Woman Suffrage Cartoons of Lou Rogers and Nina Allender,” 46; Sheppard, Cartooning for Suffrage, 196. Interesting, of course, that it is not “The Allender Woman.”
11. Mary Chapman and Angela Mills, eds., Treacherous Texts: US Suffrage Literature, 1846–1946 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 241; Kenneth Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia: An Illustrated Historical Study (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013), 197.
12. “President Wilson Says, ‘Godspeed to the Cause,’ ” The Suffragist, November 3, 1917.
13. Sheppard, “Political and Social Consciousness in the Woman Suffrage Cartoons of Lou Rogers and Nina Allender,” 47; Sheppard, Cartooning for Suffrage, 168, 169.
14. “Will You Make 1918 Safe for Democracy?” The Suffragist, January 5, 1918; “One Vote for Victory Women,” The Suffragist, May 10, 1919; “Any Good Suffragist the Morning After,” The Suffragist, September 1920.
15. “Judiciary Committee: ‘Wha’ Jer Goin’ to Do Next?,” The Suffragist, December 16, 1915.
16. Lou Rogers, “A Woman Destined,” quoted in Sheppard, “Political and Social Consciousness in the Woman Suffrage Cartoons of Lou Rogers and Nina Allender,” 42.
1. Doris Stevens, Jailed for Freedom: The Story of the Militant American Suffragist Movement (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1920; New York: Schocken Books, 1976), 246. All page references are to the 1976 Schocken Books edition.
2. Ibid.
3. Kenneth Florey, Women’s Suffrage Memorabilia: An Illustrated Historical Study (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, 2013), 39; Katherine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists (Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company, 2010), 122.
4. Rosalind Rosenberg, Jane Crow: The Life of Pauli Murray (New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 130–131, 290.
5. Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan, “Talk to Women’s Press Club,” August 23, 1977, Washington, DC, found in Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid.; Christine Stansell, The Feminist Promise: 1792 to the Present (New York: Modern Library, 2010), 158.
8. Linda G. Ford, Iron Jawed Angels: The Suffrage Militancy of the National Woman’s Party, 1912–1920 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1991), 103; Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan, “Speech Delivered July 24, 1977 at the Memorial Service for Alice Paul,” Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
9. Hazel Hunkins, “Notes from Picketing,” [1917] and “Vassar Suffrage Sentinel Tells What It Is to Picket the White House,” Washington Post, January 29, 1917, both found in Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
10. Katherine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, Alice Paul and the American Suffrage Campaign (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), 182; Hunkins, “Talk to Women’s Press Club.” For the larger context, see Julia L. Mickenberg, “Suffragettes and Soviets: American Feminists and the Specter of Revolutionary Russia,” Journal of American History 100, no. 4 (March 2014): 1021–1051.
11. Hazel Hunkins to Mother, July 8, 1917, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
12. Hazel Hunkins to “Dear little Mother of Mine,” July 5, 1917, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library. For Alice Paul’s fraught communication with her mother, see J. D. Zahniser and Amelia R. Fry, Alice Paul: Claiming Power (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), chapter 3.
13. Stevens, Jailed for Freedom.
14. Hazel Hunkins to Mother, December 6, 1918, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
15. Stevens, Jailed for Freedom, 271–272. The newspaper reference is to the New York Evening World, August 13, 1918.
16. Stevens, Jailed for Freedom, 271–273; Zahniser and Fry, Alice Paul: Claiming Power, 305; Hazel Hunkins, telegram, August 15, 1918, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
17. Hazel Hunkins, “Prison Described by the Prisoners,” The Suffragist, August 31, 1918, 8–9.
18. Ibid.; Julia Emory, “Prison Described by the Prisoners,” The Suffragist, August 31, 1918, 9.
19. Emory, “Prison Described by the Prisoners,” 9.
20. Hazel Hunkins to “Muddy,” September 16, 1918, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
21. A scandal was avoided back home by Hazel’s careful coaching of her mother about the “situation.” Hunkins to “Dearest Wonderful Mother,” November 10, 1920, Hazel Hunkins-Hallinan Papers, Schlesinger Library.
22. Cheryl Law, “Hazel Hunkins Hallinan,” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online ed., Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/63871.
1. Maud Wood Park, Front Door Lobby (Boston: Beacon Press, 1960), 39. The book was edited by Edna Lamprey Stantial and published five years after Park’s death.
2. Ibid., 42
3. Ibid., 1. Maud Wood Park did not receive a salary but was reimbursed for her living expenses and travel; other suffrage workers paid to live at Suffrage House. For an introduction to the colorful and sometimes sordid history of lobbying, see Kathryn Allamong Jacob, King of the Lobby: The Life and Times of Sam Ward, Man-about-Washington in the Gilded Age (Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 2010).
4. Nancy F. Cott, “Across the Great Divide: Women in Politics before and after 1920,” in Women, Politics, and Change, ed. Louise A. Tilly and Patricia Gurin (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1990), 161.
5. Sharon Hartman Strom, “Maud Wood Park,” in Notable American Women: The Modern Period, ed. Barbara Sicherman and Carol Hurd Green (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980); Maud Wood Park, supplemental notes to “Suffrage Reminiscences,” January 1943, in The Power of Organization, Part One: Maud Wood Park and the Woman Suffrage Movement, ed. Melanie S. Gustafson (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2014).
6. Maud Wood Park, supplemental notes to “Alice Stone Blackwell,” December 1942, in Gustafson, The Power of Organization, Part One; Melanie S. Gustafson, introduction to The Power of Organization, Part Two: Maud Wood Park in a Nation of Women Voters (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2014).
7. Park, supplemental notes, “Alice Stone Blackwell.”
8. Maud Wood Park, “An Explanation as to Why Bob and I Were Not Publicly Married Is Probably Needed,” June 1945, in Gustafson, The Power of Organization, Part One. See also Gustafson’s introduction for a discussion of Park’s personal life.
9. Park, supplemental notes to “Suffrage Reminiscences”; Park, Front Door Lobby, 35.
10. Park, Front Door Lobby, 17.
11. Ibid., 52, 62.
12. Ibid., 173–174, 70.
13. Ibid., 185–186.
14. Woman Citizen, October 5, 1918; Park, Front Door Lobby, 194, 210, 212.
15. Park, Front Door Lobby, 256.
16. Ibid., 259. This was a serious problem. During the sixty-fifth Congress, ten senate seats were vacant due to death; seven of those had been suffrage supporters.
17. Ibid., 263.
18. Ibid., 269.
19. Ibid., 270, 180.
1. Susan Ware, “The Book I Couldn’t Write: Alice Paul and the Challenge of Feminist Biography,” Journal of Women’s History 24, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 23.
2. Ibid., 24–25.
3. Carol Lynn Yellin and Janann Sherman, The Perfect 36: Tennessee Delivers Woman Suffrage (Memphis, TN: VOTE 70, 1998), 139. “Rat” did not refer to a rodent, but to a popular cartoon which depicted an old woman with a broom, trying to catch the letters R-A-T and join them to the rest of RATIFICATION.
4. Katherine H. Adams and Michael L. Keene, After the Vote Was Won: The Later Achievements of Fifteen Suffragists (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010), 147. Additional biographical information is found in Betty Sparks Huehls and Beverly Greene Bond, “Sue Shelton White (1887–1943): Lady Warrior,” in Tennessee Women: Their Lives and Times, ed. Sarah Wilkerson Freeman (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009).
5. Sue Shelton White, “Mother’s Daughter,” in These Modern Women: Autobiographical Essays from the Twenties, ed. Elaine Showalter (New York: Feminist Press, 1978), 49.
6. Huehls and Bond, Tennessee Women, 157.
7. Marjorie Spruill Wheeler, New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 47.
8. James P. Louis, “Sue Shelton White and the Woman Suffrage Movement in Tennessee, 1913–1920,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly 22, no. 2 (June 1963): 170–190.
9. Sue Shelton White to Carrie Chapman Catt, April 27, 1918, Sue Shelton White Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
10. Adams and Keene, After the Vote Was Won, 145–146.
11. Carrie Chapman Catt to Mrs. Leslie Warner, April 24, 1918, Sue Shelton White Papers, Schlesinger Library.
12. Sue Shelton White to Carrie Chapman Catt, April 27, 1918; White to Catt, May 9, 1918; Catt to White, May 6, 1918, all in the Sue Shelton White Papers, Schlesinger Library.
13. Sue S. White, “ ‘Militant’ Suffragists and How They Won a Hopeless Cause,” Montgomery Times [Alabama], August 1919, TS copy, Sue Shelton White Papers, Schlesinger Library.
14. Adams and Keene, After the Vote Was Won, 33, 146.
15. Huehls and Bond, Tennessee Women, 140; “The Prison Special,” The Suffragist (February 1, 1919): 10; White, “Militant Suffragists and How They Won a Hopeless Cause,” 13. See also the extensive coverage in The Suffragist throughout February and March 1919.
16. White, “Militant Suffragists and How They Won a Hopeless Cause,” 14.
17. A full accounting of the ratification battle awaits a historian. Most accounts of the suffrage struggle end the story in June 1919 or skip directly from the senate passage to the final stages in Tennessee. Maud Wood Park, Front Door Lobby (Boston: Beacon Press, 1960) ends with only a short epilogue after the victory in the Senate. Doris Stevens, Jailed for Freedom: The Story of the Militant American Suffragist Movement (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1920) relegates the ratification fight to an appendix. Elaine Weiss, The Woman’s Hour: The Great Fight to Win the Vote (New York: Viking, 2018) focuses primarily on the Tennessee story, not the preceding thirty-five state campaigns.
18. Betty Gram Swing, “A Brief Accolade to Sue S. White, the Intrepid Feminist,” 1959, Sue Shelton White Papers, Schlesinger Library. Louis, “Sue Shelton White and the Woman Suffrage Movement in Tennessee, 1913–1920,” covers the legal issues surrounding the special section.
19. Swing, “A Brief Accolade”; Florence Armstrong recollections, 1959, Sue Shelton White Papers, Schlesinger Library. Armstrong, a government economist, shared a home with White in Washington, DC, until White’s death in 1943.
20. Wheeler, New Women of the New South, xix; Swing, “A Brief Accolade.” See also the tribute by Florence Boeckel, “Sue Shelton White,” Equal Rights (July–August 1943).
1. This inscribed volume is found in the collections of the Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University.
2. Susan Ware, Beyond Suffrage: Women in the New Deal (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 31. The original quote is found in the reminiscences of Frances Perkins for the Oral History Collection, Columbia University.
3. Gertrude Foster Brown, “Suffrage and Music—My First Eighty Years,” 192, draft manuscript, Gertrude Foster Brown Papers, Schlesinger Library; Carrie Chapman Catt and Nettie Rogers Shuler, Woman Suffrage and Politics (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1923), 107–108.
4. Melanie Gustafson, Kristie Miller, and Elisabeth Perry, eds., We Have Come to Stay: American Women and Political Parties, 1880–1960 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999). See Nancy Cott, The Grounding of Modern Feminism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987) for a discussion of women’s activism on either side of the “great divide” of 1920.
5. See Liette Gidlow, Resistance after Ratification: The Nineteenth Amendment, African American Women, and the Problem of Female Disfranchisement after 1920 (Alexandria, VA: Alexander Street, 2017); Ann D. Gordon and Bettye Collier-Thomas, eds., African American Women and the Vote, 1837–1965 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1997); and Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999).
6. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000; rev. ed., 2009), 132–134. Support for voting was far from universal in the Native American community, including among women activists, because it involved accepting the sovereignty of the United States over the claims of indigenous peoples for self-determination. See Joanne Barker, “Indigenous Feminisms,” in The Oxford Handbook of Indigenous People’s Politics, ed. Jose Antonio Lucero, Dale Turner, and Donn Lee VanCott, Oxford University Press, 2015, www
7. Catt and Shuler, Woman Suffrage and Politics, 107–108; Oreola Williams Haskell, Banner Bearers: Tales of the Suffrage Campaigns (Geneva, NY: W. F. Humphrey, 1920), 43.
8. The Sophia Smith Collection at Smith College is another major archive whose history is linked to suffrage. Originally founded in 1942 to collect works by women writers, it quickly expanded its mission under Margaret Storrs Grierson to document women’s history more broadly. Suffrage material also provided the bulk of women-related material deposited at established repositories such as the Library of Congress and the Huntington Library.
9. Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as Force in History: A Study in Traditions and Realities (New York: Macmillan, 1946).
10. Gertrude Stein and Virgil Thomson, The Mother of Us All (New York: Music Press, 1947), 23.