Exodus Commentaries

Exodus 1

1:1—12:36 This section recounts Israel’s final years in Egypt before the Exodus.

1:1–5 Genesis also reported the names and the number of Jacob’s descendants who came to Egypt (Gen. 35:23; 46:8–27).

1:5 seventy persons. Cf. Gen. 46:8–27. Acts 7:14 reports 75 with the addition of 5 relatives of Joseph included in the LXX, but not the Heb. text.

1:6–8 This summary of a lengthy period of time moves the record from the death of Joseph (ca. 1804 B.C.), the last recorded event in Genesis, to the radical change in Israel’s history, i.e., from favor before Egypt’s pharaoh to disfavor and enslavement (ca. 1525–1445 B.C.).

1:7 The growth of the nation (cf. 12:37) was phenomenal! It grew from 70 men to 603,000 males, 20 years of age and older, thus allowing for a total population of about 2 million (Num. 1:46) departing from Egypt. The seed of Abraham was no longer an extended family, but a nation. The promise that his descendants would be fruitful and multiply (Gen. 35:11, 12) had indeed been fulfilled in Egypt.

1:8 there arose a new king. This king is either to be identified as one of the Hyksos kings (see Introduction) during a period of political disintegration, or as Pharaoh Amose I, founder of what archeologists have designated as the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom period in Egyptian history. It is probably best to take this new king, who knew not Joseph, as a Hyksos ruler. Furthermore, the term “arose” signifies “rose against,” which accords well with a foreign seizure of the Egyptian throne. The Hyksos (ca. 1730–1570 B.C.) came from outside Egypt (cf. Acts 7:18).

1:9–12 Another summary of a fairly lengthy period of time, as indicated by the population continuing to grow in spite of increasing hardship imposed on Israel.

1:9 the people. An Egyptian pharaoh designated Israel as a nation, marking the first time the term “people” or “nation” is used of them.

1:10, 11 join our enemies…set taskmasters over them. Israel was assessed both as a threat to national security and as an economic asset—slavery would, therefore, control the danger and maximize their usefulness.

1:11 supply cities, Pithom and Raamses. Places where both provisions and military hardware were stored. Archeological identification has not been finally definitive, with some 3 to 5 options being put forward for them. Pithom is usually taken as a center of solar worship in northern Egypt, and Raamses as Qantir in the eastern delta region. In addition, the city might very well have been re-named under the reign of the later, powerful pharaoh, and that name was better known to Israel later on (cf. the case of Laish, or Leshem, renamed Dan in Gen. 14:14, Josh. 19:47, and Judg. 18:29).

1:13 the Egyptians. The native inhabitants continued to enslave Israel. Between vv. 12 and 13 a major change in Egyptian history took place—the Hyksos were driven out (ca. 1570 B.C.).

1:14 hard bondage—in mortar, in brick. Archeologists have uncovered reliefs and paintings confirming the Egyptian practice of imposing forced labor on prisoners and slaves. These paintings also show foremen and guards watching construction work while scribes registered data on tablets.

1:15–17 the midwives feared God. These brave, older women reverenced their God and thus obeyed Him and not man. They obviously understood that children were a gift from God and that murder was wrong. The two midwives mentioned by name were probably the leading representatives of their profession, for it is unlikely that such a burgeoning population had only two midwives to deal with all the births.

1:15, 16 The failure of rigorous bondage to suppress population growth necessitated that different measures be taken; hence, the royal order to the Hebrew midwives to murder male infants at birth.

1:16 birthstools. Lit. “two stones” on which the women sat to deliver.

1:19, 20 Rather than trying to argue for a justifiable lie on the part of midwives seeking to protect God’s people, take it as a statement of what was true: God was directly involved in this affair of birth and national growth. That’s the key to understanding why no decree of Pharaoh would work out as he intended it, and why Hebrew women were so healthy and gave birth with ease.

1:22 The failure of the extermination program demanded of the midwives finally caused Pharaoh to demand that all his subjects get involved in murdering newborn boys.

Exodus 2

2:1, 2 Since Moses was born soon after the general decree of 1:22 was given (ca. 1525 B.C.), the issuer of the decree was Thutmose I.

2:3, 4 The careful actions of Moses’ mother to construct the ark of bulrushes, to set Moses afloat close to the royal bathing place, and to have his sister watch to see what would happen, indicate a hope that something would work out right for the child.

2:5 the daughter of Pharaoh. Identified possibly as Hatshepsut or another princess; in either case a princess whom God providentially used to override Pharaoh’s death decree and protect the life of His chosen leader for the Israelites.

2:10 became her son. The position of “son” undoubtedly granted Moses special privileges belonging to nobility, but none of these persuaded Moses to relinquish his native origin. Rather, as the NT advises, his spiritual maturity was such that when he came of age, “he refused to be called the son of Pharaoh’s daughter” (Heb. 11:24). The formal education in the court of that time meant that Moses would have learned reading, writing, arithmetic, and perhaps one or more of the languages of Canaan. He would also have participated in various outdoor sports, e.g., archery and horseback riding, two favorites of the 18th Dynasty court.

2:11 when Moses was grown. The narrative skips over all details of Moses’ life as the adopted son of a princess prior to the event which led to his flight into Midian.

2:11, 12, 16–21 Two injustices aroused Moses’ indignation with different consequences: one resulted in his leaving home, having killed an Egyptian who beat an Israelite; the other resulted in his finding a new home as an Egyptian who helped the Midianite daughters of Reuel, and in his finding a wife. Undoubtedly, Reuel and his family soon discovered Moses was not really an Egyptian.

2:14 Cf. Acts 7:27, 28, 35.

2:15 Midian. The Midianites, who were descendants of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. 25:1–4), settled in the Arabian Peninsula along the eastern shore of the Gulf of Aqabah.

2:18 Reuel. He was also known as Jethro (3:1), who may very well have been a worshiper of the true God (cf. 18:12–23), notwithstanding his being also the priest of Midian.

2:21–23 The narrative skips over the unimportant details of this 40 year period and moves the record quickly to the finding of a new home and family and to the moment when Moses returned to his people.

2:23–25 The hardship imposed upon Israel finally brought forth a collective cry for relief. The response of God is presented in 4 words: “heard,” “remembered,” “looked upon,” and “acknowledged.” This signaled that a response was forthcoming.

2:24 remembered His covenant. The unilateral covenant God made with Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3; 15:1–21; 17:1–22) and confirmed with Isaac (Gen. 26:2–5) and with Jacob (Gen. 28:10–15; 35:9–15) specifically promised a geographically recognizable territory to the descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob. Through them, too, the world would be blessed.

Exodus 3

3:1 Moses was tending the flock. Moses worked as a shepherd while living with his father-in-law, a life and occupation quite different from the privilege and prestige associated with his life in Pharaoh’s court. Horeb. An alternative name for Mt. Sinai (cf. 19:11; Deut. 4:10). Traditionally, this mountain has been identified with Jebel Musa, “the mountain of Moses.” “Horeb” is the Heb. for the non-Semitic place-name, Sinai, located in the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula. the mountain of God. This is known as such because of what took place there later in Israel’s history. This name for the mountain suggests that the book of Exodus was written by Moses after the events at Sinai. Others suggest that it was already known as a sacred mountain prior to the call of Moses; but it seems best to relate the name to what God did for Israel there.

3:2–4 Moses’ attention was drawn to a most unusual sight, that of a burning bush which was not being consumed by the fire within. A supernatural event is the only viable explanation. Natural explanations of certain types of flowers with gaseous pods or oil glands fail, in that, after 40 years of work in the desert, Moses would surely have ignored something normal. This was so different that it aroused his curiosity and demanded further examination. God was in the bush speaking, clearly a miraculous event.

3:2 The Angel of the LORD. Lit. “messenger of Yahweh” who, in context, turns out to be the LORD Himself talking to Moses (cf. Acts 7:30).

3:5–10 Cf. Acts 7:33, 34.

3:5 Do not draw near this place. Take your sandals off. A sign of reverence in a holy place, one set apart from the norm because God was present there. These commands prevented Moses from rashly intruding, unprepared, into God’s presence.

3:6 I am the God of your father. God’s opening words, although important for Moses to hear, point the reader back to 2:24—showing that the God of Israel has remembered His people and has begun to take action (cf. Matt. 22:32; Mark 12:26; Luke 20:37; Acts 3:13; 7:32). Moses hid his face. A fitting reaction of reverent fear in the presence of the Divine was modeled by Moses.

3:7, 8 I have surely seen…have heard. An emphasis on God’s having been well aware of the desperate situation of Israel. The result: He promised to deliver them from Egyptian oppression. Here, and in the next two verses, the repetitive manner in describing what God saw and would do, served to underscore all the more His personal involvement in the history of His people whom He had sent into Egypt.

3:8 to a good and large land, to a land…to the place. Three descriptions of the land to which Israel was going to be taken emphatically underscored the land promise of the Abrahamic Covenant. flowing with milk and honey. A formal and graphic way of describing a fertile land of bounteous provision. of the Canaanites and the Hittites. A specific identification of the territory to which Israel was going; her Promised Land was currently inhabited by other peoples.

3:10 I will send you. The divine summons made Moses both leader/deliverer of Israel and ambassador of God before Pharaoh.

3:11 Who am I…? The first response is an objection from Moses to the divine summons, an expression of inadequacy for such a serious mission. It sounded reasonable, for after 40 years of absence from Egypt, what could he, a mere shepherd in Midian, do upon return?

3:12 I will certainly be with you. The divine promise, one given also to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, should have been sufficient to quell all the chosen agent’s fears and sense of inadequacy for the task. you shall serve God on this mountain. A second divine promise signified the future success of the mission, suggesting that Israel would not be delivered simply out of bondage and oppression, but rescued to worship (cf. Acts 7:7).

3:13 Then Moses said. Was Moses at this point crossing the line from reasonable inquiry to unreasonable doubt? God’s patient replies instructing Moses on what He would do and what the results would be, including Israel’s being viewed with favor by the Egyptians (3:21), ought to caution the reader from hastily classifying Moses’ attitude as altogether wrong from the very beginning of the interaction between him and the LORD. A response of divine anger comes only in 4:14 at the very end of Moses’ questions and objections. See note on 4:1. What is His name? Moses raised a second objection. Israel might ask for God’s name in validation of Moses’ declaration that he had been sent by the God of their fathers. Significantly, the question was not “Who is this God?” The Hebrews understood the name Yahweh had been known to the patriarchs (which Genesis well indicates). Asking “what” meant they sought for the relevancy of the name to their circumstances. “Who?” sought after title, name, and identity, whereas “What?” inquired into the character, quality, or essence of a person.

3:14 I AM WHO I AM. This name for God points to His self-existence and eternality; it denotes “I am the One who is/will be,” which is decidedly the best and most contextually suitable option from a number of theories about its meaning and etymological source. The significance in relation to “God of your fathers” is immediately discernible: He’s the same God throughout the ages! The consonants from the Heb. word Yhwh, combined with the vowels from the divine name Adonai (Master or Lord), gave rise to the name “Jehovah” in English. Since the name Yahweh was considered so sacred that it should not be pronounced, the Massoretes inserted the vowels from Adonai to remind themselves to pronounce it when reading instead of saying Yahweh. Technically, this combination of consonants is known as the “tetragrammaton.”

3:15–22 Having provided Moses with His name in response to his second inquiry, God then furnished him with two speeches, one for Israel’s elders (vv. 16, 17) and one for Pharaoh (v. 18b). Also included was notification of the elders’ positive response to Moses’ report (v. 18a), of Pharaoh’s refusal to grant them their request (v. 19), of God’s miraculous, judgmental reaction (v. 20), and of Israel’s plundering of the Egyptians, who found themselves responding favorably to the departing nation’s request for silver, gold, and clothing (vv. 21, 22). The last of these harkens back to God’s promise to Abraham that his descendants would come out of the land of their affliction with great possessions (Gen. 15:14).

3:15 Cf. Matt. 22:23; Mark 12:26; Acts 3:13.

3:16 elders. Lit. “bearded ones,” which indicated the age and wisdom needed to lead.

3:17 land of. See notes on 3:8.

3:18 three days’ journey. The request for a 3 day journey to worship, in the light of 1) direct promises of deliverance from Egypt, 2) worship at Horeb, and 3) entrance into Canaan, was not a ruse to get out and then not return, but an initial, moderate request to highlight the intransigence of Pharaoh—he just would not let these slaves leave under any conditions (v. 19)!

3:22 See note on 12:36.

Exodus 4

4:1 Then Moses answered and said. In a third objection, Moses gave an unworthy response, after the lengthy explanation by God to Moses in 3:14–22. At this point, the hypothetical situation proposed became more objection than reasonable inquiry.

4:2–9 In response to the hypothetical situation of Israel’s rejecting God as having appeared to him, Moses was given 3 signs to accredit him as the chosen spokesman and leader. Note the purpose stated: “That they may believe that the LORD God…appeared to you” (v. 5). Two of these signs personally involved Moses right then and there—the rod to snake and back, the hand leprous and healed. No matter what the situation Moses could envision himself facing, God had sufficient resources to authenticate His man, and Moses was not to think otherwise.

4:10 I am not eloquent. With his fourth argument, Moses focused on his speech disability, describing himself lit. as not being “a man of words,” as being “heavy in mouth and heavy in tongue,” i.e., unable to articulate his thoughts in fluent, flowing speech. An ancient document, The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, suggests that eloquence was important in Egyptian culture, something which Moses would have well known from his time in the court. neither before nor since You have spoken. This is a pointed and inappropriate, if not impolite, criticism that somehow in all the discussion God had overlooked Moses’ speech disability. Unless this disability changed, Moses believed that he could not undertake the assigned task (cf. 6:12).

4:11, 12 Who has made man’s mouth? Three rhetorical questions from God shut the door on any complaints or criticisms about being clumsy of speech. The follow-up command, “Therefore, go!” including its promise of divine help in speech forbade all such objections.

4:13–16 Moses’ fifth and final statement, notwithstanding the opening supplication, “O my Lord,” was a polite way of bluntly saying, “Choose someone else, not me!” The anger of God toward this overt expression of reluctance was appropriate, yet the LORD still provided another way for His plan to move forward unhindered. Providentially (v. 27), Aaron would meet his brother Moses, and positively respond to being the spokesman.

4:15 and I will teach you. The plural pronoun “you” means that God had promised to assist both of them in their newly appointed duties.

4:16 you shall be to him as God. Aaron would speak to the people for Moses, even as Moses would speak to Aaron for the LORD.

4:17 this rod…with which you shall do the signs. Moses, despite God’s anger at his unwillingness, retained superiority in that he had the instrument by which miracles would be done so that it was identified as “the rod of God” (v. 20).

4:18 Please let me go. Courtesy toward the father-in-law for which he worked was not overlooked because of the divine call to service as national leader. Exactly how much was explained of the encounter at the burning bush remains unknown, but the purpose for the return, “and see whether they are still alive,” suggests that specific details of the call for him to be leader/deliverer were left unsaid, in contrast to the full explanation given to Aaron (v. 28).

4:20 sons. Gershom (2:22) and Eliezer (18:4).

4:21 I will harden his heart. The LORD’s personal and direct involvement in the affairs of men so that His purposes might be done is revealed as God informed Moses what would take place. Pharaoh was also warned that his own refusal would bring judgment on him (v. 23). Previously Moses had been told that God was certain of Pharaoh’s refusal (3:19). This interplay between God’s hardening and Pharaoh’s hardening his heart must be kept in balance. Ten times (4:21; 7:3; 9:12; 10:1, 20, 27; 11:10; 14:4, 8, 17) the historical record notes specifically that God hardened the king’s heart, and ten times (7:13, 14, 22; 8:15, 19, 32; 9:7, 34, 35; 13:15) the record indicates the king hardened his own heart. The Apostle Paul used this hardening as an example of God’s inscrutable will and absolute power to intervene as He chooses, yet obviously never without loss of personal responsibility for actions taken (Rom. 9:16–18). The theological conundrum posed by such interplay of God’s acting and Pharaoh’s acting can only be resolved by accepting the record as it stands and by taking refuge in the omniscience and omnipotence of the God who planned and brought about His deliverance of Israel from Egypt, and in so doing also judged Pharaoh’s sinfulness. See note at 9:12.

4:22 My son, My firstborn. To the ancient Egyptians, the firstborn son was special and sacred, and the Pharaoh considered himself the only son of the gods. Now he heard of a whole nation designated as God’s firstborn son, meaning “declared and treated as first in rank, preeminent, with the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of being actually the firstborn.” The LORD pointedly referred to the nation collectively in the singular in order to show that He was a father in what He would do, i.e., bring a nation into existence, then nurture and lead him (cf. Deut. 14:1, 2). Divine sonship, as in the pagan world’s perverted concept of a sexual union between the gods and women, was never so much as hinted at in the way God used the term to express His relationship with Israel, who were His people, a treasured possession, a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation (cf. 6:7; 19:4–6).

4:24–26 The presence of Zipporah’s name indicates that the personal pronouns refer to Moses. She, judging by her action of suddenly and swiftly circumcising her son, understood that the danger to her husband’s life was intimately connected to the family’s not bearing the sign of the covenant given to Abraham for all his descendants (Gen. 17:10–14). Her evaluation, “You are a husband of blood to me,” suggests her own revulsion with this rite of circumcision, which Moses should have performed. The result, however, was God’s foregoing the threat and letting Moses go (v. 26a). The reaction of God at this point dramatically underscored the seriousness of the sign He had prescribed. See note on Jer. 4:4.

4:29, 30 The “leadership team” functioned as instructed: Aaron told all and Moses performed all the signs given to him (vv. 2–9).

4:31 So the people believed…then they bowed…and worshiped. Just as God predicted, they responded in belief at the signs and in worship at the explanation of God’s awareness of their misery.

Exodus 5

5:1 Let My people go. With this command from Israel’s LORD, the confrontation between Pharaoh and Moses, between Pharaoh and God, commenced. It was a command Pharaoh would hear often in the days leading up to the Exodus.

5:2 Who is the LORD…? In all likelihood Pharaoh knew of Israel’s God, but his interrogative retort insolently and arrogantly rejected Him as having any power to make demands of Egypt’s superior ruler.

5:3–5 As a follow-up to Pharaoh’s rejection, the spokesmen rephrase more specifically their request, together with a warning of possible divine judgment upon Israel for their failure to obey their God. Pharaoh saw this simply as a ruse to reduce the hours put in by his slave work force.

5:6–9 Showing his authority to give orders to Israel, Pharaoh immediately increased their workload and the severity of their bondage. By adding, “let them not regard false words,” he showed his negative evaluation of God’s words.

5:10 taskmasters…and their officers. When combined with “officers of the children of Israel” (v. 15), a 3-level command structure is seen to have been in place—Egyptian section leaders and labor gang bosses, and Israelite foremen.

5:11 straw. Ancient documents from Egypt show that straw was used as a necessary component of bricks—it helped bind the clay together.

5:15–19 The formal labor complaint at the highest level was rejected with an emphatic evaluation of laziness on the part of Israel and a demand that production not slack.

5:20–21 The leadership team evidently knew of the lodging of the formal labor complaint and waited outside the royal hall in order to meet Israel’s representatives. The meeting was definitely not a cordial one, with accusations raised both about the propriety of and the authority of the words and actions of Aaron and Moses toward Pharaoh.

5:22, 23 Moses returned to the LORD. Whether Moses and his brother remonstrated with the foremen about their strong and wrong evaluation remains a moot point. Rather, the focus is upon Moses, who remonstrated with the LORD in prayer. Evidently, Moses did not anticipate what effect Pharaoh’s refusal and reaction would have upon his own people. Confrontation with Pharaoh so far had provoked both angry resentment of Israel by the Egyptians and of Moses by Israel—this was not the expected scenario!

Exodus 6

6:1 Now you shall see. The LORD announced in response to Moses’ prayer that finally the stage had been set for dealing with Pharaoh, who, in consequence, would only be able to urge Israel to leave.

6:2–5 God spoke to Moses and reminded him of His promises to the patriarchs. Once again the focal point of the covenant was the land of Canaan deeded to their descendants by divine decree. The fact that this covenant was remembered meant obvious removal from Egypt!

6:2, 3 I am the LORD. The same self-existent, eternal God, Yahweh, had been there in the past with the patriarchs; no change had occurred in Him, either in His covenant or promises.

6:3 God Almighty…LORD…not known. Since the name Yahweh was spoken before the Flood (Gen. 4:26) and later by the patriarchs (Gen. 9:26; 12:8; 22:14; 24:12), the special significance of Yahweh, unknown to them, but to be known by their descendants, must arise from what God would reveal of Himself in keeping the covenant and in redeeming Israel. See notes on 3:13, 14.

6:4 My covenant. The Abrahamic Covenant (cf. Gen. 15:1–21; 17:1–8).

6:6–8 God instructed Moses to remind Israel of what they had previously been told: of God’s remembering the covenant with Abraham, of His seeing their misery, of His delivering them from it, of His granting to them the land of Canaan, and thus taking them there. The repetitive “I will” (7 times) marked God’s personal, direct involvement in Israel’s affairs. Bracketed, as they were, by the declaration, “I am Yahweh,” denoted certainty of fulfillment.

6:9 because of anguish of spirit. The bondage was so great that it blocked out even the stirring words Moses had just delivered to them (vv. 6–8).

6:12 uncircumcised lips? See notes on 4:10.

6:14–27 The genealogical information formally identified Moses and Aaron as descendants of Levi, third son of Jacob by Leah. It also listed Aaron’s son, Eleazar, and grandson, Phinehas, both of whom would become Israel’s High-Priests. Mention of Levi in company with Reuben and Simeon recalled, perhaps, the unsavory background belonging to these three tribal fathers (Gen. 49:3–7) and emphasized that the choice of Moses and Aaron was not due to an exemplary lineage. This is intended to be a representative genealogy, not a complete one.

6:28—7:5 A summary of the mission to Egypt resumes the narrative after the genealogical aside on Moses and Aaron.

Exodus 7

7:1 as God to Pharaoh. Moses, as the spokesman and ambassador for God, would speak with authority and power. your prophet. Aaron, as the divinely appointed spokesman for Moses, would forthrightly deliver the message given to him. Cf. Acts 14:11–13, where Barnabas and Paul were so perceived in a similar situation.

7:4 My armies and My people. The first term in this double-barreled designation of Israel occurred originally in 6:26. The nation was seen as organized like an army with its different divisions (its tribes) and also as God’s military instrument upon the Canaanites. The second term with its possessive pronoun revealed the incongruity of Pharaoh’s acting as though these people belonged to him.

7:5 know that I am the LORD. This purpose of the Exodus finds repeated mention in God’s messages to Pharaoh and in God’s descriptions of what He was doing (cf. 7:16; 8:10, 22; 9:14, 16, 29; 14:4, 18). Some of the Egyptians did come to understand the meaning of the name Yahweh, for they responded appropriately to the warning of the seventh plague (9:20), and others accompanied Israel into the wilderness (12:38). In the final analysis, Egypt would not be able to deny the direct involvement of the God of Israel in their rescue from bondage and the destruction of Egypt’s army.

7:9 Show a miracle. Pharaoh’s desire for accreditation would not go unanswered. That which God had done for Moses with the rod (4:2–9), and Moses had copied for Israel (4:30, 31), also became the sign of authority before Pharaoh (cf. 7:10).

7:11 magicians. Magic and sorcery played a major role in the pantheistic religion of Egypt. Its ancient documents record the activities of the magicians, one of the most prominent being the charming of serpents. These men were also styled “wise men” and “sorcerers,” i.e., the learned men of the day and the religious as well (the word for sorcery being derived from a word meaning “to offer prayers”). Two of these men were named Jannes and Jambres (cf. 2 Tim. 3:8). Any supernatural power came from Satan (cf. 2 Cor. 11:13–15). enchantments. By means of their “secret arts” or “witchcraft,” the wise men, sorcerers, and magicians demonstrated their abilities to perform a similar feat. Whether by optical illusion, sleight of hand, or learned physical manipulation of a snake, all sufficiently skillful enough to totally fool Pharaoh and his servants, or by evil supernaturalism, the evaluation given in the inspired record is simply “they also did in like manner.” However, the turning of rods into snakes, and later turning water into blood (7:22) and calling forth frogs (8:7), were not the same as trying to create lice from inanimate dust (8:18–19). At that point, the magicians had no option but to confess their failure.

7:12 Aaron’s rod swallowed up their rods. The loss of the magicians’ rods in this fashion gave evidence of the superiority of God’s power when Aaron’s rod gulped down theirs.

7:14—10:29 The obvious miraculous nature of the 10 plagues cannot be explained by identifying them with natural occurrences to which Moses then applied a theological interpretation. The specific prediction of, as well as the intensity of, each plague moved it beyond being normal, natural phenomena. The notification of the specific discriminatory nature of some of the plagues, distinguishing between Hebrew and Egyptian (cf. 8:23; 9:4, 6; 10:23), or Goshen and the rest of the land (cf. 8:22; 9:26), as they did, also marks the supernatural nature of these events.

7:15 in the morning. Apparently, Pharaoh habitually went to the river for washing or, more likely, for the performance of some religious rite. Three times Moses would meet him at this early morning rendezvous to warn of plagues, i.e., the first, fourth, and seventh (8:20; 9:13). by the river’s bank. The first confrontation of the plague cycle took place on the banks of the Nile, the sacred waterway of the land, whose annual ebb and flow contributed strategically and vitally to the agricultural richness of Egypt. Hymns of thanksgiving were often sung for the blessings brought by the Nile, the country’s greatest, single economic resource.

7:17 blood. The Heb. word does not denote red coloring such as might be seen when red clay is washed downstream, but denotes actual substance, i.e., blood.

7:19, 20 the waters…all the waters. The use of different words, “waters, streams, rivers, ponds, and pools,” indicates graphically the extent of the plague. Even buckets of wood and stone filled with water and kept inside the homes could not escape the curse of their contents being turned into blood.

7:22 the magicians…did so with their enchantments. How ludicrous and revealing that the magicians resorted to copycat methodology instead of reversing the plague. What they did, bringing just more blood, did serve, however, to bolster Pharaoh’s stubbornness.

7:24 dug all around the river. The only recourse was to tap into the natural water table, the subterranean water supply. Evidently this was the water which was available to the magicians to use (v. 22).

7:25 seven days. An interval of time occurred before another warning was delivered, indicating that the plagues did not occur rapidly in uninterrupted succession.

Exodus 8

8:1 Go to Pharaoh. The warning for the second plague was delivered to Pharaoh, presumably at his palace. Warnings for the fifth (9:1) and eighth (10:1) plagues also occurred at the palace.

8:2 smite. The verb God used also meant “to plague.” Various terms (lit. from the Heb.), namely “plagues” (9:14), “strike” (12:13), and “pestilence” (9:3, 15), were employed to impress them with the severity of what was happening in Egypt. frogs. That Egyptians favored frogs was seen in the wearing of amulets in the shape of a frog and in the prohibition against intentionally killing frogs, who were considered sacred animals. The croaking of frogs from the river and pools of water signaled to farmers that the gods who controlled the Nile’s flooding and receding had once again made the land fertile. The god Hapi was venerated on this occasion because he had caused alluvial deposits to come downstream. Further, the frog was the representation, the image, of the goddess Heqt, the wife of the god Khum, and the symbol of resurrection and fertility. The presence of frogs in such abundance, all over everywhere outside and inside the houses (vv. 3, 13), however, brought only frustration, dismay, and much discomfort, rather than the normal signal that the fields were ready for cultivating and harvesting.

8:7 the magicians did so. Once again, instead of reversing the plague, the magicians in demonstrating the power of their secret arts only appeared to increase the frog population to the added discomfort of the people. Their power was not sufficient enough to do more than play “copycat.” That the magicians could duplicate but not eradicate the problem was, however, sufficient to solidify royal stubbornness.

8:8 Entreat the LORD. Using the LORD’s name and begging for relief through His intervention was more a point in negotiation and not a personal or official recognition of Israel’s LORD.

8:9 remain in the river only. A specific detail like this in Moses’ question indicates that the Nile and the waters had returned to normal and again continued to support life.

8:10 Tomorrow. Having been granted the privilege to set the time when the LORD would answer Moses’ prayer for relief, Pharaoh requested a cessation only on the next day. Presumably he hoped something else would happen before then so that he would not have to acknowledge the LORD’s power in halting the plague, nor be obligated to Moses and his God. But God answered the prayer of Moses, and Pharaoh remained obstinate (v. 15).

8:16 Without prior warning, the third plague descended on the country. The same absence of warning occurred for the sixth (9:8, 9) and the ninth (10:21) plagues. A 3-fold pattern surfaces: prior warning at the river, then at the palace, and then no warning given. lice. The Heb. term is preferably taken to designate tiny, stinging gnats barely visible to the naked eye. Those priests, who fastidiously kept themselves religiously pure by frequent washing and by shaving off body hair, were afflicted and rendered impure in their duties.

8:17 All the dust of the land…throughout all the land. The record stresses by its repetition of “all” and “land” the tremendous extent and severity of this pestilence.

8:19 This is the finger of God. The failure of the magicians to duplicate this plague elicited from them this amazing evaluation, not only among themselves, but publicly before Pharaoh, who nevertheless remained recalcitrant, unwilling to acknowledge the power of God.

8:21 swarms. The LXX translates “swarms” as “dog-fly,” a bloodsucking insect. The ichneumon fly, which deposited its eggs on other living things so the larvae could feast upon it, was considered the manifestation of the god Uatchit. “The land was corrupted because of the swarms” (v. 24) is hardly an evaluation propitious for any insect-god! Whatever the specific type of fly might have been, the effect of the plague was intense and distressful.

8:22 set apart the land of Goshen. For the first time in connection with the plagues, God specifically noted the discrimination to be made—Israel would be untouched! The term “sign” (v. 23) describes the distinction which was being drawn and which was also specifically noted for the fifth, seventh, ninth, and tenth plagues. Coupled with the repeated emphasis on “My people” in God’s pronouncements, the specific distinguishing between Israel in Goshen and Egypt itself highlighted both God’s personal and powerful oversight of His people.

8:23 Tomorrow. The plague-warning on this occasion stated exactly when it would strike, giving Pharaoh and his people opportunity to repent or yield. “Tomorrow” was also the due time for the fifth, seventh, and eighth plagues (9:5, 18; 10:4), and “about midnight” was the stated time for the ninth plague to commence (11:4). See note on 11:4.

8:26 sacrificing the abomination of the Egyptians. An attempt at appeasement by compromise on the part of Pharaoh—”Go, sacrifice…in the land”—was countered by Moses’ pointing out that Israel’s sacrifices would not be totally acceptable to the Egyptians, who might even react violently—”will they not stone us?” This evaluation Pharaoh immediately understood. Either their strong dislike of shepherds and sheep (Gen. 46:34) or Israel’s sacrificial animals being sacred ones in their religion brought about Egyptian aversion to Israel’s sacrifices.

8:27–29 We will go…I will let you go. The first declaration showed the decision to travel no less than 3 days beyond Egyptian borders was a non-negotiable item. The second declaration showed Pharaoh trying to keep that decision to travel and sacrifice strictly under his authority and not as a response to the LORD’s request for His people.

8:28 Intercede for me. An abbreviated request, applying not only to himself but also for the removal of the plague as previously asked in connection with the second plague (8:8).

8:29 let Pharaoh not deal deceitfully. Moses’ closing exhortation underscored the deceptive nature of the king’s words.

8:31 Not one remained. This declaration of the total divine removal of the flies—a demonstration of God’s answering Moses’ entreaty—did not persuade Pharaoh at all. Once again, removed from the humiliating effects of a plague, his stubborn resistance resurfaced (v. 32).

Exodus 9

9:3 in the field. Apparently stabled livestock did not succumb to the pestilence. Although incredibly severe, some animals were still alive afterwards for Egypt to continue without total loss to an economy which depended upon domesticated animals. A few months later, when the seventh plague struck, there were still some cattle, which, if left in the field, would have died (9:19). horses…camels. Horses, which were common in the period, had been brought into military service by the Hyksos. See Introduction: Author and Date. Camels were a domesticated animal by this time in the 15th century B.C. a very severe pestilence. In listing the different kinds of livestock, the severe nature of the plague was emphatically underscored as one which would for the first time target personal property. Egyptian literature and paintings substantiate how valuable livestock was to them. Whatever the exact nature of this pestilence—anthrax, murrain, or other livestock disease—it was clearly contagious and fatal. Religious implications were obvious: Egypt prized the bull as a sacred animal with special attention and worship being given to the Apis bull, the sacred animal of the god Ptah. Heliopolis venerated the bull, Mnevis. Further, the goddess Hathor, represented by a cow, or a cow-woman image, was worshiped in several cities.

9:4 nothing shall die. The additional declaration on the safety of Israel’s livestock graphically underscored the miraculous nature of what God was about to do as He declared for the second time the distinction being made between Israel and Egypt. It underscored Israel’s protection and to whom she really belonged.

9:5 appointed a set time. The prophetic and miraculous nature of this plague is highlighted by stating “tomorrow” and, by noting “on the next day,” it happened as predicted (v. 6).

9:6 of the livestock…of Israel, not one died. The distinction being made received added emphasis with this double declaration that Israelites suffered absolutely no loss in livestock.

9:7 Then Pharaoh sent. This time the king had to check on the veracity of the protection afforded Israel. Whatever his own rationalizations or theories about it might have been, they only confirmed him in his resistance and disobedience, despite finding out that it was true, “indeed, not even one…was dead.”

9:9 boils that break out in sores on man and beast. For the first time human health was targeted.

9:10 ashes from the furnace. Aaron and Moses took two handfuls of ash, not just from any furnace, but from a lime-kiln or brick-making furnace. That which participated so largely in their oppressive labor became the source of a painful health hazard for the oppressors!

9:11 magicians could not stand. A side comment indicates that these men (who in Egyptian eyes were men of power) had been so sorely afflicted that they could not stand, either physically or vocationally, before God’s spokesmen. Although they are not mentioned after the third plague, they apparently had continued to serve before Pharaoh and were undoubtedly there when plagues 4 and 5 were announced. Their powerlessness had not been sufficient as yet for Pharaoh to dispense with their services—an outward symbol, perhaps, of Pharaoh’s unwillingness to grant the God of Israel total sovereignty.

9:12 the LORD hardened. For the first time, apart from the words to Moses before the plagues began (cf. Ex. 4:21; 7:3), the statement is made that God hardened Pharaoh’s heart. In the other instances, the record observes that Pharaoh hardened his own heart. Each instance records “as the Lord commanded,” so what happened did so from two closely related perspectives: 1) God was carrying out His purpose through Pharaoh, and 2) Pharaoh was personally responsible for his actions as the command of v. 13 implies. See note on 4:21.

9:14 My plagues. God’s use of the possessive pronoun specified what should have become abundantly clear to Pharaoh by then, namely, that these were God’s own workings. to your very heart. “To send to the very heart” was apparently a colloquial expression denoting someone’s being made to feel the full force of an act, to feel it strike home!

9:14–19 After sounding again the customary demand to release God’s people for worship (v. 13), and after delivering a warning of how His plagues would really have an impact (v. 14), God provided more information and issued certain preliminary instructions:

(1) A 3-fold purpose pertained to the plagues, namely, the Egyptians would recognize that Yahweh was incomparable, that His power would be demonstrated through them, and that His name, character, attributes, and power, would be known everywhere. Egypt could not keep from other nations her humiliation by the plagues of Israel’s LORD.

(2) A declaration that whatever royal authority Pharaoh had, it had been because of God’s sovereign and providential control of world affairs, which included putting Pharaoh on his throne. This was a telling reminder that He was what He declared Himself to be, the one and only true and immanent LORD.

(3) A reminder of the worst scenario for Egypt if Yahweh had chosen, in lieu of the preceding plagues, to strike the people first—they would have perished. In other words, God had been gracious and longsuffering in the progression of the plagues.

(4) A declaration that the weather about to be unleashed by the incomparable God was unlike anything previously recorded in Egypt’s entire history, or “since its founding” or “since it became a nation.”

(5) An instruction as to how the Egyptians could avoid severe storm damage and loss of property. Grace again was afforded them!

9:16 See Rom. 9:17 where Paul indicates God’s sovereignty over Pharaoh.

9:20, 21 who feared…who did not regard. Some heard the instruction and obeyed; others, like their national leader, did not “regard the word of the LORD,” a graphic expression of refusal to heed divine instruction.

9:23, 24 fire darted…fire mingled. The violent, electrical thunderstorm brought with it unusual lightning, or “fireballs,” which zigzagged (lit. “fire taking hold of itself”) to and fro on the ground with the hail.

9:26 Only in the land of Goshen. The discriminatory nature of this plague was unannounced beforehand, but the national distinction previously declared and observed again prevailed. Although unstated, those who were in the strife-torn regions and who obeyed instructions obviously found their livestock equally safe and sound.

9:27 I have sinned this time. Any improvement in Pharaoh’s theological understanding, notwithstanding the following confession of a righteous LORD and of a wicked people, was rendered suspect by the face-saving caveat “this time.” Lacking repentance, it brushed aside all previous reaction and disobedience as having no significance.

9:28 it is enough. Moses’ reply (v. 30) indicated that such an evaluation was not one of repentance nor one of fearing the LORD and acknowledging His power.

9:31, 32 flax and the barley were struck…the wheat and the spelt were not struck. A very brief bulletin on which crops were damaged and which were not placed this plague in Feb. All 4 crops mentioned were important economic resources. Wheat would be harvested only a month later than flax and barley together with the aftercrop “spelt” or “rye.” God’s timing of the disaster to two crops left room for Pharaoh to repent before the other crops might be destroyed.

9:34 sinned yet more. Pharaoh’s culpability increased because when he saw God answer Moses’ prayer—an entreaty he had requested (v. 28)—still all his admissions and promises were promptly swept aside. he and his servants. For the first time mention is made of the stubborn resistance of Pharaoh’s entourage, all of whom had hardened their hearts. The striking contrast emerges in God’s directions to Moses for the next plague: He had hardened their hearts for a purpose (10:1).

Exodus 10

10:2 that you may tell…that you may know. The release from Egypt, accompanied by these great acts of God, was designed to become an important and indelible part in recounting the history of Israel to succeeding generations. It would tell just who their God was and what He had done. the mighty things…done. Lit. “to deal harshly with” or “to make sport of,” and describing an action by which shame and disgrace is brought upon its object.

10:3 How long will you refuse…? The question asked of Pharaoh struck a contrast with the opening words of God to Moses (v. 1), “I have hardened his heart.” What God did cannot erase personal responsibility from Pharaoh to hear, repent, and submit. Under the cumulative weight of 7 plagues, the time had come to deliver a challenge to reconsider and obey. This is God’s grace operating parallel with His own sovereign purposes.

10:4–6 The extent and intensity of the locust plague was such that it would be unique in Egyptian history—nothing like any locust problem during the previous two generations, nor like any locust swarm in the future (v. 14). Locust invasions were feared in Egypt, to the point that the farmers often prayed to the locust god to ensure the safety of their crops. The humiliation of their god was total, as was the damage: “There remained nothing green…” (v. 15).

10:7 How long shall this man…? The first “How long?” question in this encounter dealt with the desired response from Pharaoh (v. 3), whereas this second “How long?” question pointed out their impatience at Pharaoh’s intransigence. Their advice—to give in—was the best choice. Egypt is destroyed. The advisers negatively evaluated the state of the country after 7 plagues, and suggested that Pharaoh was refusing to acknowledge how desperate the situation really was even before the agriculture was completely destroyed. Stubborn resistance did not necessarily rob them of all reason, and the better part of wisdom this time demanded acquiescence to Moses’ request.

10:8 Who are the ones that are going? For the first time Pharaoh tried to negotiate a deal before the threatened plague struck. Adroitly, he suggested in his question that only representatives of Israel, perhaps only the men (v. 11), need go out to worship.

10:10 The LORD had better be with you. Sarcastic threats demonstrated the unyielding and unreasonable obstinacy of Pharaoh. Egyptian women did accompany their men in religious celebration, but in Israel’s case if the men went out then the women and children were in effect hostages bidding them return.

10:11 driven out. For the first time, God’s two spokesmen were angrily dismissed from the throne room.

10:12 all that the hail has left. This reminder of the previous plague in which God had graciously restrained the extent of agricultural damage appeared also in the warning of the plague given to Pharaoh and his advisers (v. 5) and in the description of the damage done by the locusts (v. 15).

10:13 an east wind. God used natural means, most probably the spring hot wind, or “sirocco,” to bring the locusts into the country from the Arabian peninsula.

10:16 in haste. A recognition on the part of Pharaoh that his country now faced a crisis brought forth a hurried confession to Aaron and Moses, which again was merely an expedient course of action.

10:17 forgive my sin. Again, an attempt to sound earnest in his response, and again with an appeal for Moses to pray for removal of the plague. He referred to it this time as “this death,” or “deadly plague,” phrases which highlighted the severity of Egypt’s condition.

10:19 west wind. In answer to prayer, wind direction reversed as the LORD caused the locusts to be blown eastward out of the country. The completeness of their removal received emphasis. That none remained in the country was apparently something unusual, perhaps somewhat distinct from previously known locust invasions. The absence of locusts was a challenging reminder of the power of the LORD who had brought it all to pass.

10:21, 22 darkness…felt…thick darkness. Such a description of the ninth plague, which occurred without warning, pointed to the most unusual nature of the three-day darkness that now prevented any from leaving their homes. That Israel had light in their dwellings and went about their normal activity stresses the supernatural nature of this plague. It takes attention away from trying to explain the darkness solely in terms of the Khamsin, the swirling sandstorms of the day. The LXX did, however, string together 3 Gr. words, two for darkness and one for storm, to portray the nuance of the Heb. In so doing, it may unwittingly have given some credence to a severe sandstorm. Theologically, such thick darkness directly challenged the faithfulness of the sun god, Ra, to provide warmth and sunshine from day to day, and also prevented any daily worship rituals from taking place.

10:24 Go…Let your little ones also go with you. Pharaoh’s deceitful and manipulative negotiating skills rose to the occasion: Let the people go but keep back their livestock as the hostage forcing their return. He had not yet understood that partial obedience to the Lord’s directions was unacceptable.

10:25 See 3:18 for remarks on the request to leave for worship suggesting something less than permanent departure.

10:28 Get away from me!…you shall die! Pharaoh’s obstinacy and resistance reached a new height when he summarily dismissed Moses and Aaron and this time added a death threat.

10:29 never see your face again. Moses concurred, but from another perspective than that of Pharaoh. All negotiations and requests ceased immediately. Moses would be summoned to see Pharaoh again after the tenth plague (12:31), but that would be to hear him finally concede defeat.

Exodus 11

11:1–3 And the LORD said. Read as “the LORD had said.” In a parenthetical paragraph, the narrative recorded that which God had already said to Moses during the 3 days of darkness, priming him for Pharaoh’s summons, and priming Israel to receive Egyptian jewelry and other goods. An aside explained Egyptian generosity as occasioned by divine intervention (cf. 12:35, 36). This also included a healthy respect by Egypt’s leaders and people for Israel’s leader.

11:4–8 Then Moses said. Moses’ response to Pharaoh’s threat continued with his giving warning of the final plague and leaving with great indignation. The death threat delivered by Pharaoh evoked one from God. The “get out!” from Pharaoh to Israel’s and God’s spokesmen would be met by the “get out” from the Egyptians to Israel.

11:4 About midnight. The day was not specified, as in previous plagues by “tomorrow.” It took place either the same day of the final confrontation with Pharaoh or a few days later. If the instructions for the Passover (12:1–20) were not given during the days of darkness, then 4 days minimum would be required to set the stage for that special feast day, i.e., from the tenth to the fourteenth day (12:3, 6). See note on 8:23. I will go out. God was, of course, involved in all previous plagues through whatever means He chose to use, but this time, to warrant personal attention, God stated that He Himself (emphatic personal pronoun used) would march throughout the land. Note the repeated “I will” statements in the Passover instructions (12:12, 13).

11:5 the firstborn. The firstborn held a particularly important position in the family and society, not only inheriting a double portion of the father’s estate, but also representing special qualities of life and strength (cf. Gen. 49:3). In Egypt, the firstborn would ascend to the throne and continue the dynasty. Whatever significance might have been attached religiously, politically, dynastically, and socially, it was all stripped away by the extent and intensity of the plague—namely the execution of all the firstborn of all classes of the population including their animals.

11:6 So drastic was this plague that its uniqueness in Egypt’s history, already past and yet to come, was noted in the warning.

11:7 In contrast to the turmoil and grief experienced in Egyptian territory, all remained tranquil in Israelite territory—so much so that not even a dog barked. That the LORD had made and was making a sharp distinction between the two peoples was a fact to which none could be blind.

Exodus 12

12:1 the LORD spoke. Most probably, the instructions on the Passover (vv. 1–20) were also given during the 3 days of darkness in order to fully prepare Israel for the grand finale, their Exodus from Egypt. in the land. Later, while Israel was in the wilderness, Moses wrote (23:14–17; Deut. 16:1–8) and indicated that the detailed instructions for this very special feast day in Israel’s religious calendar were not like those of the other special days, all which were given after the nation had already left Egypt. This one, the Passover, was inextricably linked to what took place in the Exodus, and that connection was never to be forgotten. It became indelibly entrenched in Israel’s tradition and has always marked the day of redemption from Egypt.

12:2 This month. The month of Abib (Mar./Apr.) by divine decree became the beginning of the religious calendar, marking the start of Israel’s life as a nation. Later in Israel’s history, after the Babylonian captivity, Abib would become Nisan (cf. Neh. 2:1; Esth. 3:7).

12:3–14 The detailed instructions for the Passover included what animal to select, when to slay it, what to do with its blood, how to cook it, what to do with leftovers, how to dress for the meal, the reason why it was being celebrated “in haste,” and what the shed blood signified.

12:5 Your lamb shall be without blemish. A kid goat was an alternative choice. Any flaw would render it unfit to represent a pure, wholesome sacrifice given to Yahweh.

12:6 at twilight. Lit. “between the two evenings.” Since the new day was reckoned from sunset, the sacrificing of the lamb or kid was done before sunset while it was still day 14 of the first month. “Twilight” has been taken to signify either that time between sunset and the onset of darkness, or from the decline of the sun until sunset. Later Moses would prescribe the time for the sacrifice as “at twilight, at the going down of the sun” (Deut. 16:6). According to Josephus, it was customary in his day to slay the lamb at about 3:00 p.m. This was the time of day that Christ, the Christian’s Passover lamb (1 Cor. 5:7), died (Luke 23:44–46).

12:9 Do not eat it raw. A prohibition with health implications which also distinguished them from pagan peoples who often ate raw flesh in their sacred festivals.

12:12 against all the gods. The tenth plague was a judgment against all Egyptian deities. The loss of the firstborn of men and beasts had far-reaching theological implications, namely, the impotence of the pagan deities, many of whom were represented by animals, to protect their devotees from such nationwide tragedies. The great cry of grief (11:6; 12:30) may also have bemoaned the incapability of the nation’s gods.

12:14 a memorial. The details of how this Passover Day was to be memorialized in future years were laid down (vv. 14–20), and then repeated in the instructions to the elders (vv. 21–27). Prescribing the eating of unleavened bread for 7 days, demanding a thorough house-cleaning from leaven (v. 15), issuing a stern warning of banishment for eating leaven (v. 15), and bracketing the 7 days with special holy days (v. 16), served to proclaim the high importance of the nation’s remembering this event.

12:16 prepared by you. See note on v. 46.

12:19 a stranger. Provision was made right at the beginning for non-Israelites to be included in the nation’s religious festivals. Failure to comply with the regulations on leaven would result in banishment for the alien as well.

12:22 bunch of hyssop. Certain identification is impossible, but this could be the marjoram plant. lintel…the two doorposts. The top and two sides of the doorway.

12:23 the destroyer. This is most likely the Angel of the LORD (cf. 2 Sam. 24:16; Is. 37:36). See note on 3:2.

12:25 The promise of entering the land again received emphasis. Israel was not to think of the Exodus as merely a departure from Egypt, but rather as a departure from one land in order to enter another land, which would be their own, in strict accordance with the specifics of the Abrahamic Covenant for his descendants through Isaac and Jacob (cf. Gen. 17:7, 8).

12:26, 27 In the annual commemoration of the Passover, parents were obligated to teach their children its meaning. It became customary for the youngest child of a Jewish family to elicit the father’s formal explanation of what happened in connection with the original observance of the meal in Egypt.

12:31 Rise, go out…serve the LORD. Finally, Pharaoh’s response to the repeated “Let My people go!” became “Leave my people!” with no attempt at further negotiation, but total acquiescence. His subjects, fearing more deaths, concurred and hastened Israel’s departure (v. 33), driving them out with no time wasted (v. 39).

12:32 bless me also. Undoubtedly, this final request from Pharaoh, whose heart was certainly not repentant (14:8), temporarily conceded defeat and acknowledged Moses and his God as the victors and as those who had the power and resources to bless him.

12:36 they plundered the Egyptians. Cf. Gen. 15:14; Ex. 3:20, 21. This was not done with deceit, but rather a straightforward request (cf. 11:2, 3).

12:37—18:27 This section recounts the march of the Israelites from Egypt to Mt. Sinai.

12:37 Rameses to Succoth. One of the cities Israel built (1:11) headed up the itinerary for the journey through the wilderness to Canaan. Succoth is first mentioned in Gen. 33:17 as an encampment designated by the word Succoth, which means “booth.” Although there is later a town by that name E of the Jordan (cf. Judg. 8:5–16), this is rather a place near Egypt (cf. 13:20; Num. 33:5, 6). six hundred thousand men on foot. A conservative estimate based on the number of men, probably the fighting men 20 years of age and above, would give a population of 2 million. Israel’s population had exploded from the 70 who entered with Jacob in 1875 B.C. to the 2 million who left with Moses in 1445 B.C. See note on 1:7.

12:38 A mixed multitude. Other Semitic peoples, other races, and perhaps some native Egyptians accompanied the departing nation. They preferred to be identified with the victorious nation and Jehovah God. Later, some of these became the troublemakers with whom Moses had to deal (Num. 11:4).

12:40, 41 four hundred and thirty years. Abraham had been told that his descendants would be aliens mistreated in a foreign land for 400 years, using a figure rounded to hundreds (Gen. 15:13).

12:43–51 Additional regulations given for the holding of the Passover contained prohibitions on any uncircumcised foreigner, stranger, or hired servant being a valid participant. To partake of this meal, non-Israelites had to be “as a native of the land” (v.48). See note on Jer. 4:4.

12:46 break…bones. Christ, the Christian’s Passover lamb (1 Cor. 5:7), had no bones broken (John 19:36).

12:50 so they did. On two occasions (see also v. 28) Moses emphasized the complete obedience of the nation in response to the LORD’s commands to them: a contrast to the disobedience they would demonstrate in the very near future.

12:51 on that very same day. What would be for the nation in their new Land a special Sabbath day, was for them at that time the day on which their journey began.

Exodus 13

13:2–10 Further explanation tied their departure to the divine promise of entrance and residence in a new land where commemoration of the Exodus would occur through annual observance of this 7 day feast. Again the pedagogical opportunity afforded was not to be overlooked (vv. 8, 16).

13:2 Consecrate to Me all the firstborn. Since the firstborn of Israel, of both man and animal, were untouched by the tenth plague, it was fitting that they be set aside as special unto God. Note the closing emphasis: “it is Mine.” Further instruction followed on the law relating to the firstborn males once they were in their assigned territory (vv. 11–16). This divine demand was closely linked to the day of departure (12:51, “on that very same day”) and the Feast of Unleavened Bread (v. 3, “this day” and v. 4, “on this day…in the month of Abib”). See Luke 2:7, where Christ was referred to as Mary’s firstborn.

13:8 for me when I. A personalized application of God’s working belonged to the first generation who experienced the Exodus. Later generations could only say “for us, when we…” in the sense of “our nation,” but without loss to the significance of how God had brought about such an important day in the nation’s history. Note the personalized application of the law of the firstborn as well (v. 15, “I sacrifice…my sons I redeem”).

13:9 Later generations would translate this figurative and proverbial expression (cf. Prov. 3:3; 6:21) into the physical reality of phylacteries—the leather prayer-boxes which were strapped on the left arm and on the forehead. Four strips of parchment inscribed with certain words (13:1–16; Deut. 6:4–9; 11:13–21) were placed inside these boxes. The imagery of the proverbial mode of speech signified that their conduct was to be that of someone who could verbally recall what God’s law demanded of them. Yahweh who had rescued them had also provided the standards of life for them!

13:12, 15 See Luke 2:23.

13:17 by way of the land of the Philistines. Travelers going E and NE out of Egypt had two good options: “the way of the sea,” or “the way of Shur.” The first route, the most direct and shortest, was dotted with Egyptian fortresses which monitored arrivals and departures to and from Egypt. A little further N, Philistine territory also presented a military threat. The lack of battle-readiness on Israel’s part deleted the first option, and God chose the second option (v. 18; 15:22). In any case, God had told Moses to lead the people to Horeb or Sinai, the mountain of God (3:1), and not to take them immediately into Canaan (3:12).

13:18 the Red Sea. An alternative designation, quite in accord with the Heb. term, would be “Sea of Reeds,” or perhaps “of papyrus marshes.” The difficulty of precisely locating other names associated with the crossing of the Red Sea (see 14:2) has occasioned much debate on the location of the crossing. Four views have generally emerged: It was located 1) in the northeastern region of the delta—but this would have been in effect “the way of the sea” and would not have been 3 days’ journey from Marah (15:22, 23); 2) in the northern end of the Gulf of Suez—but this rules out entry into the wilderness of Shur (15:22); 3) in the vicinity of Lake Timsah or the southern extension of present day Lake Menzaleh—but probably more than 3 days from Marah; and 4) in the Bitter Lakes region, satisfying, in terms of geography and time, all objections to the other options.

13:19 the bones of Joseph. In fulfillment of their solemnly sworn duty and responsibility (Gen. 50:24–26), the Israelites took Joseph’s coffin with them. Some 360 years earlier he had foreseen the day when God would bring about the Exodus, and his instructions about his bones being carried to the Promised Land indicated just how certain he was of Israel’s departure for Canaan (cf. Gen. 50:24–26; Heb. 11:22). After the years of wilderness wanderings, Joseph’s remains reached their final resting place in Shechem (Josh. 24:32).

13:20 Etham at the edge of the wilderness. The Heb. name of this place may be a transliteration of the Egyptian Khetem meaning “fortress.” A line of fortresses (see note on v. 17) stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Gulf of Suez. Even if the site remains unknown so that pinpointing it is not possible, it was surely a place bordering on the desert area to the E of Egypt.

13:21 a pillar of cloud…a pillar of fire. This was the means by which God led the people. It was a single column, being cloud by day and fire by night (cf. 14:24) and was associated with the Angel of God (14:19; 23:20–23) or the Angel of God’s presence (Is. 63:8, 9). See note on 3:2. It was the pillar from which the LORD also spoke to Moses (33:9–11).

Exodus 14

14:3, 4 Pharaoh will say…I will harden. Pharaoh was kept abreast of Israelite progress and when he heard of the change of direction, he assumed they were lost in unfamiliar territory and were trapped, closed in by desert, sea, and marsh. God intervened again and the stage was set for the final confrontation and final display of divine power.

14:5 Why have we done this…? Hardened hearts lost all sensitivity to the recent tragedy and focused instead on the loss of the economic benefit Israel’s enslavement had provided. Those who had urged the Israelites to quickly leave now had the urge to force them to return!

14:7 six hundred choice chariots. Chariots, introduced by the Hyksos (see Introduction: Author and Date), featured prominently in the army of Egypt, and these “choice” ones belonged to an elite, specialized unit.

14:8 Israel went out with boldness. The confidence shown by Israel in their departure is in sharp contrast to the fear they exhibited when they became aware of the pursuing force (v. 10).

14:10 cried out to the LORD. The initial reaction of the people on seeing the approach was to turn to the LORD in anxious prayer. But prayer soon turned to complaints with Moses as the target of their dismay.

14:11 no graves in Egypt. In the light of Egypt’s excessive preoccupation with death and various funerary and mortuary rituals, the bitter irony of Israel’s questions marked how easily they had forgotten both bondage and rescue.

14:12 serve the Egyptians? Just how much they conveniently forgot the degree of enslavement came out in their “We told you so” attitude. The comment of being better off living and serving than dying perhaps summarized their earlier reaction to Moses and Aaron outside the royal chambers (5:20, 21).

14:13 Do not be afraid. Moses’ exhortation turned attention to the LORD, whose power they had already seen dramatically in action, and whose deliverance they were about to witness and personally experience. All they needed to do was stand by and watch their God at work, fighting on their side. Euphemistically, Moses informed his people of the certain death of the Egyptian soldiers—you will not see them again! Expressing and experiencing fear did not mean Israel was less than 600,000 fighting men in number, as some have objected. The poorly trained, inadequately equipped, militarily unprepared, and inexperienced Israelites (13:17) were no match for Pharaoh’s experienced troops and his highly trained and mobilized chariot force.

14:14 The LORD will fight. This has been and will be true throughout the history of Israel (cf. 1 Sam. 17:47; 2 Chr. 14:10, 11; 20:15; Ps. 24:8; Zech. 14:3).

14:15 Why do you cry to Me?…go forward. The LORD’s promise of deliverance overruled all despair and sense of hopelessness.

14:16, 17 lift up your rod. For the grand, triumphant finale, the rod which had previously been used to bring in different plagues on the Egyptians now divided the water, opening up a valley through which Israel would walk and in which Egypt’s army would drown.

14:19 stood behind them. The Angel of the LORD, and the pillar of cloud and fire, moved from being advance guard to being rear guard, from leading to protecting. See note on 3:2.

14:21 strong east wind. God’s use of natural phenomena does not detract in any way from the miraculous nature of what took place that night. The psalmist recorded this event as the LORD dividing the sea by His strength (Ps. 74:13). The wind walled up the waters on either side of the pathway then opened (v. 22; 15:8; Ps. 78:13).

14:24 the morning watch. The last of three 4-hour night watches (2:00—6:00 a.m.) ended about sunrise.

14:24, 25 the LORD looked down…and He troubled. Not only was the LORD fully aware of exactly what was happening—after all, He hardened Egyptian hearts to pursue Israel—He also brought havoc among them. Entrapped in the valley between the walls of water and in total disarray, they acknowledged that the LORD was fighting for their enemy. Not only were they swept aside by the returning waters (vv. 26–28), they were also hindered from driving their chariots forward by a sudden cloudburst (Ps. 77:17–19).

14:29–31 The stark difference between Israel and Egypt is again rehearsed: One nation is obstinate and defeated, their dead on the shores of the sea, having acknowledged the LORD victorious; the other nation is alive on the shores, having traversed the sea on dry ground, acknowledging the work of the LORD, reverencing and believing Him and His servant, Moses.

Exodus 15

15:1–18 The structure of the song now sung by the nation contains 4 stanzas (vv. 1–5; 6–10; 11–13; and 14–17) and a one-line closing declaration (v. 18). Stanzas one and two end with “They sank…,” a refrain emphasizing the finality of the enemy army’s defeat. Stanzas three and four end with reference to God’s Holy Place (vv. 13 and 17). More is involved than in easily observing these break points of the song. The flow of thought and emphasis is also interesting. Stanza one briefly introduces God’s powerful victory (vv. 1–5). Stanza two graphically repeats the victory and then inserts the arrogant and vengeful assertions of victory by the enemy to show how puny they were (vv. 6–10). Stanza three concisely summarizes the victory after asking an appropriate question (vv. 11–13). Further, since the victory was essential for Israel’s rescue, the stanza also introduces them. Stanza four picks up and expands on Yahweh’s leading His people to their divinely assigned home and the consequent fear by other nations as they hear of Israel’s dramatic rescue from such a powerful enemy nation (vv. 14–17). The closing line sums it all up: The LORD reigns! A narrative interlude (vv. 19, 20) reminds of the theme behind the song, and introduces the antiphonal response of Miriam and her band of women (v. 21).

15:1 I will sing. The Israelites began their song in the first person, effectively personalizing the community’s song as individually relevant, each person heralding Yahweh’s victory and declaring who and what He was to them (note the possessive pronouns in v. 2).

15:6 O LORD. The forthright declarations of the opening stanza (vv. 1–5) are most appropriately followed by this vocative form of address in the rest of the song (vv. 6, 11, 16, 17), since the focus of attention is on His working and intervention.

15:15 Edom…Moab…Canaan. Edom and Moab were on the eastern border of the Jordan; Canaan or Palestine is to the west.

15:16, 17 An expression of confidence in the promises that God had made to Abraham 700 years earlier (see Gen. 12, 15, 17).

15:18 reign forever. This speaks of the eternal, universal Kingship of the LORD (cf. Ps. 145:13).

15:20 the prophetess. Miriam was the first woman to be given this honor. She herself claimed the LORD had spoken through her (Num. 12:2). She apparently played an important role in these rescue events because the prophet Micah states that God delivered Israel by the hand of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Mic. 6:4). Other women to receive this rare honor were Deborah (Judg. 4:4); Huldah (2 Kin. 22:14); Isaiah’s wife (Is. 8:3); Anna (Luke 2:36); and Philip’s four daughters (Acts 21:9).

15:24 complained against Moses. Israelite memory of victory displayed a remarkable brevity. The personalized declarations of their ode to the LORD sung 3 days earlier vanished into thin air. Their belief of Moses faded out of the picture (14:31). Their question about drinking water roughly brushed aside all recent affirmations of God’s being worthy of praise because He had done wonders and was clearly taking them to their land.

15:25 waters were made sweet. Since there is no known tree which would naturally make unpalatable water drinkable, this must have been a miracle by which God demonstrated His willingness and ability to look after His people in a hostile environment. Marah is usually associated with modern day Ain Hawarah, where the waters still remain brackish and unpleasant. tested them. “To subject to difficulty in order to prove the quality of someone or something” is one way to explain the meaning of the Heb. word used. Later, at Rephidim (17:1–7), at Sinai (20:20), and at Taberah (Num. 11:1–3; 13:26–33), God did just that to Israel. This is something which no one can do to God Himself (Deut. 6:16)—He needs no testing in character or deed, but man certainly does need proving.

15:26 the LORD who heals. Since this is what He is, Jehovah-Rapha, obedience to divine instruction and guidance will obviously bring healing, not the consequence of plagues like those visited upon Egypt. This promise is limited in context to Israel, most likely for the duration of the Exodus only.

15:27 Elim. The next stopping place, most probably in modern day Wadi Garandel, had an abundant water supply—God would and did lead them aright!

Exodus 16

16:1 Wilderness of Sin. More details of the camp sites in the journey from Rameses to Succoth and beyond are found in Num. 33:5–11. That itinerary also lists the next stop as having been Dophkah (Num. 33:12). Identifying it with modern Debbet er Ramleh locates it in the SW of the Sinai peninsula on a direct line between Elim and Sinai. fifteenth day…second month. Thirty days after their departure from Rameses.

16:2 the whole congregation…complained. What characterized them as a whole was this attitude of negativism. Faced with the scarcity of resources in the wilderness, they hankered after the abundant resources they had experienced in Egypt. The country which had enslaved them looked good in comparison to the wilderness. Again, their complaining so soon after benefiting from the miracles done by the LORD on their behalf points only to their short-term memory and self-centeredness.

16:3 died by the hand of the LORD. Incredibly, Israel’s complaint still acknowledged the intervention of the LORD in their affairs. Sarcastically, they voiced a preference for dying in Egypt. The hand of the LORD which they had glorified in song (15:6) only a month beforehand, they now pretended would have been better used to kill them in Egypt.

16:4 I will rain bread. God’s gracious answer to their complaining was to promise an abundance of the bread they missed. God’s directions on how to gather it would also test their obedience to Him (vv. 4, 5, 16, 26–28). See note on 16:31.

16:5 The same principle on a larger scale would feed the nation during and after the sabbatical year (cf. Lev. 25:18–22).

16:6 you shall know. Israel’s short-term memory loss would be short-lived because that very day of complaint would witness not only God’s provision for them but also would powerfully remind them of who had brought them out of Egypt, namely, the LORD their God (cf. vv. 11, 12).

16:7 the glory of the LORD. In seeing the start of the provision of daily bread on the next day, Israel would also see the LORD’s glory, an appropriate term to use because what He did showed His presence with them. “Glory” typically refers to God’s manifested presence, which makes Him impressive and leads to worship. your complaints. Set in the context of instruction on how the LORD would act to provide for them, the 4-fold repetition of this phrase (vv. 6–9) served to highlight God’s gracious response in contrast to their ungracious grumbling against Him. For an effective poetic presentation of this contrast, refer to Ps. 78:17–25.

16:13 quails. The psalmist removed all doubt about whether these birds of the partridge family were not real birds but something else, for he called them “feathered fowl” and in the preceding line of the parallelism referred to the coming of the quails as God having “rained meat” on them (Ps. 78:27). Upon return to their former habitat, these migratory birds would often fall to the ground, exhausted from prolonged flight. In ancient Egyptian paintings, people were shown catching quails by throwing nets over the brush where they were nesting.

16:16, 32 Omer. Slightly more than two quarts.

16:18 See 2 Cor. 8:15, where Paul applies this truth to Christian giving.

16:22–30 The provision of manna on 6 days only but none on the seventh was a weekly lesson on the nature of the Sabbath as a different day. It taught the people to keep the Sabbath properly, and acted as a challenge to obey God’s commands.

16:31 Manna. The arrival of the quails in much quantity (v. 13) was totally overshadowed by the arrival of manna the next morning. Despite the different descriptions given for its form and taste (vv. 14, 31), the name chosen for it derived from the question they asked. “Manna” was an older form of their question, “What is it?” The psalmist referred to manna as the “bread of heaven” and “angels’ food” which rained down after God had opened the windows of heaven (Ps. 78:23–25). Natural explanations for the manna, such as lichen growing on rocks or insect-excreted granules on tamarisk thickets, are totally inadequate to explain its presence in sufficient quantity on the ground under the dew every day except the Sabbath for the next 40 years (v. 35) to satisfy every family’s hunger. It was supernaturally produced and supernaturally sustained to last for the Sabbath!

16:32–36 lay it up before the LORD. Provision was made for memorializing the giving of the manna. When the tabernacle was finally constructed, the pot of manna was placed inside the ark. Succeeding generations would be reminded, when they came for worship, of the faithfulness of the LORD in caring for His people (cf. Heb. 9:4).

Exodus 17

17:1 Rephidim. To be identified as modern day Wadi Refayid.

17:2 the people contended. This time the people, reacting to Moses’ leading them to a waterless site, quarreled with him or laid a charge against him. So intense was their reaction that Moses thought he was about to be stoned (v. 4). Significantly, the nation had not come to Rephidim without divine guidance (v. 1), portrayed by the column of fire and cloud. The people, in the midst of their emotional response, simply could not see that right before their eyes was the evidence of God’s leading.

17:4 Moses cried out to the LORD. The leader turned to God in prayer, whereas the people, instead of following his example, turned on their leader. Moses’ petition was not an isolated incident. His life was characterized by prayer (cf. 15:25; 32:30–32; Num. 11:2, 11; 12:13; 14:13, 19) and by turning to God for solutions to problems and crises.

17:5, 6 Go on before…I will stand before. By these words in His instructions to Moses, the Lord reinforced both the position of Moses as leader and Himself as present to act. He answered the people’s charge against Moses and their underlying challenge of His presence (v. 7). In fact, He intervened miraculously!

17:7 Massah and Meribah. Appropriate names, “Testing” and “Contending,” were assigned to this place; a disappointing culmination to all they had experienced of God’s miraculous care and guidance (cf. Ps. 95:7, 8; Heb. 3:7, 8).

17:8 Amalek came and fought. The Amalekites took their name from Amalek, the grandson of Esau, and dwelt as a nomadic people in the Negev. Israel first encountered their military at Rephidim in the wilderness (Ex. 17:8–13; Deut. 25:17, 18). As a result, the Amalekites were doomed to annihilation by God (17:14; Num. 24:20; Deut. 25:19) but it would not be immediate (17:16). The Amalekites defeated disobedient Israel at Hormah (Num. 14:43–45). Saul failed to destroy them as God ordered (1 Sam. 15:2, 3, 9). David later fought and defeated the Amalekites (1 Sam. 30:1–20). In Hezekiah’s day, the Amalekite remnant in the land was finally destroyed by Hezekiah (ca. 716–687 B.C.). The final descendants of Agag (Esth. 3:1), the Amalekite king in Saul’s day, were destroyed in Persia at the time of Esther and Mordecai (ca. 473 B.C.; Esth. 2:5, 8–10).

17:9–13 Through the circumstances they experienced, Israel had learned how God provided food and water. They had to learn through warfare that God would also bring about defeat of hostile neighbors.

17:9 Joshua. The name of Moses’ aide-de-camp, or personal minister (24:13; 33:11; Josh. 1:1) appears here for the first time in Exodus. His assignment to muster a task force was part of his being groomed for military leadership in Israel. Actually, at this stage his name was still Hoshea, which later changed to Joshua at Kadesh just before the reconnaissance mission in Canaan (Num. 13:16). At this stage, Israel could not be described as a seasoned army and was not even militarily well prepared and trained. See Introduction to Joshua. the rod of God. The staff which Moses held up in his hands was no magic wand. Rather it had been previously used to initiate, via His chosen leader, the miracles which God did and about which He had informed Moses in advance. It became, therefore, the symbol of God’s personal and powerful involvement, with Moses’ outstretched arms perhaps signifying an appeal to God. The ebb and flow of battle in correlation with Moses’ uplifted or drooping arms imparted more than psychological encouragement as the soldiers looked up to their leader on the hilltop, and more than Moses’ interceding for them. It demonstrated and acknowledged their having to depend upon God for victory in battle and not upon their own strength and zeal. It also confirmed the position of Moses both in relation to God and the nation’s well-being and safety. They had angrily chided him for their problems, but God confirmed his appointment as leader.

17:10 Hur. Caleb’s son and the grandfather of Bezalel, the artisan (cf. 31:2–11; 1 Chr. 2:19, 20).

17:14 Write this for a memorial…and recount it. Moses would have learned writing and record-keeping in Pharaoh’s school of government. Official Hebrew records other than Scripture were also to be kept, and in this case especially for the purpose of remembering the victory in the very first battle in which they nationally engaged. God referred to “the book,” so Moses had evidently already begun it. This was not, then, the initial entry into what perhaps became known as “The Book of the Wars of Yahweh” (Num. 21:14). Writing it was essential, so the facts could be verified and needed not to depend upon human memory or solely oral tradition. blot out the remembrance. The sentence of national extinction which the Amalekites proclaimed for Israel (cf. Ps. 83:4–7) passed by divine decree upon the Amalekites. The sentence was partially realized in Saul’s and David’s day (cf. 1 Sam. 15:1–9 and 2 Sam. 1:1; 8:11, 12), after which it is scarcely mentioned again. However, due to Saul’s disobedience in sparing Agag, the Amalekite king and some of his people (1 Sam. 15:7–9), he lost his throne (v. 23). Samuel killed Agag (v. 33), but some Amalekites remained to return a few years later to raid Israel’s southern territory, even capturing David’s family (1 Sam. 30:1–5). David killed all but 400 (1 Sam. 30:16, 17) who escaped. It was a descendant of Agag, Haman, who tried to exterminate the Jews later in Esther’s day (cf. Esth. 3:1, 6).

17:15 The-LORD-Is-My-Banner. By titling the altar with this designation for the LORD, Yahweh-Nissi, Moses declared the LORD Himself to be the Standard of His people.

17:16 The LORD has sworn. The difficulty of the Heb. text permits an alternative translation: “a hand is upon/toward/against the throne/banner of Yahweh,” with the sense of supplication, or of taking an oath. Contextually, the significance is clear, whatever the translation adopted: The ongoing problem with Amalek was not merely one nation hostile toward another, it was a war between God and Amalek.

Exodus 18

18:1 Jethro…heard of all. The intelligence-gathering ability of ancient peoples should not be underestimated. Quickly and thoroughly the news of significant events in other lands passed from one place to another, very often via the merchant caravans which traversed the Fertile Crescent, or through ambassadors and other official contacts between nations. In Jethro’s case, whatever knowledge he had gleaned of Israel’s progress had been supplemented with information from Zipporah and her sons after Moses sent them ahead to her home (v. 2).

18:7–12 Moses’ testimony elicited responses of praise and sacrifice from Jethro; evidence of his belief. Further, he understood fully the incomparability of Yahweh (v. 11). The priest of Midian (v. 1) was surely no worshiper of Midian’s gods! Since Midianites were generally regarded as idolaters (cf. Num. 25:17, 18; 31:2, 3, 16), Jethro must be viewed as remarkably different from his contemporaries; a difference highlighted by Aaron and the elders worshiping and fellowshiping together with him (v. 12).

18:12 to God. Since the name Yahweh is always used in connection with sacrifices prescribed for Israel in the Pentateuch, the switch to Elohim must have some significance here, particularly after Jethro had himself used the name of Yahweh in his response to Moses. Despite the strong declaration of his faith and understanding, Jethro was a believing Gentile, therefore, a proselyte, and an alien. In this situation the LORD was relating to the Israelite and Gentile world simultaneously, thus the use of Elohim rather than Yahweh, the unique covenant name for Israel.

18:13–27 Jethro’s practical wisdom was of immense benefit to Moses and Israel, and has been lauded as an example of delegation and management organization by efficiency experts for centuries—and still is. Woven into Jethro’s advice were statements about God and the virtues of godly men that cause one to respect this man as having his newfound faith well integrated into his thinking. Indeed, he fully recognized that Moses needed divine permission to enact his advice (v. 23). Moses apparently did not immediately implement Jethro’s solution, but waited until the law had been given (cf. Deut. 1:9–15).

18:21 These same spiritual qualities were required of NT leaders (see Acts. 6:3; 1 Tim. 3:1–7; Titus 1:6–9).

Exodus 19

19:1—40:38 This section outlines Israel’s activities during their approximately 11 month stay at Sinai (cf. 19:1 with Num. 10:11).

19:3–8 The Israelites discerned the familiar pattern, in shortened form, of a suzerainty (superior-subordinate relationship) treaty in God’s words: a preamble (v. 3), a historical prologue (v. 4), certain stipulations (v. 5a), and blessings (vv. 5b–6a). The acceptance in solemn assembly would normally be recorded in the final treaty document. Here it follows upon presentation of the treaty to them (vv. 7, 8). See note on 24:7.

19:3 from the mountain. The sign which the LORD had given particularly to Moses when he was still in Midian (3:12), that God had indeed sent him, was now fulfilled; he was with the people before the mountain of God. house of Jacob…children of Israel. In employing this dual designation for the nation, the LORD reminded them of their humble beginnings as descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob, who had been with them in Egypt, and of their status now as a nation (children = people).

19:4 bore you on eagles’ wings. With a most appropriate metaphor, God described the Exodus and the journey to Sinai. Eagles were known to have carried their young out of the nests on their wings and taught them to fly, catching them when necessary on their outspread wings. Moses, in his final song, employed this metaphor of God’s care for Israel and especially noted that there was only one LORD who did this (Deut. 32:11–12).

19:5, 6 Three titles for Israel, “a special treasure,” “a kingdom of priests,” and “a holy nation,” were given by the LORD to the nation, contingent upon their being an obedient and covenant-keeping nation. These titles summarized the divine blessings which such a nation would experience: belonging especially to the LORD, representing Him in the earth and being set apart unto Him for His purposes. These expanded ethnically and morally what it meant to have brought them to Himself. “For all the earth is mine,” in the midst of the titles, laid stress upon the uniqueness and sovereignty of the LORD and had to be understood as dismissing all other claims by so-called other gods of the nations. It was more than the power of one god over another in Israel’s situation; it was the choice and power of the only LORD! See 1 Pet. 2:9, where Peter uses these terms in the sense of God’s spiritual kingdom of the redeemed.

19:8 Then all the people answered together. Presented with the details of God’s bilateral, conditional covenant (note the “if you will obey…then you shall be” in v. 5), the people, briefed by their elders, responded with positive enthusiasm. The LORD’s response to them does not take it as a rash promise by the people (cf. Deut. 5:27–29).

19:9 and believe you forever. The LORD designed the upcoming encounter with Him so as to forestall any later accusation that Moses had himself compiled the law and had not met with the Lord on the mountain. It would also lead to great deference being accorded Moses by the people.

19:10 consecrate them. How serious this step was for the nation was emphasized for them by two days of special preparation. The inward preparation for meeting with God was mirrored in the outward actions of maintaining bodily cleanliness.

19:12, 13 The proper approach to a holy God could not have been better stressed than by imposing a death penalty upon those who violated the arbitrary boundaries which God had set around the mountain. Even animals could not encroach upon this sacred area (cf. Heb. 12:20).

19:15 do not come near your wives. This was so they would be ceremonially clean (see Lev. 15:16–18).

19:16 thunderings and lightnings. The dramatic visual presentation of God’s presence on the mountain, accompanied by thick cloud and trumpet blast, more than impressed the onlookers with God’s majesty and power—they trembled, but so did Moses (Heb. 12:21). The unusual was happening, not the usual phenomena from volcanic activity, as some writers have proposed.

19:24 the priests. With the law still to be given, no priesthood had been established in Israel. These priests must have been the firstborn in each family who served as family priests because they had been dedicated to the Lord (cf. 13:2; 24:5). Their place would be taken over later by the Levites (Num. 3:45).

Exodus 20

20:1 all these words. This general description of the commands to follow also received from Moses the title “Ten Commandments” (34:28; Deut. 4:13). By this emphasis on God Himself speaking these words (cf. Deut. 5:12, 15, 16, 22, 32, 33), all theories on Israel’s borrowing legal patterns or concepts from the nations around them are unacceptable.

20:3–17 The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue, which follow upon the opening historical prologue (v. 2), are formed as a precept or direct command given in the second person. This form was something rather uncommon in that day. Ancient Near Eastern law codes for the most part were casuistic, or case-law, in form, i.e., an “if…then” construction written in the third person wherein a supposed offense was followed by a statement of the action to be taken or penalty to be exacted. The Ten Commandments may also be grouped into two broad categories: the vertical, namely man’s relationship to God (vv. 2–11), and the horizontal, namely man’s relationship to the community (vv. 12–17). Concisely listed prohibitions mark the second category, with only one exception—an imperative plus its explanation (v. 12). Explanation or reason appended to a prohibition marks the first category. By these Ten Commandments, true theology and true worship, the name of God and the Sabbath, family honor, life, marriage, and property, truth and virtue are well protected. See note on 24:7.

20:3 before Me. Meaning “over against Me,” this is a most appropriate expression in the light of the next few verses. All false gods stand in opposition to the true God, and the worship of them is incompatible with the worship of Yahweh. When Israel departed from the worship of the only one and true God, she plunged into religious confusion (Judg. 17, 18).