Page numbers refer to the print edition.
“abnormal” children, 87–89
abortion, 85, 171, 220, 252n20
active and organic learning. See organic and active learning
actual idealism (actualism), 26
Alto Adige (Süd Tirol), 57, 142
ambulatory (mobile) health clinics, 16, 45–46, 87, 171
American Red Cross, 43–44
ancient Rome: in educational curriculum, 111–14, 141, 169; feminine heroism of, 152; as foundational narrative of Fascism, 82, 223; founders of, 117; and italianità, 15, 51, 111–13, 141; Jewish population of, 116; legacy of, 64, 113, 168, 205–6; and MRF, 81–84, 102, 111; Mussolini as heir to glory of, 97; Mussolini on, 209; official birthday of, 63, 112; and passo romano, 185; and racial and cultural superiority, 62; true descendants of, 59. See also Roman Empire
ANIMI (National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy), 75
anti-Semitism, 6–7, 182–86, 193–94, 204, 205, 234n27, 235n30
Aryan race, 182–86, 188, 190, 205, 219, 268n8
autarky, 83, 91, 119, 141, 203, 211
Avanguardisti, 41–42, 100, 123
Balilla. See National Balilla Organization (ONB, Balilla)
Balilla Centers, 100–102
Battisti, Cesare, 115
Battle for Wheat, 63, 120, 248n51
Battle of Adwa, 58, 143, 145, 208
Belluzzo, Giuseppe, 90–91, 93, 96, 254n60
Bertiglia, Aurelio, 155–58, 161, 263n1
Bianchi, Michele, 132
biopolitics, 2, 13–14, 28, 39, 43, 154, 171, 216, 225, 237n63
biotypological dossiers, 173–74
birthrates, 13, 33, 85–87, 237nn57–59
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 171–72
bonifica igenica (health reclamation), 43. See also health, public; hygiene
bonifica umana (human reclamation): concerns about process of, 185; definition of, 2, 224; and Gentile Reform, 33, 35, 44; and national identity, 52; and ONMI, 230; and pronatalist campaign, 87; and racial education, 84, 102; and racial identity, 205, 215, 230; and racial quality, 108; and rural education, 16, 32–33, 33, 35, 76; and second Roman Empire, 153–54, 158, 161, 171
Bottai, Giuseppe, 18, 63–64, 157, 163–64, 176, 183, 192–201, 204, 213, 216, 265n31
Boy and Girl Scouts of the United States, 40, 243n81
Businco, Lino, 216–17
Cammarosano, Angelo, 108
camps for youth (summer camps), 44, 73–74, 87, 101, 107, 124, 140, 171, 198, 217
Carlini, Armando, 30
Carta della scuola. See School Charter (Carta della scuola)
Carta del lavoro. See Labor Charter (Carta del lavoro)
Casati, Alessandro, 90
Casati Law of 1859, 36
Catholic Action, 100, 125, 252n14, 255n90
Catholic Church, 7, 36, 42, 67, 86, 100, 161, 213–14, 242n63, 243n81, 252n14
Central Military Academy of Physical Education, 97
Chiarini, Alfredo, 68
childhood as life stage, 14, 27, 239n14
Children of the She-Wolf (Figli della lupa), 176–77
Cinema del Balilla, 76
Cipriani, Lidio, 161, 170, 238n72
classical education, 32, 193, 195
climate colonies, 44–45, 73, 198, 201
clinics, rural ambulatory (mobile) health, 16, 45–46, 87, 171
CNDI (National Congress of Italian Women), 45, 244n110
Codignola, Ernesto, 27, 30, 37–38, 49, 90
colonialism: adventure and entitlement of, 120–22; and émigrés, return of, 120; Mussolini on, 165; and racial hierarchy, 133, 146, 160, 166; and racial identity, 181–82; and racial laws, 186, 225; and racial superiority, 64; and racism, 7–8, 62–64, 161–62; reasons for, 62–64, 135; in second Roman Empire, 135–36, 142, 145–48, 156–67; and summer camps and climate colonies, 198, 201; in textbooks, 119, 209–11. See also Ethiopia; imperialism
Columbus, Christopher, 118, 203
concentration camps, 227, 264n8
CONI (Italian National Olympic Committee), 98
copybooks (quaderni), 105–7, 143, 203–4
craft schools, 195–96
CRIG (Junior Italian Red Cross), 43, 68
crisis-women (donna-crisi), 96–98
Croce, Benedetto, 10, 26, 30, 49, 90
curriculum: development of, 46–48; Fascistization of, 27, 30, 111–22, 146, 204; gendered, 68; and Gentile Reform, 46–48; and history, study of, 114–15, 205; and imperialism, 136, 167, 210; and patria, 54–78; for physical education, 218; in praise of rural life, 98; revitalized, 201; for rural education, 34, 46, 98; standardization of, 31–32, 91, 127, 138
D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 41, 115, 203, 243n85, 256n1
Day of Mother and Child, 86, 171
Days of Faith (Giorni della fede), 147–49
d’Azeglio, Massimo, 8–9, 235n40
“Decalogue for the Militant Fascist,” 207
de-Fascistization, 228–29
Delcroix, Carlo, 114
demographic campaign, 45, 85–86, 108–9, 154, 170, 174, 183, 188–89, 216, 220, 268n17
De Vecchi di Val Cismon, Cesare Maria, 48, 131–32, 135, 137, 141, 151, 163
Di Marco, Ercole, 81–82
discipline: and constitutionalism, 88; and feminine restraint, 96; and Gentile Reform, 25, 28, 38–39, 43–44; and italianità, 109, 167; and Italian national identity, 51–52, 54, 65–66, 70–72, 76–77; after March on Rome, 111; of physical fitness and hygiene, 107, 123–27, 174–75, 217–18; and racial purity, 211–15; in reorganized educational system, 193, 198–200, 205; and second Roman Empire, 133–34, 145, 149–51, 157
discrimination, racial, 5–7, 183, 188, 204, 221, 234n14, 264n18, 268n14
domestic skills, 68–69
education, gendered. See gendered education; girls’ education
education, military. See military education
education, moral. See moral education
educational idealists, 24–31
educational texts. See textbooks
education system, elementary, 1–78; architects of, 23–31; classical education within, 32, 193, 195; de-Fascistization of, 228–29; design of, 23–50; egalitarianism in, 35–36; exclusionary laws of, 193–94; and italianità, 51–78; and mandatory attendance, 24, 29, 31–32, 240n38; and mandatory school age, 31; and nationalism, 106; overview of, 1–20; regional organization of, 32; reorganization of (1938–40), 192–201; spiritual, 31, 37, 39, 221; after World War II, 230–31. See also education system in second Roman Empire
education system, Fascistization of, 81–103, 105–27; and “abnormal” children, 88–89; and education vs. instruction, 94; and Fascist society, 85–89; and history, study of, 114–15; inside the classroom, 89–100; and language, 107–10; and mandatory attendance, 24, 29, 31–32, 240n38; and mandatory school age, 31; and MPI, 89–90, 93–97, 103; and MRF, 81–84; nationalization of, 94–95; outside the classroom, 100–102; overview of, 81–84, 105–7; and physical education, 95, 97–98, 101–3, 122–27; and public health and hygiene, 85–88; and racial identity, 81–85; and razza, 82, 86–87, 95, 98, 107–10, 113–14, 120–22; region-specific, 110, 138–39, 191; and stirpe, 86, 102, 107–10, 113–14, 121, 123, 126; and teachers, 88–90, 95–99, 105–7, 124; and totalitarianism, 90–91, 94, 106–7, 113
education system in second Roman Empire, 131–78; defining Fascist empire, 162–70; defining Fascist empire, future of, 170–78; defining new African empire, 158–62; gendering of, 151–52; and history, study of, 138–43, 150–52, 165, 169; and mental and physical education, 141–49; and military education, 131–32, 140, 149–53, 164–68, 174–75, 225; overview of, 131–36, 155–58; in rural schools, 136–41
EIAR (Italian Organization for Radio Programming), 99, 200–201, 271n77
émigrés, 119–20
ENEF (National Organization for Physical Education), 39
Ercole, Francesco, 94, 96, 131, 135, 137, 139–40
ERR. See Rural Radio Corporation (ERR)
Esposito, Armando, 51, 54–55, 58–59, 65, 72–73
ethical state, 29
Ethiopia: and Battle of Adwa, 143, 208; cartoons and games about, 265n42; conquest of, 143–49, 178, 264n8, 264n11; education in, 160; and italianità, 159; lack of support for Italian imperialism in, 271n9; legal system in, 160–61; occupation of, 159–62, 263n5; postcards of, 155–58, 161, 263n1; and racial campaign, 133; racial hierarchy in, 160–62; and racial ideal, 181–82; racial zoning in, 160; segregationist policies in, 160–61, 264n18; textbook lessons about, 209–11. See also Italo-Ethiopian War
eugenics, 13, 133–34, 153, 171, 173, 183, 188, 238n72
exams: elementary school exit, 110; elementary year-end, 32; middle school placement, 195; state, 32
exclusionary laws, educational, 193–94
Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution (MRF), 81–84, 102, 111, 168–69, 251n10
extracurricular activities, 16, 40–41, 73–74, 100–102, 122–23, 140, 224, 242n78, 252n14
family: as bond that unites the race, 213; characteristics of, 114; and children educating parents, 94, 136; fatherland over, 148; and Gentile Reform, 24, 34, 37, 39, 43, 45; importance of, 171–73, 199; and italianità, 67–70; and obedience, 213; and parents educating children, 168, 199–200, 213; preparing children for roles in, 73, 126–77, 220. See also stirpe (family heritage)
Fanelli, Giuseppe, 44, 113, 121, 145, 166
fascio littorio, 65–66, 111–12, 211
Fascism: defining Fascist society, 85–89; as embodiment of italianità, 225; enemies of, 134–35; evolution of, 18–19; and fascio littorio, 65–66; Fedele on, 48–49; foundational narrative of, 82, 223; Giovanazzi on, 192; goals of, 15–17, 29, 134; and ideology, 16–17; imperial racist policy of, 157–58; legacy of, 154, 231–32; martial culture of, 70; ongoing echoes of, 231, 274n18; vs. other European popular movements, 83; and religion, 36–37; and ruralization, 75; tempered by Mussolini, 41; after World War II, 228–31; youth as central theme of, 23–27
Fascist Academy of Physical and Youth Education for Women, 97–98, 219
Fascist Grand Council, 98, 184, 227, 264n11
Fascist Institute for Physical Education, 97
Fascist Italian Youth (GIL), 15–17, 176–77, 191, 194, 198–201, 207, 212, 215–16, 238n69, 259n8
Fascist Revolution: and connection to ancient Rome, 112–14; enemies of, 134–35; and Fascist society, 85–89; and illiteracy, 33; importance of children to, 23; and international community, 144; and Jews, 185–86; loyalty to, 102; and MRF, 81–84; and ONB, 42, 151; and physical education, 72–74; and racial purity, 153; and racial superiority, 118; and radio programs, 99; and summer camps and climate colonies, 44; targets of, 85; textbook lessons about, 115, 190
Fascist Saturday, 136, 140–41, 150
Fascist School for the Training of Physical Education Instructors, 97
Fascist society, 85–89
Fascist Union of Prolific Families, 86
Fedele, Pietro, 17, 48–49, 60, 63, 90
femininity, 73, 96, 100, 126, 152, 194, 218–19
Figli della lupa. See Children of the She-Wolf (Figli della lupa)
filial piety, 37
Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 115
gendered education, 34, 41, 67–73, 123–27, 150–53, 175–76, 196, 214–15, 218–21. See also girls’ education
Gentile, Emilio, 268n14
Gentile, Giovanni, 25–26, 66–67, 90–93, 195
Gentile Reform, 23–50; and bonifica umana, 33, 35, 44; and curriculum development, 46–48; death knell of, 192; and discipline, 25, 28, 38–39, 43–44; of education bureaucracy, 31–35; and family, 24, 34, 37, 39, 43, 45; goals of, 56; and health education, 24–25, 27–28, 39–43; and italianità, 23, 36–38, 46, 48; and language in schools, 25, 37, 43, 55–56, 139, 260n25; legacy of, 48–50, 224; and MPI, 24–25, 29, 31, 33–34, 37–39, 46–48, 224; and Mussolini, 49–50; overview of, 24–25, 224; pedagogical principles of, 35–46; and physical education, 39–42; and professionalizing of youth, 196; and public health and hygiene, 24–25, 27–28, 39–46; and racism, 23–25, 27, 29–39, 41–45, 48–50; and razza, 41, 45–46; restructuring of, 90–93, 254n60; and rural education, 32, 34, 37, 241n44; and stirpe, 23, 48; and teachers, 26, 29–30, 34–35, 37–39, 46, 54; and textbooks, 46–48, 245n114; and vocational education, 196
German-speaking regions, 57, 182
GIL. See Fascist Italian Youth (GIL)
Giorni della fede. See Days of Faith (Giorni della fede)
Giovani Italiane, founding of, 41–42, 100
girls’ education: in ancient Rome, 168; in health and hygiene, 124–26; in homemaking skills, 68–69, 215; and military education, 123–24, 150–52, 175–76, 212; for motherhood, 16, 41, 68–69, 87, 124, 126, 135, 152–54, 168, 171, 175–76, 214–15, 218–21, 224; need for, 34; and physical education, 41–42, 71–73, 96–98, 152, 175–76, 218–19; in rural communities, 16; and School Charter, 196. See also gendered education
Giuliano, Balbino, 93, 245n115, 256n18
Gramsci, Antonio, 14, 18, 238n66
Graziani, Rodolfo, 144, 147, 158–59, 263n8
Great War. See World War I (Great War)
Greece: ancient, 4, 190–91; Italian conquest of, 226; Jewish deportations from, 228
health, public: Fascistization of, 85–88, 95, 101, 103, 122–27, 198; and Gentile Reform, 24–25, 27–28, 39–46; international trends in, 27–28, 72; overview of, 11–16; and racial identity, 95, 215–21; in rural Italy, 77, 244n106, 245n111; in second Roman Empire, 170–76. See also National Organization for the Protection of Mothers and Children (ONMI)
health education: and Gentile Reform, 24–25, 27–28, 39–43; for girls, 124–26; and ONMI, 15; and racial campaign, 216; in rural schools, 76–77, 95, 245n111
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 26, 30, 239n8
High Council for Public Instruction, 31
history, study of: in elementary schools, 59–63, 114–15; Fascistization of, 81–83, 110–21; and racial ideal, enforcement of, 185, 188, 191, 193, 198; and racial identity, 205–11, 213, 223, 229; in second Roman Empire, 138–43, 150–52, 165, 169, 260n36. See also ancient Rome; Roman Empire
Hitler, Adolf, 132–33, 227, 234n27, 272n9
Hitlerjugend (Hitler Youth), 40, 238n69, 259n8
Holy Roman Empire, 206–7
homosexuality, 85–86, 135, 219
hygiene: for citizen-soldiers, 174; competitions in, 124–25; discipline of, 107; expansion of programs in, 85–88; and Gentile Reform, 28, 42–43, 46; and ONMI, 87, 95; organic and active learning of, 216–17; at outdoor camps, 198; personal kits for, 124; and rural education, 75–77
imperial consciousness, 11, 165–66, 169, 178
imperialism: and Catholic Church, 161; first efforts in, 119; and imperial consciousness, 133–34, 165–66; overview of, 5–8; and racism, 7–8, 157–58; reasons for, 63–64; rights and responsibilities of, 166; in school curriculum, 136, 167, 210; in second Roman Empire, 131–33, 136–37, 142–49, 157–58, 161–70, 175, 178, 225; spiritual benefits of, 165–66; in textbooks, 119, 209–11. See also colonialism; Ethiopia
inheritability of racial traits. See racial traits, inheritability of
Institute for the Bonifica Umana and Orthogenesis of the Race, 171, 253n38
instructors. See teachers
Interlandi, Telesio, 189, 238n72
international educational trends, 27–28
irredentism, 57, 62–63, 119, 141–42
Italian East Africa, 7, 159–60, 181. See also Ethiopia
italianità (Italianness), 51–78; definition of, 2; educational implementation of, 16–17, 58, 60, 64, 67, 70, 76–77; in Ethiopia, 159; exclusionary aspects of, 12, 133, 134–35, 159–62, 169–70, 205, 224–26; and family, 67–70; Fascism as embodiment of, 225; Fascist evolution of, 51–54; and Fascistization of education system, 82, 84, 89, 92, 102; and Fascistization of language, 107–10; and Fascistization of textbooks, 111–22; and Fascistization through students’ bodies, 122–27; and Gentile Reform, 23, 36–38, 46, 48; holistic concept of, 51–52; and Italian national identity, 51–54, 58, 60, 64, 67, 70, 76–77, 235n34; and MPI, 51, 53, 58, 63, 67, 77; and nationalism, 10; and racial identity, 212, 216, 219, 221, 225; and racial superiority, 102; and racism, 6; and Risorgimento, 60; and Roman Empire, 15, 51–52, 59–60, 62–65; and rural education, 197; rural population as greatest carrier of, 197, 270n63; in second Roman Empire, 134, 138–39, 143, 153–54, 159, 162, 166–72; strengthening of, 190–92; and teachers, 51, 54, 57–59, 63, 69–70, 77; universal belief in, 230; after World War II, 229–30
Italian national identity: and discipline, 51–52, 54, 65–66, 70–72, 76–77; and italianità, 51–54, 58, 60, 64, 67, 70, 76–77; overview of, 8–10, 51–54; and patria, 54–78; and physical education, 54, 72–77; and racial identity, 52–55; and razza, 64, 72, 75; regional vs. national, 110; and religious identity, 37; scholarship on, 8; and stirpe, 52, 62, 64, 68, 73
Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI), 98
Italian Organization for Radio Programming (EIAR), 99, 200–201, 271n77
Italian race, quality and quantity of, 215–21
Italian Social Republic (RSI), 227–28, 250n104
Italo-Ethiopian War, 144, 147–49, 155–59, 165–67, 169, 209–10, 211, 225, 263n5, 264n11
Jews: biblical, 116; as Fascists, 6–7; Greek, 228; Italian, 6–7, 8, 109, 182, 185–86, 193, 204–5, 219, 221, 228, 235n37; and Manifesto of Race, 182, 221; and Nazis, 133; and post–Great War economic and social turmoil, 238n72
junior high (middle) school, 32, 190, 193, 195, 219
Junior Italian Red Cross (CRIG), 43, 68
Komsomol, 238n69
Labor Charter (Carta del lavoro), 163, 195
language: in border regions, 57, 182; and classless speech, 185; and cultural diversity, 56–57; demographic breakdown of, 247n23; Fascistization of, 107–10; and Gentile Reform, 25, 37, 43, 55–56, 139, 260n25; Italian national, 56–59, 99, 138–39, 260n25; national, 8, 56–57, 59, 99, 138, 247n21; and nationalism, 8, 235nn34–35; and national unification by radio, 99; and patria, 52–58; and race, 107–10, 268n8; regional, 8–10, 12, 37, 56–58, 235n35, 247n21, 260n25; replacing informal with formal address, 185; as unifying factor, 8, 235nn34–35
Lateran Accords of 1929, 36, 84, 132
Latin heritage, 107, 113, 116–17, 153, 170, 188
League of Nations, 146–47, 159, 264n14, 271n9
leva fascista (calling to the colors), 42, 113
Libya, 119, 142, 158, 263n8, 264n77
Loffredo, Ferdinando, 134
Lombardo Radice, Giuseppe, 25, 30–31, 38, 46, 49–51, 56, 240n31, 245n115, 254n60
Lo Monaco-Aprile, Attilio, 46
mandatory school age, 31
mandatory school attendance, 24, 29, 31–32, 240n38
Manifesto of Race: aftermath of, 193; alternate names of, 268n5; expanding on, 183–86; and italianità, 230; and Jews, 182; overview of, 3, 182–83; and racial campaign, 182, 225–26, 268n7; and racial identity, 204–5, 221; and racial theory, 186–92, 201; and razza, 182
manliness, 151–62, 194, 196. See also masculinity
March on Rome, 51, 81, 111, 119, 154, 163, 185, 208–9
Marcucci, Alessandro, 32–33, 76, 170, 254n58
marriage, 96, 124, 171–72, 184–85, 219, 220
masculinity, 34, 62, 71–74, 96, 127, 151–52, 218. See also manliness
Matteotti Crisis of 1924, 25, 49, 90
Meletti, Vincenzo, 164, 172, 175–76
MEN. See Ministry of National Education (MEN)
middle (junior high) school, 32, 190, 193, 195, 219
military education: and Central Military Academy of Physical Education, 97; of girls, 123–25, 150–52, 175–76, 212; mandatory, 149–54; and ONB, 15–16, 41, 70–72, 123–25, 140–43, 149–51, 218; and outdoor educational activities, 123–25; and School Charter, 199; in second Roman Empire, 131–32, 140, 149–54, 164–68, 174–75, 225
Ministry of National Education (MEN): and Fascistization of education system, 85, 96, 99, 110–11, 118, 122, 124, 127; name change of, from MPI, 85, 89, 93–95, 225; and professionalizing of youth, 195; and racial campaign, 193; and religious education, 213; and rural education, 197; and School Charter, 194, 199–201; and second-generation textbooks, 204; in second Roman Empire, 131, 137, 139–40, 149, 151, 163
Ministry of Public Instruction (MPI): archives of, 17; and de-Fascistization of education system, 229; and Fascistization of education system, 89–90, 93–97, 103; and Gentile Reform, 24–25, 29, 31, 33–34, 37–39, 46–48, 89, 224; and italianità, 51, 53, 58, 63, 67, 77; name change of, to MEN, 85, 89, 93–95, 225; and rural education, 137; and Western educational trends, 24
mobile (ambulatory) health clinics, 16, 45–46, 87, 171
Montessori, Maria, 239n17
moral education, 39, 66, 73, 76, 94, 168, 197–98
motherhood: and Day of Mother and Child, 86, 171–72; girls’ preparation for, 16, 41, 68–69, 87, 124, 126, 135, 152–54, 168, 171, 175–76, 214–15, 218–21, 224; and racial identity, 220; and razza, 87. See also mothers
Mothering Sundays, 86
mothers: celebration of, 86, 171–72; health of, 154; as home educators, 34; obedience to, 213–14; and razza, 98, 107; as role models, 68, 126; and stirpe, 86, 107. See also motherhood; National Organization for the Protection of Mothers and Children (ONMI)
MPI. See Ministry of Public Instruction (MPI)
MRF (Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution), 81–84, 102, 111, 168–69, 251n10
Mussolini, Benito: on ancient Rome, 209; as anti-Semite, 7, 235n30; Ascension Day speech of, 83, 252n112; background of, 1–2, 233n7; on children as custodians of heroic civilization, 157; classroom portraits of, 21; on colonialism, 165; and conquest of Ethiopia, 264n11; consolidation of political power by, 102–3; death of, 20; deposition of, 227; on education vs. instruction, 94; and Fascistization of education system, 89–90; as father of all Italians, 70; and Gentile Reform, 24, 49–50; on history of the past, 60, 62–63; under Italian Social Republic, 227; on Italo-Ethiopian War, 159; on legacy of Rome, 112–13; office of, 82, 251n5; on ONB’s tenth anniversary, 174; on racial purity, 109–10; on racial superiority, 117–18; as racist, 7, 235n30; on razza, 12; as religious leader, 37; and righting the wrongs of the Great War, 208; and Roman Empire archaeological campaign, 60; on Roman Empire’s reemergence, 209–10; on School Charter, 196; on social diseases, 87; as teacher, 1–2, 20; on totalitarianism, 83–84; on victory in Ethiopia, 167; and World War II, 223–31
Mussolini Forum, 97–98
National Association for the Interests of Southern Italy (ANIMI), 75
National Balilla Organization (ONB, Balilla): and Balilla Centers, 100–102; establishment and goals of, 15–16, 25, 40–42; as exclusive youth organization, 100–101; Fascistization of, 176–77; and Fascistization of education system, 89, 95–98; and Fascist racial campaign, 216; and Hitlerjugend, 238n69, 259n8; instructors of, 42, 96–98; and leva fascista, 42; and military culture, 123–27; and military education, 15–16, 41, 70–72, 123–25, 136, 140–43, 149–51, 218, 224; oath of, 151; and outdoor educational activities, 73, 123–27; and physical education, 41, 72–73, 98; under PNF control, 176–77; and rural education, 76, 137, 241n46; tenth anniversary of, 174
National Congress of Italian Women (CNDI), 45, 244n110
National Exhibition on Summer Colonies and Child Health, 171
National Fascist Party (PNF): anthem of, 250n104; and anti-Semitism, 18, 185; and banning of all other political parties, 83; and citizen-soldier, 174; establishment of, 15; and fascio littorio, 112; and The Fascist’s Second Book, 190; Jewish membership in, 165; and leva fascista, 42; magazine of, 139; membership in, 42, 219; popular consensus with, 252n16; racial theory of, 190; and racism, 18, 111–12, 132, 238n72; transfer of youth organizations to, 176–77
national identity. See italianità (Italianness); Italian national identity
nationalism: and access to information, 247n10; and education system, 106; during foreign occupations, 118; and italianità, 10; and language, 8, 235nn34–35; and organic and active learning, 110; and race, 5, 53, 189, 246n9; and racism, 5
national language, 8, 56–57, 59, 99, 138, 247n21
National Organization for Physical Education (ENEF), 39
National Organization for the Protection of Mothers and Children (ONMI): and bonifica umana, 230; and Fascistization of education system, 86–89; founding and purpose of, 15–16, 25, 68; and Gentile Reform, 25, 45–46; and health education, 15; and hygiene, 87, 95; mission of, 45, 153–54, 215–16; and outdoor educational activities, 73–75, 100–101; and public and racial health, 170, 224; and racial superiority, 127; and razza, 108, 188; and rural education, 95
Nazi-Fascist state, 227–28, 250n104
Nazi Germany, 6, 12, 15, 42, 152, 228–30, 234n27, 258n8
Nazis, 6–7, 11–12, 35, 132–33, 152–53, 188, 227–30, 234n27, 268n7
New Italian Empire, 63–65, 157, 181, 185, 209
New Italians: and Fascistization of education system, 84, 86, 94–98, 106, 116, 125; and Gentile Reform, 23–24; and italianità, 52, 75; overview of, 2–3, 18–19, 223; and racial identity, 201, 204, 210, 215, 220; shaping of, through education and imperialism, 134, 137, 141, 145, 178, 181, 183, 191, 193–94
nursery school, 31, 45, 87, 171, 195, 217, 241n65
obedience, 37, 52–55, 65–70, 162, 193, 211–14, 217
ONB. See National Balilla Organization (ONB, Balilla)
ONMI. See National Organization for the Protection of Mothers and Children (ONMI)
open-air (outdoor) schools, 43–44, 73–75, 87
oppositional familialism, 273n58
organic and active learning: divergence from, 90, 164, 192, 196, 211, 217; and Exhibition of the Fascist Revolution, 83; of Italian language, 260n25; Ministry of National Education’s support of, 106, 149; and nationalism, 110; and personal freedom, 66–67; principles of, 37–39, 54–58, 224; of public health and hygiene, 42–43. See also Gentile Reform
Oriani, Alfredo, 143
Origins and Doctrine of Fascism (Gentile), 29
outdoor (open-air) schools, 43–44, 73–75, 87
Padellaro, Nazareno, 166, 192, 205–6, 213
patria (fatherland): definition of, 54–55, 108; geographic aspects of, 58–59; and Italian national community, 54–78; and knowledge of Italian history, 59–65; and language, 54–59; and loyalty to fatherland, 65–68; and school curriculum, 54–78; universal belief in, 230
Pende, Nicola, 87–88, 170–71, 188, 220, 230, 253n38, 253n40, 263n91
periodicals, youth-oriented, 139–40
personal booklets of citizen-soldiers, 173–74
physical education: elementary school curriculum for, 218; Fascistization of, 95, 97–98, 101–3, 122–27; gendering of, 41–42, 72–73, 96–98, 123–27, 152, 218–19; under Gentile Reform, 39–42; of girls, 41–42, 72–73, 96–98, 123–27, 152, 218–19; and italianità, 72–77; and Italian national identity, 54; and military culture, 123–25; and natural exercises, 217–18; and ONB, 41, 72–73, 98; as preparation for military service, 218; and racial identity, 216–21; in rural schools, 43, 74–76, 95, 251n117; and School Charter, 199; in second Roman Empire, 151–52, 157, 175–77; teaching academies for, 97–98
physical fitness, 28, 39, 73, 107
Piccole Italiane (girls), 41–42, 71, 100, 107, 123–26, 139–40, 152, 203
preschool, 195. See also nursery school
Preziosi, Giovanni, 238n72
pronatalist campaign, 33, 85–86, 133, 153, 171–72, 188, 252nn20–21, 253n25, 266n66
public health. See health, public
quaderni (copybooks), 105–7, 143, 203–4
Quercia Tanzarella, Oronzina, 123, 254n58
race: and autarky, 203; biology of, 5, 182–83, 188, 234n19, 263n91; categories of, 190; definition of, 5–6, 182, 234n14; and demographic campaign, 45, 85–86, 108–9, 154, 170, 174, 183, 188–89, 216, 220, 268n17; Enlightenment concept of, 4; Fascist Grand Council’s statement on, 184–86; historical nature of, 3–5; and Italian national identity, 51–78; and language, 107–10, 268n8; modern theory of, 4–6; vs. nation, 189; and nationalism, 5, 53, 189, 246n9; overview of, 1–20; physical characteristics of, 170–71; and racial identity, 234n14; rationalizations of, 9–10; in second Roman Empire, 131–54, 160–62, 165–75, 177–78
racial campaign: exclusionary aspects of, 12, 133, 134–35, 159–62, 169–70, 205, 224–26; Fascistization of, 100–102; Fascist vs. Nazi, 132–33, 152–53, 182, 268n7; and hygiene, 77; under Italian Social Republic, 227–28; justification of, 207; and Manifesto of Race, 182, 186, 225–26, 268n7; and outdoor educational activities, 43; overview of, 14–15, 18–19; quality and quantity in, 85–89, 171–72, 215–17, 220–21, 253n38; and School Charter, 192–94; in second Roman Empire, 132–33, 157, 165, 170; in textbooks, 111. See also bonifica umana (human reclamation); health, public
racial discrimination, 5–7, 183, 188, 204, 221, 234n14, 264n18, 268n14
racial health, 12, 45, 170, 173
racial hierarchy, 133, 146, 160, 166
racial ideal: enforcement of, 181–201; as Fascist ideal, 84–85, 94; learned through youth organizations, 41; narrowing of, 224; and teachers, 30, 193, 196, 200; transmission of, from students to parents, 2; after World War II, 229–30
racial identity: and bonifica umana, 205, 215, 224, 230; and colonialism, 181–82; enforcement of, 183; and Fascistization of education system, 81–85; four themes of, 55; heroic stories of, 207; and history, study of, 205–11, 213, 223, 229; and italianità, 212, 216, 219, 221, 225; and Italian national identity, 53; and Manifesto of Race, 204–5, 221; and motherhood, 220–21; and New Italians, 201, 204, 210, 215, 220; and obligations, 60, 134, 145; overview of, 203–5, 234n14; and physical education, 216–21; principles of, 203–21; and public health and hygiene, 216–21; and quality and quantity of Italian race, 215–21; and racial purity, 184, 211–15; and racism, 3, 233n11, 234n14; and razza, 216, 218, 220; school promotion of, 24, 29, 39, 77, 110; in second Roman Empire, 157; and teachers, 204–5, 211, 215, 217–19; textbook messages on, 18; after World War II, 229–30
racial inequities, 9–10, 236n46
racial laws, 7, 181–92, 204, 217, 219, 225–27, 234n27, 235n30
racial quality, 13, 85–87, 89, 94, 108, 135, 141, 154, 215–21, 253n38
racial superiority: and bonifica umana, 224, 230; and colonialism, 64; and italianità, 102; justification of, 62; and military might, 210; over conquered peoples, 160–64, 166, 182; over foreign powers, 206; overview of, 2, 5, 23, 52; and second Roman Empire, 134–35, 143–46; and self-sufficiency, 211; in textbooks, 93, 111, 117–18
racial theory, 4–6, 9–10, 109–10, 153–54, 157, 170–71, 182–84, 186–92, 201, 229–30, 235n29, 238n72, 253n38, 256n15, 263n91, 268nn7–8
racial traits, inheritability of, 4–6, 10–12, 53, 117, 161–62, 183–84, 191, 217, 224, 229–30
racial unity, 55–59, 134, 147–48, 166, 190, 205, 212
racism: biopolitics of, 2, 13–14; and colonialism, 7–8, 62–64, 161–62; enforcement of (1938–40), 181–86; Fascist evolution of, 98; Fascist vs. Nazi, 132–33, 152–53, 182, 268n7; and Gentile Reform, 23–25, 27, 29–39, 41–45, 48–50; and imperialism, 7–8, 157–58; in Italian East Africa, 7, 159–60, 181; and italianità, 6; under Italian Social Republic, 227–28; in Liberal Italy, 9–10, 12–13; in Libya, 264n77; modern theory of, 5–6; and nationalism, 5; overview of, 1–20, 233n10; and PNF, 18, 111–12, 132, 238n72; and power, 12–14; premodern, 3–4; and racial hierarchy, 133, 146, 160, 166; and racial identity, 3, 233n11, 234n14; and religion, 107; and School Charter, 192–201; in second Roman Empire, 131–33, 161–62, 178; in textbooks, 19, 48; and travel restrictions, 193; and World War II, 226–31
radio programs, 16, 99–101, 136–38, 200–201, 206, 255n84, 255n88, 259n19, 266n53, 271n81
razza (breed or stock): categories and complexity of, 190–91; constituents of, 188–89; definition of, 11–12, 236n51; and demographic campaign, 109; and Fascistization of education system, 82, 86–87, 95, 98, 107–10, 113–14, 120–22; and Gentile Reform, 41, 45–46; healing of, 87; and Italian national identity, 64, 72, 75; and Manifesto of Race, 182; and motherhood, 87, 172; and mothers, 98, 107; Mussolini on, 12; and ONB, 143, 151; and ONMI, 108, 189; Oriani on, 143; philosophy of, 188–91; purity of, 197–98, 270n63; and racial identity, 216, 218, 220; reclamation of, 173; and Roman Empire, 190–91; scientific basis of, 187; and stirpe, 216; and uniforms, 177
redeemed regions. See irredentism
regional languages, 8–10, 12, 37, 56–58, 235n35
religion. See Catholic Church; Catholicism
religious education, 36–37, 53–54, 67, 69, 107–8, 110, 138–39, 171, 191, 242n63
Republic of Salò, 227–28
Ricci, Renato, 17, 40–41, 50, 71, 101–2, 148, 176, 243n86
Risorgimento, 8–9, 29, 60–62, 82, 114–15, 119, 142, 169, 223
Roman Empire: archaeological campaign of, 60; and birth of Rome, 112–13; and italianità, 15, 51–52, 59–60, 62–65; and Italian national identity, 15, 51–52, 59–60, 62–65; Latin roots of, 116–17; legacy of, 112–13; and razza, 190–91; reclamation of, 15; reemergence of, 209–10; renewal of, 132–54; and universalism, 269n30. See also second Roman Empire
romanità, 111–13, 131, 168, 269n30
rural education: and bonifica umana, 16, 32–33, 35, 76; curriculum for, 34, 46, 98; Fascistization of, 91, 98–101; and Gentile Reform, 32–34, 37, 241n44; for girls, 16; in health and hygiene, 75–77, 95, 245n111; on household management, 68–69; and italianità, 197; in Liberal Italy, 32–33; and mandatory attendance, 31–32, 240n38; and MEN, 197; and ONB, 76, 95, 137, 241n46; and ONMI, 95; overview of, 16; and physical education, 43, 74–76, 95, 251n117; in praise of rural life, 74–76; and School Charter, 196–98; in second Roman Empire, 136–41; teacher-student ratio in, 197; textbooks for, 75, 98
ruralization, 75–76, 95, 138, 196, 241n44
Rural Radio Corporation (ERR), 99–101, 136–38, 200–201, 206, 255n84, 266n53
scholastic obligation, 199
school age, mandatory, 31
School Charter (Carta della scuola), 164, 183, 192–201, 204, 213, 217
Schools for the Peasants of the Agro Romano and the Pontine Swamps, 32–33, 241n46
second Roman Empire: and bonifica umana, 153–54, 158, 161, 171; colonialism in, 135–36, 142, 145–48, 156–67; imperialism in, 131–33, 157–58, 175, 178, 225; italianità in, 134, 138–39, 143, 153–54, 159, 162, 166–72; Italians’ birthright to, 225; military education in, 131–32, 140, 149–54, 164–68, 174–75, 225; physical education in, 151–52, 157, 175–77; pronatalist campaign in, 171–72; public health in, 170–76; race in, 131–54, 160–62, 165–75, 177–78; racism in, 131–33, 161–62, 178; and romanità, 131, 168; and stirpe, 154, 168, 170, 174; teachers in, 137–38, 140, 151–52, 163–64; textbooks in, 138–39, 141–46, 150–54, 156–57, 161, 164, 167, 169, 172, 175, 177; totalitarianism in, 135, 138, 148–49, 157, 168. See also education system in second Roman Empire
Selassie, Haile, 133, 155, 159, 166, 181, 264n14
self-sufficiency, 63, 204, 211. See also autarky
Sergi, Giuseppe, 10–11, 238n72
slavery, 121, 144, 146–47, 156, 167, 261n52
Slavic-speaking regions, 57, 182
Socialism, 208
Southern Question, 9–10, 236n46
spiritual education, 31, 39, 74, 195, 221
the state (lo stato), definition of, 108
Statement on Race, Fascist Grand Council, 184–86
stirpe (family heritage): definition of, 10–12, 236n51; and Fascistization of education system, 86, 102, 107–10, 113–14, 121, 123, 126; and Gentile Reform, 24, 48; and Italian national identity, 52, 62, 64, 68, 73; and mothers, 86, 107; and racial contaminations, 205; and racial ideal, 187, 197; and racial identity, 205, 209, 221; and razza, 216; Ricci on, 101–2; and second Roman Empire, 154, 168, 170, 174; universal belief in, 230
Strata, Giuglielmo, 142, 149, 164
Süd Tirol (Alto Adige), 57, 142
summer camps. See camps for youth (summer camps)
teachers: and ENEF, 39; as examples of Fascist morality and Italian race, 95–97; and Fascistization of education system, 88–90, 95–99, 105–7, 124; female, 96–98; gender imbalance of, 34–35; and Gentile Reform, 26, 29–30, 34–35, 37–39, 46, 54; and italianità, 51, 54, 57–59, 63, 69–70, 77; male, 34–35, 96–97; personalized teaching by, 37–38; private lives of, 96; and racial ideal, 30, 193, 196, 200; and racial identity, 204–5, 211, 215, 217–19; ratio of, to students in rural schools, 197; as role models, 34–35, 96–97; in rural schools, 95; in second Roman Empire, 137–38, 140, 151–52, 163–64; as surrogate parents, 29
textbooks: about Ethiopia, 209–11; about Fascist Revolution, 115, 190; authors of, 254n58; biographical anecdotes in, 169; colonialism in, 119, 209–11; Fascistization of, 85, 89, 91–94, 98, 101–3, 110–27, 138–39, 225; and Fascist racial doctrine, 189–90; gendering of, 152; and Gentile Reform, 46–48, 245n114; imperialism in, 119, 209–11; by Jewish authors, 193, 204; overview of, 17–19; racial hierarchy in, 146; racial superiority in, 141; racism in, 19, 48; regional, 110, 256n18; religion lessons in, 213–14; review commission for, 47–48, 245n115; for rural schools, 75, 98; second-generation, 204–15, 217, 219; in second Roman Empire, 138–39, 150–54, 156–57, 161, 164, 167, 169, 172, 175, 177; totalitarianism in, 138; vacation-time, 77, 101, 166; war stories in, 208–9; world history in, 205–6
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, 61–62
Toscano, Carmela, 138–39, 150, 175
totalitarianism: and Catholic Action, 100, 252n14; in education system, 2, 15–16, 19, 90–91, 94, 102, 106–8, 113, 194–95, 198–201, 225; and Ethiopia, 149, 157; failure of, 227–29; Fascist concept of, 83–84; and fatherland over family, 148; goal of, 46; Mussolini on, 83–84; in private lives, 96; and racism, 14, 127, 181, 221, 224; and romanità exhibit of 1938, 168; in second Roman Empire, 135, 138, 148–49, 157, 168; and textbooks, 138
uniforms, 71, 124–25, 155–56, 177, 212, 258n75
Via dell’Impero (Imperial Road), 82, 102
virility, 23, 42, 69, 151, 193, 219. See also masculinity
Vittorio Emanuele III, 40, 115, 171, 181, 212, 215, 227
Vittorio Emanuele II monument, 62, 82, 248n45
vocational schools, 24, 32, 34, 47, 76, 195–96
World War I (Great War): aftermath of, 13, 23, 43, 142, 223, 237n57, 238n72; commemoration of, 62; Exposition Center exhibit of, 81; textbook approach to, 60–62, 114–15, 208
youth organizations, 40, 71, 100, 168, 170, 174–77, 185, 199, 215, 243n81. See also specific youth organizations