Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. David Eltis, “Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migrations: Some Comparisons,” American Historical Review 88 (April 1983): 252; Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery: From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492–1800 (New York: Verso, 1997).

2. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975); Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Gary A. Puckrein, Little England: Plantation Society and Anglo-Barbadian Politics, 1627–1700 (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Betty Wood, The Origins of American Slavery: Freedom and Bondage in the American Colonies (New York: Hill and Wang, 1997), 40–67.

3. Elizabeth Donnan, ed., Documents Illustrative of the Slave Trade to America, vol. 1, 1441–1700 (1930∇35; repr., New York: Octagon Books, 1965), 156.

4. Ronald Bailey, “The Slave(ry) Trade and the Development of Capitalism in the United States: The Textile Industry in New England,” Social Science History 14 (Autumn 1990): 373–414.

5. Eltis, “Free and Coerced Transatlantic Migrations,” 252; Jack Greene, “The American Revolution,” American Historical Review 105 (February 2000): 93–102; Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992); Puckrein, Little England.

6. Based on a query of David Eltis et al.’s online database, Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, www.slavevoyages.org/tast/database/index.faces.

7. Robert Harms, The Diligent: A Voyage through the Worlds of the Slave Trade (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 300.

8. Patricia A. Molen, “Population and Social Patterns in Barbados in the Early Eighteenth Century,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 28 (April 1971): 289.

9. Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 2:148.

10. Trevor Burnard, “European Migration to Jamaica, 1655–1780,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 53 (October 1996): 772; Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 1:174.

11. Michael Craton, Searching for the Invisible Man: Slaves and Plantation Life in Jamaica (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 53–54.

12. Aaron S. Fogleman, “From Slaves, Convicts, and Servants to Free Passengers: The Transformation of Immigration in the Era of the American Revolution,” American Historical Review 85 (June 1998): 43–76.

13. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York: W. W. Norton, 1974), ch. 5; Jennifer Morgan, Laboring Women: Reproduction and Gender in New World Slavery (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 128–43.

14. P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 59–61.

15. E. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, chs. 13 and 15.

16. U.S. Department of Commerce, Historical Statistics of the United States, pt. 2, Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975), 1168; P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 61.

17. Eltis et al., Voyages database.

18. Michael Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 17–37.

19. Michael Tadman, “The Demographic Costs of Sugar: Debates on Slave Societies and Natural Increase in the Americas,” American Historical Review 105 (October 2000): 1534–64; P. Wood, Black Majority, 63–91; P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998); Ira Berlin and Philip Morgan, eds., Cultivation and Culture: Labor and the Shaping of Slave Life in America (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993).

20. Joyce Chaplin, An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993), 190–220; P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 361, 368; David Eltis, “New Estimates of Exports from Barbados and Jamaica,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 52 (October 1995): 631–48; Puckrein, Little England, 40–72.

21. Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 1:379.

22. South Carolina Historical Society, Collections of the South Carolina Historical Society, vol. 5 (Charleston: South Carolina Historical Society, 1897), 125.

23. P. Wood, Black Majority, 20–28; J. Morgan, Laboring Women, 123–28.

24. April Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia: Intercolonial Relations in the Seventeenth Century (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), 143–50; Russell R. Menard, “The Maryland Slave Population, 1658 to 1730: A Demographic Profile of Blacks in Four Counties,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 32 (January 1975): 31.

25. P. Wood, Black Majority, 32; Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia, 52–53, 154–55.

26. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone; P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint; Berlin and Morgan, Cultivation and Culture.

27. Martin Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (1852; repr., Baltimore: Black Classics Press, 1993); P. Wood, Black Majority, 35–62; Daniel C. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves: Ethnicity and the Slave Trade in Colonial South Carolina (1981; repr., Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), 74–114; Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), 120–42.

28. Judith Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

29. Anthony S. Parent, Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave Society in Virginia, 1660–1740 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 60–66; Lorena S. Walsh, From Calabar to Carter’s Grove: The History of a Virginia Slave Community (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1997), 61–65.

30. Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 122 and passim; Peter H. Wood, “‘It Was a Negro Taught Them’: A New Look at African Labor in Early South Carolina,” Journal of Asian and African Studies 9:3–4 (1974): 160–79; Kevin Dawson, “Enslaved Swimmers and Divers in the Atlantic World,” Journal of American History 92 (March 2006): 1327–55; John K. Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800, 2nd ed. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 135.

31. David Eltis, Philip Morgan, and David Richardson, “Agency and Diaspora in Atlantic History: Reassessing the African Contributions to Rice Cultivation in the Americas,” American Historical Review 112 (December 2007): 1329–58.

32. I have listened to the advice of Ghanaian archeologist James Anquandah, who during my year of research at the University of Ghana insisted that the study of precolonial West African history requires an interdisciplinary approach.

33. In response to feedback on an earlier draft of this book, I have “translated” the interviews and folklore used in chapters 5 and 6 into Standard English.

34. Jane I. Guyer and Samuel M. Eno Belinga, “Wealth in People as Wealth in Knowledge: Accumulation and Composition in Equatorial Africa,” Journal of African History 36 (1995): 91–120.

35. Leland Ferguson, Uncommon Ground: Archeology and Early Afro-American Life (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992); Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks; Rachel Harding, A Refuge in Thunder: Candomble and Alternative Spaces of Blackness (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000); Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); James Sweet, Recreating Africa: Culture, Kinship, and Religion in the African Portuguese World, 1441–1730 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Robert Farris Thompson, Flash of the Spirit: African and Afro-American Art and Philosophy (New York: Random House, 1983); Thornton, Africa and Africans.

CHAPTER 1

1. Fernand Braudel, Civilization and Capitalism, 15th–18th Century, vol. 1, The Structures of Everyday Life, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper and Row, 1981); the quotation is from Braudel’s Afterthoughts on Material Civilization and Capitalism, trans. Patricia M. Ranum (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 8.

2. Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); Cedric Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition (1983; repr., Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 111–20.

3. Paul E. Lovejoy, “The Internal Trade of West Africa to 1800,” in History of West Africa, 3rd ed., ed. J. F. E. Ajayi and Michael Crowder (London: Longman, 1985), 1:667–87; Ivor Wilks, Forests of Gold: Essays on the Akan and the Kingdom of Asante (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1993), 2–28.

4. Elliott P. Skinner, “West African Economic Systems,” in Economic Transition in Africa, ed. Melville Herskovits and Mitchell Harwitz (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1964), 85–86. I am indebted to Professor George Hagan, Institute of African Studies, Legon, Ghana, for the notion that markets were sites of exchange of “cultural goods,” stated during his feedback on a presentation I gave in his African Social Systems course in spring 1997.

5. Pieter de Marees, Description and Historical Account of the Gold Kingdom of Guinea (1602), ed. and trans. Albert Van Dantzig and Adam Jones (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 63. “Millie” was millet, and “Bachovens” were a kind of banana (110–12, 161 n. 1).

6. For a general discussion of West African gold, kola, and salt production, see Lovejoy, “Internal Trade,” 653–63; Paul Lovejoy, Caravans of Kola: The Hausa Kola Trade, 1700–1900 (Zaria, Nigeria: Ahmadu Bello University, 1980); and Timothy F. Garrard, Akan Weights and the Gold Trade (New York: Longman, 1980). On the Wangara, see Wilks, Forests of Gold, ch. 1.

7. Skinner, “West African Economic Systems,” 85; Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson, The Shell Money of the Slave Trade (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 58–62.

8. The concept of a web of trading relations is drawn from historical anthropologist Eric Wolf, who notes, “Africa south of the Sahara was not the isolated, backward area of European imagination, but an integral part of a web of relations that connected forest cultivators and miners with savanna and desert traders and with the merchants and rulers of the North African settled belt.” Eric R. Wolf, Europe and the People without History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 40.

9. African patrons’ habits of material acquisition and conspicuous consumption plunged many of them into debt, which they covered by capturing outsiders and selling them to European merchants. Joseph C. Miller, Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730–1830 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988). The tragedy of modern consumption is explored by Herbert Marcuse in One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society (Boston: Beacon Press, 1964).

10. David Birmingham, “Early African Trade in Angola and Its Hinterland,” in Pre-colonial African Trade, ed. Richard Gray and David Birmingham (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 163–73; J. Miller, Way of Death, 54–62; Jan Vansina, “Peoples of the Forest,” in History of Central Africa, ed. David Birmingham and Phyllis M. Martin (New York: Longman, 1983), 1:87.

11. Jan Vansina, The Children of Woot: A History of the Kuba Peoples (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978), 186–96; Vansina, “Peoples of the Forest,” 87; John K. Thornton, The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641–1718 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983), 32–33; Anne Hilton, The Kingdom of Kongo (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 7; quote is from Georges Balandier, Daily Life in the Kingdom of Kongo: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, trans. Helen Weaver (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), 133.

12. For an extended discussion of this process, see J. Miller, Way of Death, chs. 1 and 2.

13. J. D. Fage, “The Effect of the Export Slave Trade on African Populations,” in The Population Factor in African Studies, ed. R. P. Moss and R. J. A. R. Rath-bone (London: University of London Press, 1975), 18.

14. Richard Hull, African Cities and Towns before the European Conquest (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976); Peter Garlake, The Kingdoms of Africa (Oxford: Elsevier-Phaidon, 1978).

15. Akin L. Mabogunje and Paul Richards, “Land and People: Models of Spatial and Ecological Processes in West African History,” in Ajayi and Crowder, History of West Africa, 1:6–12; Timothy Insoll, “Iron-Age Gao: An Archaeological Contribution,” Journal of African History 38:1 (1997): 1–30; Graham Connah, African Civilizations: An Archaeological Perspective (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), ch. 4. The West African savannah and forest zones will be defined more clearly in chapter 2.

16. Ivor Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), 178–79; Lovejoy, “Internal Trade,” 677; Akin L. Mabogunje, Urbanization in Nigeria (New York: Africana, 1968), 54–55.

17. A. W. Lawrence, Fortified Trade-Posts: The English in West Africa, 1645–1822 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1963), 164; Jean Barbot, Barbot on Guinea: The Writings of Jean Barbot on West Africa, 1678–1712, ed. P. E. H. Hair, Adam Jones, and Robin Law (London: Hakluyt Society, 1992), 2:547; Ray Kea, Settlements, Trade, and Polities in the Seventeenth-Century Gold Coast (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 38.

18. Mabogunje, Urbanization in Nigeria, 64, 91.

19. John K. Thornton, “Mbanza Kongo/Sao Salvador: Kongo’s Holy City,” in Africa’s Urban Past, ed. David M. Anderson and Richard Rathbone (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000), 67–68 and n. 6.

20. Thornton, Kingdom of Kongo, 38–39; J. Miller, Way of Death, 9.

21. Thornton, “Mbanza Kongo/Sao Salvador,” 67.

22. Merrick Posnansky, “Early Agricultural Societies in Ghana,” in From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, ed. J. Desmond Clark and Steven A. Brandt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 150–51.

23. Hull, African Cities and Towns, 33–41; Graham Connah, “African City Walls: A Neglected Source?” in Anderson and Rathbone, Africa’s Urban Past, 39–45; Thornton, “Mbanza Kongo/Sao Salvador,” 67–68.

24. Thornton, “Mbanza Kongo/Sao Salvador,” 68.

25. Quoted in Balandier, Daily Life, 150.

26. Graham Connah, The Archeology of Benin: Excavations and Other Researches in and around Benin City, Nigeria (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), 98–106; P. Amory Talbot, The Peoples of Southern Nigeria: A Sketch of Their History, Ethnology and Languages, with an Abstract of the 1921 Census, vol. 3, Ethnology (London: Oxford University Press, 1926), 903–46.

27. Skinner, “West African Economic Systems,” 83–84.

28. J. Miller, Way of Death, 110–11; Hilton, Kingdom of Kongo, 108.

29. John Thornton has asserted that political consolidation, economic exchange, and multilingualism forged West Africa into two major sociocultural units—Upper Guinea, from Senegal to just south of Cape Mount in modern Liberia; and Lower Guinea, from western Côte D’Ivoire to Nigeria. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 183–90.

30. A. Hampate Ba, “The Living Tradition,” in General History of Africa, vol. 1, Methodology and Prehistory, ed. J. Ki-Zerbo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 185–87; Tal Tamari, “The Development of Caste Systems in West Africa,” Journal of African History 32:2 (1991): 221–50.

31. Major Denham, F. R. S., Captain Clapperton, and the Late Doctor Oudney, Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa in the Years 1822, 1823, and 1824 (1826; repr., London: Darf, 1985), 2:402.

32. Skinner, “West African Economic Systems,” 82.

33. Kea, Settlements, Trade, and Polities, 105–6, 199–201.

34. Ann Stahl and Maria Das Dores Cruz, “Men and Women in a Market Economy: Gender and Craft Production in West Central Africa ca. 1775–1995,” in Gender in African Prehistory, ed. Susan Kent (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1998), 39–67.

35. A. A. Boahen, “The States and Cultures of the Lower Guinea Coast,” in General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries, ed. B. A. Ogot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 417–24; J. K. Fynn, Asante and Its Neighbours, 1700–1807 (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1971); Wilks, Asante, 64–71, 305–6.

36. Philip de Barros, “Bassar: A Quantified, Chronologically Controlled, Regional Approach to a Traditional Iron Production Centre in West Africa,” Africa 56:2 (1986): 153.

37. Candace L. Goucher and Eugenia Herbert, “The Blooms of Banjeli: Technology and Gender in West African Iron Making,” in The Culture and Technology of African Iron Production, ed. Peter R. Schmidt (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1996), 40–57.

38. De Barros, “Bassar,” 171.

39. For research on a comparable site in Central Africa, see Jean-Pierre Warnier and Ian Fowler, “A Ruhr in Central Africa,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 49:4 (1979): 329–51.

40. William Bosman, A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea, ed. John Ralph Willis, J. D. Fage, and R. E. Bradbury (1705; repr., London: Cass, 1967), 43; Jean Barbot, A Description of the Coasts of North and South-Guinea (London, 1732), 156, 261; de Marees, Description, 63–64, 121–24; Sir Dalby Thomas, Cape Coast Castle, to the Board of Trade and Plantations, Royal African Company, November 26, 1709, Furley Collections, Balme Library, University of Ghana, N38.

41. De Marees, Description, 26–27.

42. Geographer F. R. Irvine has found that oral traditions in Accra had over one thousand words for fish. F. R. Irvine, The Fish and Fisheries of the Gold Coast (London: Crown Agents for the Colonies, 1947), xiv.

43. Richard Austin Freeman, Travels and Life in Ashanti and Jaman (1898; repr., London: Frank Cass, 1967), 288.

44. Michel Adanson, A Voyage to Senegal, the Isle of Goree, and the River Gambia (London: J. Nourse and W. Johnston, 1759), 251.

45. As the religious studies scholar Dominique Zahan notes in relation to African spirituality, “Things and beings are not obstacles to the knowledge of God; rather they constitute signifiers and indices which reveal the divine being.” Dominique Zahan, “Some Reflections on African Spirituality,” in African Spirituality: Forms, Meanings, and Expressions, ed. Jacob K. Olupona (New York: Crossroad, 2000), 5.

46. R. Addo-Fenning, “The Gyadam Episode, 1824–70: An Aspect of Akyem Abuakwa History,” Universitas: An Interfaculty Journal (University of Ghana), n.s., 6 (May 1997): 182.

47. Barbot, Description, 152, 261, 266.

48. De Marees, Description, 118–19; Richard B. Nunoo, “Canoe Decoration in Ghana,” African Arts 7 (Spring 1974): 32–35.

49. Pieter Van Den Broecke, Journal of Voyages to Cape Verde, Guinea, and Angola (1605–1612), ed. and trans. J. D. La Fleur (London: Hakluyt Society, 2000), 60.

50. J. Miller, Way of Death, 54, 100.

51. Birmingham, “Early African Trade,” 164–65; quote from Vansina, Children of Woot, 174; Thornton, Kingdom of Kongo, 34; Balandier, Daily Life, 159; J. Miller, Way of Death, 57.

52. Jan Vansina, How Societies Are Born: Governance in West Central Africa before 1600 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2004), 220, 221 n. 43.

53. Vansina, Children of Woot, 183.

54. Van Den Broecke, Journal of Voyages, 100.

55. Thornton, Kingdom of Kongo, 34; J. Miller, Way of Death, 54; quote from Balandier, Daily Life, 105.

56. For the early history of metallurgy in Central Africa, see Vansina, How Societies Are Born.

57. Balandier, Daily Life, 108; J. Miller, Way of Death, 55, 181; Thornton, Kingdom of Kongo, 33.

58. Van Den Broecke, Journal of Voyages, 100.

59. Eugenia Herbert, The Red Gold of Africa: Copper in Precolonial History and Culture (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), 19–21, 42–44; J. Miller, Way of Death, 181.

60. Camara Laye, The Dark Child: The Autobiography of an African Boy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1954), 31–41.

61. Guyer and Belinga, “Wealth in People,” 93.

CHAPTER 2

1. A Perfect Description of Virginia; Being a Full and True Relation of the Present State of the Plantation, their Health, Peace, and Plenty, the Number of People, with the Abundance of Cattell, Fowl, Fish, etc. (London, 1649), 14.

2. P. Wood, Black Majority, ch. 2; Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 74–114; Parent, Foul Means, 60–66; Walsh, From Calabar, 61–65; Hall, Africans in Colonial Louisiana, 120–42; Carney, Black Rice.

3. As an extensive literature demonstrates, West African agriculture dates back millennia. For example, see Ann Brower Stahl, “A History and Critique of Investigations into Early African Agriculture,” in Clark and Brandt, From Hunters to Farmers, 9–21; C. Ehret, “Historical/Linguistic Evidence for Early African Food Production,” in Clark and Brandt, From Hunters to Farmers, 29–30, 36; Jack R. Harlan, “The Origins of Indigenous African Agriculture,” in The Cambridge History of Africa, ed. J. D. Fage and Roland Oliver, vol. 1, From Earliest Times to c. 500 B.C., ed. J. Desmond Clark (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 635–39; C. T. Shaw, “The Prehistory of West Africa,” in Ki-Zerbo, General History of Africa, vol. 1, Methodology and African Prehistory, 627.

4. James Giblin, “Trypanosomiasis Control in African History: An Evaded Issue?” Journal of African History 31:1 (1990): 63; W. B. Morgan and J. C. Pugh, West Africa (London: Methuen, 1969), 66, 69, 206–8.

5. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, ch. 5; S. Diarra, “Historical Geography: Physical Aspects,” in Ki-Zerbo, General History of Africa, vol. 1, Methodology and Prehistory, 324–26.

6. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 208–10, 213–15; Diarra, “Historical Geography,” 330.

7. Diarra, “Historical Geography,” 329; Akin L. Mabogunje, “Historical Geography: Economic Aspects,” in Ki-Zerbo, General History of Africa, vol. 1, Methodology and Prehistory, 345.

8. Diarra, “Historical Geography,” 325; Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), 38–41; David Birmingham, “Society and Economy before A.D. 1400,” in Birmingham and Martin, History of Central Africa, 1:3.

9. J. Miller, Way of Death, 14; Thornton, Kingdom of Kongo, 7; Hilton, Kingdom of Kongo, 1; Vansina, Children of Woot, 172–73; Robert W. Harms, River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500–1891 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), 15–16.

10. Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest, 38; Robert Harms, Games against Nature: An Eco-Cultural History of the Nunu of Equatorial Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 30–31.

11. Vansina, How Societies Are Born, 101.

12. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 184, 191; Eric R. Wolf, Peasants (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1966); Joseph C. Miller, “The Paradoxes of Impoverishment in the Atlantic Zone,” in Birmingham and Miller, History of Central Africa, 1:119.

13. Sophia D. Lokko, “Hunger Hooting Festival in Ghana,” Drama Review 25 (Winter 1981): 43–50.

14. Paul Richards, Indigenous Agricultural Revolution: Ecology and Food Production in Africa (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985).

15. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 98; Joseph C. Miller, “The Significance of Drought, Disease and Famine in the Agriculturally Marginal Zones of West-Central Africa,” Journal of African History 23:1 (1982): 31.

16. James D. McCann, Maize and Grace: Africa’s Encounter with a New World Crop (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), chs. 2 and 3; David R. Harris, “Traditional Systems of Plant Food Production and the Origins of Agriculture in West Africa,” in Origins of African Plant Domestication, ed. Jack R. Harlan, Jan M. J. de Wet, and Ann B. L. Stemler (The Hague: Mouton, 1976), 329; William O. Jones, Manioc in Africa (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1959), 60–80; Marvin P. Miracle, Maize in Tropical Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), 87–93; J. Miller, Way of Death, 18–21; Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest, 86. Most sources assert that Europeans brought maize to West Africa in the sixteenth or seventeenth century. Others open the possibility that a pre-Columbian exchange between West Africa and Europe brought maize to West Africa as early as the fourteenth century. See David H. Kelley, “An Essay on Pre-Columbian Contacts between the Americas and Other Areas, with Special Reference to the Work of Ivan Van Sertima,” in Race, Discourse, and the Origin of the Americas: A New World View, ed. Vera Lawrence Hyatt and Rex Nettleford (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995), 117–18.

17. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 105; J. Miller, Way of Death, 19–20.

18. G. R. Crone, ed., The Voyages of Cadamosto and Other Documents on Western Africa, 2nd ser., no. 80 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1937), 30, 42.

19. Nicolas Villault, A Relation of the Coasts of Africk called Guinee; With a Description of the Countreys, Manners and Customs of the Inhabitants; of the Productions of the Earth, and the Merchandise and Commodities it Affords; with Some Historical Observations upon the Coasts (London: John Starkey, 1670), 46–47, 276.

20. Carney, Black Rice, 58–68; the Akan proverb is from Adam Jones in de Marees, Description, 159 n. 4.

21. William Finch, “Observations of William Finch, Merchant, Taken out of his large Journall” (August 1607), in Samuel Purchas, Purchas, His Pilgrimes in Five Books (London, 1625), 1:415.

22. Gaspar Mollien, Travels in the Interior of Africa to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia (1820; repr., London: Frank Cass, 1967), 155.

23. Réné Caillié, Travels through Central Africa to Timbuctoo (1830; repr., London: Frank Cass, 1968), 1:294, 417.

24. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 1:186.

25. Ibid., 1:265, 292.

26. Ibid., 2:455.

27. Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa, ed. Kate Ferguson Marsters (Durham: Duke University Press, 2000), 72–73. According to the editor’s note, “Calavances are chick peas, or garbanzo beans; cassavi are cassava plants; pompions are pumpkins. Esculent simply means edibles” (72 n. 3).

28. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 326–27.

29. Ibid., 83, 97.

30. Ibid., 112.

31. Ibid., 105–9; Jack R. Harlan, “The Tropical African Cereals,” in The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns, ed. Thurstan Shaw et al. (New York: Routledge, 1993), 53–58; Bassey Andah, “Identifying Early Farming Traditions of West Africa,” in T. Shaw et al., Archaeology of Africa, 248–52.

32. Balandier, Daily Life, 94.

33. Hilton, Kingdom of Kongo, 5; Thornton, Kingdom of Kongo, 36; J. Miller, Way of Death, 19; Filippo Pigafetta, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo and the Surrounding Countries; Drawn out of the Writings and Discourses of the Portuguese, Duarte Lopez, trans. Margarite Hutchinson (1881; repr., New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 67.

34. Harms, Games against Nature, 92–93.

35. Balandier, Daily Life, 95–96.

36. Harms, Games against Nature, 92–93.

37. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 68–69.

38. Walter Hawthorne, “Nourishing a Stateless Society during the Slave Trade: The Rise of Balanta Paddy-Rice Production in Guinea-Bissau,” Journal of African History 42 (2001): 1–24.

39. Harlan, “Tropical African Cereals,” 56.

40. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 100, 104, 120; Wolf, Peasants, 28.

41. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 105; Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest, 85.

42. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 104–5; Wilks, Forests of Gold, 44–53.

43. Caillié, Travels through Central Africa, 1:308, 372, 405, 420.

44. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 116–17; C. A. Folorunso and S. O. Ogundele, “Agriculture and Settlement among the Tiv of Nigeria: Some Ethnoarchaeological Observations,” in T. Shaw et al., Archaeology of Africa, 276, 281–83.

45. Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest, 85.

46. Olaudah Equiano, Equiano’s Travels: His Autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavas Vassa the African, ed. Paul Edwards (Oxford: Heinemann International, 1967), 7.

47. Skinner, “West African Economic Systems,” 92.

48. The analytical tools of tribute-based and kinship-based modes of production are drawn from Wolf, Europe, 79–100; de Marees, Description, 110–11.

49. Jouke S. Wigboldus, “Trade and Agriculture in Coastal Benin,” A. A. G. Bijdragen 28 (1986): 327–58.

50. Robert Norris notes the central role of women in agricultural production in Dahomey in his Memoirs of the Reign of Bassa Ahadee, King of Dahomy, an Inland Country of Guiney. To Which Are Added, The Author’s Journey to Abomey, the Capital; And A Short Account of the African Slave Trade (London, 1789), 141–42.

51. Albert van Dantzig, comp. and trans., The Dutch and the Guinea Coast, 1674–1742: A Collection of Documents from the General Archives of the Hague (Accra: Ghana Academy of Arts and Science, 1978), 208.

52. McCann, Maize and Grace, 37–38.

53. W. Morgan and Pugh, West Africa, 326–27.

54. Ibid., 73; Folorunso and Ogundele, “Agriculture and Settlement,” 277–78. It is significant to note that even in the roots-dominant belt agricultural workers also cultivated cereal crops.

55. Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest, 94.

56. Vansina, Children of Woot, 208–9; Balandier, Daily Life, 96–99; Vansina, How Societies Are Born, 193–94.

57. Pierre Bourdieu, “The Forms of Capital,” in Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education, ed. John G. Richardson (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), 243.

58. Ibid., 255 n. 7.

59. Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Viking Press, 2007); Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery.

60. Carney, Black Rice, 145–47.

61. William Ed Grimé, Ethno-Botany of the Black Americans (Algonac, MI: Reference Publications, 1979), 19–20.

62. Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 1:221, 226–34, and passim.

63. Ibid., 2:376.

64. Brown Family Papers, B466, Folder 1, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI.

65. Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 2:15.

66. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 2:781.

67. Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 2:15, 163, 376.

68. Carney, Black Rice, 72, 145–47.

69. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 2:775.

70. Equiano, Equiano’s Travels, 26–27.

71. “Voyage to Guinea, Antego, Bay of Campeachy, Cuba Barbadoes, etc.” [1712–23], Additional MS 39946, British Library, London. As Equiano also noted, submission to their captors’ demands was enforced through sheer terror. Pain continued, “To put a stop to this danger the captain [?] this Strategem, to show them he could prevent their returning to their own country. He ordered the Carpenter to cut off the head of a dead Negro with his ax and fix it on a Pole made fast to the Ship’s side and to throw the limbs about the Deck, he threatened the same to all that would not eat their victuals.” One hundred twenty of the enslaved died during this voyage. For a larger discussion of this question, see Vincent Brown, The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).

72. Carney, Black Rice, 155–59; Grimé, Ethno-Botany, 22–23, 26.

73. Vernon A. Ives, ed., The Rich Papers: Letters from Bermuda, 1615–1646. Eyewitness Accounts Sent by the Early Colonists to Sir Nathaniel Rich (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), 17–19 and passim.

74. Jerome S. Handler, “Amerindians and Their Contributions to Barbadian Life in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 35:3 (1977): 197–98.

75. Hilary M. Beckles, White Servitude and Black Slavery in Barbados (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989), 3.

76. David Watts, Man’s Influence on the Vegetation of Barbados, 1627 to 1800 (Hull: University of Hull Publications, 1966), chs. 3 and 4.

77. Richard Ligon, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbadoes (1673; repr., London: Frank Cass, 1970), 22.

78. De Marees, Description, 28; Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, vol. 2, 461.

79. Father Andrew White, Narrative of a Voyage to Maryland, ed. E. A. Dalrymple (Baltimore: Maryland Historical Society, 1874), 23–24; Puckrein, Little England, 3–7, 53; Colonising Expeditions to the West Indies and Guiana, 1623–1667, 2nd ser., no. 56 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1924), 30; Blackburn, Making of New World Slavery, 230; Richard Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), 122–44, 167–78.

80. Antoine Biet, “Father Antoine Biet’s Visit to Barbados in 1654,” ed. and trans. Jerome Handler, Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 32 (May 1967): 66.

81. Ibid.

82. Felix Christian Spoeri, “A Swiss Medical Doctor’s Description of Barbados in 1661: The Account of Felix Christian Spoeri,” ed. and trans. Alexander Gunkel and Jerome S. Handler, Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 33 (May 1969): 7. Depending upon the interaction of a number of factors, including access to markets and the availability of land, some plantations imported food while others moved toward self-sufficient food production. In Barbados, plantations devoted most of their labor and arable land to sugarcane production, allowing little room for slaves to cultivate food crops for their own consumption or to market. In contrast, in Jamaica, while sugarcane was also essential, the enslaved African workforce had much greater access to land to grow food provisions. Sidney Mintz, Caribbean Transformations (1974; repr., New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 180–94.

83. Griffith Hughes, Natural History of Barbados (London, 1750), 226, 254.

84. George Washington, The Daily Journal of George Washington in 1751–2: Kept While on a Tour from Virginia to the Island of Barbadoes, with His Invalid Brother, Maj. Lawrence Washington (Albany, NY: J. Munsell’s Sons, 1892), 59.

85. “Journal of a Voyage from New England to New York in 1756 and of a Cruise Round the West Indies in 1756 and 1757,” West Indies and Special Collections Library, University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica.

86. “A Particular Description of Cat Island Taken by Order of Woodes Rogers Esqr. Late Governr of Ye Bahama Islands in December 1731,” Codex Eng 17, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI.

87. Edmund Hickeringill, Jamaica Viewed; With All the Ports, Harbours, and their Several Soundings, Towns, and Settlements Thereunto Belonging (London, 1661), 23; Richard Blome, A Description of the Island of Jamaica; With the other Isles and Territories in America, to which the English are Related (London: L. Milbourn, 1672), 18.

88. Hans Sloane, A Voyage to the Islands Madera, Barbados, Nieves, St. Christophers and Jamaica, with the Natural History of the Herbs and Trees, Four-footed Beasts, Fishes, Birds, Insects, Reptiles, Etc. (London, 1707), 1:xix; Carney, Black Rice, 155–59; Vansina, Paths in the Rainforest, 85; Chaplin, Anxious Pursuit, 156.

89. Additional MS 61602, fols. 35–61, British Library.

90. Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 1:105; David R. Harris, “The Ecology of Swidden Cultivation in the Upper Orinoco Rain Forest, Venezuela,” Geographical Review 61 (October 1971): 475–95.

91. Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 1:xv.

92. John Oldmixon, The British Empire in America, Containing the History of the Discovery, Settlement, Progress and Present State of all the British Colonies, On the Continent and Islands of America (London, 1708), 2:119, 122.

93. Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies of the West Indies (London, 1793), 1:193, 203, 403.

94. “Journal and Account of Greenpark and Springvale Estate, 1790–1815,” MS 236, Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica.

95. “Journal of Somerset Plantation,” MS 229, Institute of Jamaica, Kingston, Jamaica.

96. J. Stewart, A View of the Present State of the Island of Jamaica (1823; repr., New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 65.

97. Barry Higman, Jamaica Surveyed: Plantation Maps and Plans of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century (Kingston: University of West Indies Press, 2001), 266.

98. “Overseer’s Journal, Somerset Vale, 1776–80,” Somerset Vale Records, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI.

99. Richard Sheridan, “The Crisis of Slave Subsistence in the British West Indies during and after the American Revolution,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 33 (October 1976): 615–41.

100. Higman, Jamaica Surveyed, 273–76.

101. Weynette Parks Haun, Surry County, Virginia, Court Records, Deed Book III, 1672–1682 (Durham, NC, 1989), 25, 88, 127.

102. “An Inventory of the Estate of James Stone, 3rd January 1649,” York County Records, reel 1, Library of Virginia, Richmond.

103. “An Inventory of the Estate of William Hughes, 20th and 21st January 1661,” York County Records (transcript), reel 2a, Library of Virginia, Richmond.

104. Benjamin B. Weisiger, York County, Virginia Records, 1665–72, Deed Book 4 (Richmond, VA, 1987), 107, 156, 166.

105. Weynette Parks Haun, Surry County, Virginia, Court Records, Deed Book II, 1664–1671 (Durham, NC, 1987), 130.

106. Haun, Surry County, Virginia, Court Records, Deed Book III, 89.

107. Charles City County Records, Orders, August 1692, reel 13, Library of Virginia.

108. E. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 52–54; William E. Doolittle, Cultivated Landscapes of North America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), ch. 5, quote from 145.

109. Mark Catesby, Catesby’s Birds of Colonial America, ed. Alan Feduccia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1985), 151.

110. Marion Tingling, ed., The Correspondence of the Three William Byrds of Westover, Virginia, 1684–1776 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1977), 1:42, 66, 69.

111. William Hugh Grove, “Journal of Travels in England, Flanders, and America, 1698–1732,” Special Collections Library, University of Virginia.

112. Frederick Douglass, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: His Early Life as a Slave, His Escape from Bondage, and His Complete History (1881; repr., New York: Gramercy Books, 1993), 2, 4; Sterling Stuckey, Going through the Storm: The Influence of African American Art in History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 33–36; Patricia M. Samford, Subfloor Pits and the Archaeology of Slavery in Colonial Virginia (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2007), 124–37.

113. South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, 5:126, 211, 263, 297, 333–34.

114. Thomas Jefferson, The Garden and Farm Books of Thomas Jefferson, ed. Robert C. Baron (Golden, CO: Fulcrum, 1987), 195; Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Work Projects Administration, comp., Drums and Shadows: Survival Studies among the Georgia Coastal Negroes (1940; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 71, 178.

115. Catesby, Catesby’s Birds, 152.

116. Francis D. West, “John Bartram and Slavery,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 56 (April 1955): 117.

117. Chaplin, Anxious Pursuit, 156.

118. Carney, Black Rice.

119. P. Wood, Black Majority, 35–62; Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 74–114.

120. Peter Manigault to Charles Alexander, June 3, 1768, in “Letterbook of Peter Manigault, October 20, 1763–May 3, 1773,” typescript by Maurice A. Crouse, author’s files.

121. Henry Laurens to Henry Bright, September 9, 1762, in Henry Laurens, The Papers of Henry Laurens, vol. 3, 1759–1763 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1972), 118; Peter Manigault to Benjamin Stead, March 10, 1771, in “Letterbook of Peter Manigault.”

122. Peter Manigault to Sarah Nickleson & Co., July 4, 1765, Peter Manigault to Mr. John Harris Cruger, September 6, 1771, and Peter Manigault to Thomas Harrison, June 10, 1772, all in “Letterbook of Peter Manigault.”

123. “A List of Males at Cominge,” microfiche, Ball Family Papers, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston.

124. Wilks, Forests of Gold, ch. 2; Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 110; J. Miller, Way of Death, 12–14.

125. Catesby, Catesby’s Birds, 151–53; Janet Schaw, Journal of a Lady of Quality: Being the Narrative of a Journey from Scotland to the West Indies, North Carolina, and Portugal in the Years 1774 to 1776, ed. Evangeline Walker Andrews (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1927), 163.

126. “Samuel Mathias Journal, March–July 1781,” South Caroliniana Library, Columbia.

CHAPTER 3

1. Jerome Handler, “An African–Type Healer/Diviner and His Grave Goods: A Burial from a Plantation Slave Cemetery in Barbados, West Indies,” International Journal of Historical Archaeology 1:2 (1997): 106–9, 112–14; Walsh, From Calabar, 106–7; Matthew C. Emerson, “African Inspirations in New World Art and Artifact: Decorated Pipes from the Chesapeake,” in “I, Too, Am America”: Archaeological Studies of African-American Life, ed. Theresa A. Singleton (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 47–82; for an alternative perspective, see L. Daniel Mouer et al., “Colonoware Pottery, Chesapeake Pipes, and ‘Uncritical Assumptions,’” in Singleton, “I, Too, Am America,” 95–113.

2. Mark D. Groover, “Evidence for Folkways and Cultural Exchange in the 18th Century South Carolina Backcountry,” Historical Archaeology 28:1 (1994): 52–54.

3. Van Dantzig, Dutch and the Guinea Coast, 177–78, 318; Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 2:462, 560.

4. Purchas, Purchas, His Pilgrimes, 1:415.

5. Richard Jobson, The Golden Trade, or A Discovery of the River Gambra, and the Golden Trade of the Aethiopians, Set Down as They were Collected in Travelling Part of the Yeares 1620 and 1621 (1623; repr., London: Penguin Press, 1932), 168, 171.

6. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 2:547.

7. Equiano, Equiano’s Travels, 7.

8. Littlefield, Rice and Slaves, 76–77; Mungo Park, Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa: Performed Under the Direction of the Patronage of the African Association in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797, 3rd ed. (London: W. Bulmer, 1799), 34.

9. Caillié, Travels through Central Africa, 1:433.

10. Jobson, Golden Trade, 167; James Anquandah, Rediscovering Ghana’s Past (London: Longman, 1982), 27–28 and passim; L. B. Crossland, Pottery from the Begho-B2 Site, Ghana, African Occasional Papers no. 4 (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1989); Marla C. Berns, “Art, History, and Gender: Women and Clay in West Africa,” African Archaeological Review 11 (1993): 129–48. Though Berns does not deal explicitly with the manufacture of clay pipes, her emphasis on the role of women in African pottery traditions and art bears upon this consideration of the manufacture of clay pipes.

11. Vansina, “Peoples of the Forest,” 107–9.

12. Vansina, Children of Woot, 176; Pierre de Maret, “From Potter Groups to Ethnic Groups in Central Africa,” in African Archaeology, ed. Ann Brower Stahl (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005), 425.

13. Ives, Rich Papers, 3–5, 46, 303–11.

14. Ibid., 59, 233–34; Rich adds that he was more valuable than other Africans, perhaps underestimating their experience with tobacco.

15. Linda M. Heywood, and John K. Thornton, Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 291.

16. Puckrein, Little England, 53; Biet, “Father Antoine Biet’s Visit,” 69.

17. Sloane Manuscripts, fol. 55, British Museum.

18. Handler, “Amerindians and Their Contributions,” 198; Puckrein, Little England, 31–32, 40–72; Colonising Expeditions, 30.

19. Biet, “Father Antoine Biet’s Visit,” 66.

20. Ligon, True and Exact History, 22, 24.

21. Puckrein, Little England, 53.

22. Ibid., 59; Sloane Manuscripts, fols. 59–60, British Museum.

23. Eltis, “New Estimates of Exports,” 638.

24. G. Hughes, Natural History of Barbados, 171.

25. Hickeringill, Jamaica Viewed, 338, 368.

26. Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 1:lxiii.

27. Ibid., 1:cxxiv.

28. Handler, “Amerindians and Their Contributions,” 207; Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 1:147.

29. Sale of Sothesby and Co., West Indies-Bahamas Folder, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library.

30. Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 1:403.

31. Eltis et al., Voyages database.

32. G. Melvin Herndon, William Tatham and the Culture of Tobacco (Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1969), 107–13; T. H. Breen details the other dimensions of tobacco production in Tobacco Culture: The Mentality of the Great Tidewater Planters on the Eve of Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), 46–53.

33. W. Jeffrey Bolster, Black Jacks: African American Seamen in the Age of Sail (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997), 44–67; David S. Cecelski, The Waterman’s Song: Slavery and Freedom in Maritime North Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 4–5.

34. Peter H. Wood, “Whetting, Setting, and Laying Timbers: Black Builders in the Early South,” Southern Exposure 8 (Spring 1980): 3–8; Bolster, Black Jacks, 44–67; Cecelski, Waterman’s Song, 4–5.

35. The extensive literature on cotton production in precolonial West Africa is overviewed in Richard L. Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton: Colonialism and the Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800–1946 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996), 51–52.

36. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 55; Crone, Voyages of Cadamosto, 31–32, 48.

37. Duarte Pacheco Pereira, Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis, ed. and trans. George T. Kimble (London: Hakluyt Society, 1937), 90–92. On the basis of Pereira’s mention of the “Guoguliis” (92), Kimble suggests that he is employing an ethnonym, referring particularly to the Gola. In relation to African ethnicity in general, and the Gola in particular, see Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 88–105.

38. Jobson, Golden Trade, 171.

39. Kwabina B. Dickson, A Historical Geography of Ghana (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 75–76; David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 137–49.

40. John Thornton argues that though West Africa expanded their textile imports from European traders, domestic production still accounted for well over 90 percent of West African textile consumption (Africa and Africans, 48–52).

41. Sandra E. Greene, Gender, Ethnicity, and Social Change on the Upper Slave Coast: A History of the Anlo-Ewe (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1996), 20–47.

42. Van Dantzig, Dutch and the Guinea Coast, 206. In relation to the kinship mode of production, Eric Wolf has defined kinship “as a way of committing social labor to the transformation of nature through appeals to filiation and marriage, and to consanguinity and affinity.” This analytical device is particularly useful when viewing the changes within ethnic groups such as the Anlo-Ewe as they interacted with neighboring states and European traders on the coast. Wolf, Europe, 91.

43. K. Y. Daaku, Gonja, UNESCO Research Project on Oral Traditions, no. 1 (Legon: Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana, November 1969), interviews of Madam Adjoa Maman, 105–7, and Konde Jima, 102–4.

44. Hugh Clapperton, Missions to the Niger, vol. 4, The Bornu Mission, 1822–25, pt. 3, ed. E. W. Bovill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966), 653, 658. It is worth noting that P. Amaury Talbot observed the same method in southern Nigeria in the early twentieth century. He writes, “The seeding of cotton and the spinning of the thread are always done by women or children in the intervals of farm work; the former by rolling it between a smooth log and an iron rod, and the latter by fastening the lint on to a wooden spindle whorl—which is then spun round by a jerk and draws out the cotton to the required fineness.” Talbot, Peoples of Southern Nigeria, 3:939.

45. Testimony of John Barnes, in Minutes of the Evidence Taken Before a Committee of the House of Commons, Being a Committee of the Whole House, to Whom It Was Referred to Consider the Circumstances of the Slave Trade, Complained of in the Several Petitions Which Were Presented to the House in the Last Session of Parliament, Relative to the State of the African Slave Trade (London, 1789), 32; Park, Travels [1799], 282–83.

46. Caillié, Travels through Central Africa, 1:426.

47. Roy Dilley, “Tukulor Weavers and the Organisation of the Craft in Village and Town,” Africa 56:2 (1986): 123–29. Camara Laye recalls that when his mother took cotton to the weaver she “received back only a piece of cotton cloth half the weight of the original bundle,” the other half of the cotton being given by custom as payment. He also noted that after his rite of passage into adulthood the elders of his community strung cotton thread across the rooftops and Bombax trees, adding to the mystery of the public ceremony that followed his initiation rites into adulthood. Laye, Dark Child, 41, 107–9.

48. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 1:101.

49. Mungo Park, Travels [1799], 35, 203; M. Abitbol, “The End of the Song-hay Empire,” in Ogot, General History of Africa, vol. 5, Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, 302, 319.

50. J. F. Ade Ajayi and Michael Crowder, eds., Historical Atlas of Africa (Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1985), maps 32 and 35; Clapperton, Missions to the Niger, 4:653, 658.

51. Barth is quoted in Skinner, “West African Economic Systems,” 84.

52. De Marees, Description, 229–31.

53. Van Dantzig, Dutch and the Guinea Coast, 208–9. During the seventeenth century Benin withdrew from participation in the slave trade, but it reentered in the eighteenth century. See Alan Ryder, Benin and the Europeans, 1485–1897 (London: Longmans, 1969), 45, 159; Barbot observed in Fernando Po that “lamps are orange skins filled with palm oil and with cotton [as a wick]” (Barbot on Guinea, 2:724).

54. Equiano, Equiano’s Travels, 4–10.

55. Adanson, Voyage to Senegal, 285.

56. R. B. Handy, “History and General Statistics of Cotton,” in The Cotton Plant: Its History, Botany, Chemistry, Culture, Enemies, and Uses, ed. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, under the supervision of A. C. True (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1896), 26–29.

57. White, Narrative of a Voyage, 23–24; Puckrein, Little England, 3–7, 53; Colonising Expeditions, 30; Africans were possibly familiar with the kind of cotton grown in the Americas. As one scholar has suggested, cotton from Africa arrived in the Americas before the Columbian era. Dolores R. T. Piperno, The Origins of Agriculture in the Lowland Neotropics (San Diego: Academic Press, 1998), 149.

58. Fletcher is quoted in Puckrein, Little England, 53.

59. Jerome S. Handler and Frederick W. Lange, Plantation Slavery in Barbados: An Archaeological and Historical Investigation (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), 15; White, Narrative of a Voyage, 24–25; Ligon, True and Exact History, 22–24; Ligon notes that the Hilliard plantation also contained a blacksmith shop, which is of interest, given that some Africans would have brought smithing skills to the island.

60. Heinrich von Uchteritz, “A German Indentured Servant in Barbados in 1652: The Account of Heinrich von Uchteritz,” ed. and trans. Alexander Gunkel and Jerome S. Handler, Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society 33 (May 1970): 93. See also Spoeri, “Swiss Medical Doctor’s Description,” 8.

61. Biet, “Father Antoine Biet’s Visit,” 66; Guyer and Belinga, “Wealth in People,” 91–120.

62. John Scott, Sloane Manuscripts 3662, fol. 55, British Library.

63. Eltis, “New Estimates of Exports,” 638, 642; “List of such ships and vessells as have imported and exported any commodities to and from this their Majesties Islands of Barbados,” Colonial Office Papers 33, vols. 13, 14, and 15, British Public Record Office.

64. Great Britain, Public Record Office, Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, American and West Indies (London, 1860–1969) (hereafter referred to as CSP), 1661–68, 146–48, 163; W. Hubert Miller, “The Colonization of the Bahamas, 1647–1670,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 2 (January 1945): 44.

65. South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, 5:160–61.

66. CSP, 1675–76, 418.

67. Michael Craton and Gail Saunders, Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People, vol. 1, From Aboriginal Times to the End of Slavery (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992), 79–89.

68. Blome, Description of the Island of Jamaica, 10; Hickeringill, Jamaica Viewed, 23; Frank Wesley Pitman, The Development of the British West Indies, 1700–1763 (1917; repr., Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1967), 17; Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 170.

69. P. Lea, “A New Mapp of the Island of Jamaica” (1685), Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress.

70. M. Cranfield, “Observations of the Present State of Jamaica, December 14, 1675,” in Appendix to the First Volume of the Journals of the Assembly of Jamaica (Jamaica, 1811), 42.

71. John Ogilby, America: Being the Latest and Most Accurate Description of the New World; Containing the Original of the Inhabitants and the Remarkable Voyages Thither (London, 1671), 338.

72. CSP, 1681–85, 283, 286.

73. Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 1:380.

74. Jacques-Nicolas Bellin, “Map of Jamaica” (ca. 1757), John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI.

75. Pitman, Development of the British West Indies, 105–7. In the late seventeenth century, thirty thousand pounds weight of cotton was valued at between 150 and 200 pounds sterling. An Historical Account of the Rise and Growth of the West India Colonies; and of the great Advantages they are to England, in respect trade. Licensed According to Order, in The Harleian Miscellany: A Collection of Scarce, Curious, and Entertaining Pamphlets and Tracts (1690; repr., London: John White and John Murray, 1809), 2:370. In the middle of the eighteenth century, British Caribbean slave societies exported well over a million pounds of cotton annually; see Barbara Gaye Jaquay, “The Caribbean Cotton Production: An Historical Geography of the Region’s Mystery Crop” (PhD diss., Texas A&M University, 1997), 75.

76. Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 2:270–71.

77. Whitemarsh Seabrook, A Memoir on the Origin, Cultivation and Uses of Cotton, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time, with Special Reference to the Sea-Island Cotton Plant, Including the Improvements in Its Cultivation, and the Preparation of the Wool, &c. in Georgia and South Carolina (Charleston, SC: Miller and Browne, 1844), 18.

78. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 191; John Oldmixon, The British Empire in America, Containing the History of the Discovery, Settlement, Progress, and State of the British Colonies on the Continent and Islands of America, 2nd ed. (London, 1741), 2:107; William Hughes, The American Physitian; or a Treatise of the Roots, Plants, Trees, Shrubs, Fruit, Herbs, ets., Growing in the English Plantations in America (London, 1672), 71; G. Hughes, Natural History of Barbados, 191.

79. Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 2:272.

80. Hans Sloane is quoted in Carl Bridenbaugh and Roberta Bridenbaugh, No Peace beyond the Line: The English in the Caribbean, 1624–1690 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972), 57; Edwards refers to similar gins during the eighteenth century in History, Civil and Commercial, 2:272.

81. Grimé, Ethno-Botany, 122.

82. Hilary M. Beckles, Natural Rebels: A Social History of Enslaved Black Women in Barbados (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 85–86; David Barry Gaspar, Bondmen and Rebels: A Study of Master-Slave Relations in Antigua (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 145–48.

83. Philip Alexander Bruce, Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (New York: Macmillan, 1896), 1:194, 331; Purchas, Purchas His Pilgrimes, 4:1784.

84. Alexander Spotswood, The Official Letters of Alexander Spotswood, Lieutenant-Governor of the Colony of Virginia, 1710–1722, ed. R. A. Brock (Richmond: Virginia Historical Society, 1882), 1:72; Bruce, Economic History of Virginia, 1:466–67; E. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 359. Bruce argues that the Virginia soil and climate hindered cotton cultivation, preventing it from growing on a larger scale.

85. P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 241; Thomas Jefferson, Farm Book, ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), 29, 40, 248, and Garden Book, 1766–1824, ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1944), 219. Jefferson, in his Notes on the State of Virginia, first published in 1785, wrote, “The climate suits rice well enough wherever the lands do. Tobacco, hemp, flax, and cotton are staple commodities. Indico yields two cuttings.” Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1955), 42.

86. William Hugh Grove Diary, July 13, 1732, Special Collections, Alderman Library, University of Virginia; Jefferson, Farm Book, 29, 40, 248, and Garden Book, 219. In spite of these efforts, Jefferson still had to later buy cloth to distribute to his black labor force, a small token for their unfree labor.

87. Tench Coxe, “The Origin of the Cotton Culture of the United States,” American Farmer (Baltimore) 2 (May 26, 1820): 67.

88. CSP, 1661–68, 157; South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, 5:127, 333, 377 n. 1.

89. Peter Purry, “Proposals by Peter Purry of Newfchatel,” in Historical Collections of South Carolina, Embracing Many Rare and Valuable Pamphlets, and Other Documents, Relating to the History of That State, from Its First Discovery to Its Independence, in the Year 1776, ed. B. R. Carroll (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1836), 2:133.

90. P. Wood, Black Majority, 25.

91. CSP, 1574–1660, 439; Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), 189, 192; Eliza Pinckney, The Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 1739–1762, ed. Elise Pinckney with Marvin R. Zahniser (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972), 8.

92. Harriet Horry Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1896), 128.

93. “Extract of a Letter from Dr. Alexander Garden of South Carolina Communicated by Mr. Henry Baker, Charles Town, April 5, 1756,” Royal Society, London, Letters and Papers, Decade III, photostat in Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.

94. South Carolina and American General Gazette, January 20, 1777, quoted in “Historical Notes,” South Carolina Historical Gazette and Magazine 8 (October 1907), 220.

95. Laurens, Papers, 5:357.

96. Ralph Izard, Correspondence of Ralph Izard of South Carolina, vol. 1, 1774–1777 (New York: Charles S. Francis, 1844), 174, 296, 300.

97. Chaplin, Anxious Pursuit, 208–26.

CHAPTER 4

1. Virginia Gail Jelatis, “Tangled Up in Blue: Indigo Culture and Economy in South Carolina, 1747–1800” (PhD diss., University of Minnesota, 1999), 160; Jenny Balfour-Paul, Indigo (1998; repr., Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2000), 66; “Letters of Morris and Brailsford to Thomas Jefferson,” ed. Richard Walsh, South Carolina Historical Magazine 58 (1957): 137; A Description of South Carolina: Containing Many Curious and Interesting Particulars Relating to the Civil, Natural and Commercial History of that Colony (London: R. and J. Dodsley, 1761), in Carroll, Historical Collections of South Carolina, 2:204.

2. Lewis Cecil Gray, History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 (New York: Peter Smith, 1941), 1:290.

3. Chaplin, Anxious Pursuit, 192; Elise Pinckney, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney: Biographical Sketch,” in Eliza Pinckney, Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, xvi–xxi.

4. Nell S. Graydon, Eliza of Wappoo: A Tale of Indigo (Columbia, SC: R. L. Bryan, 1967); Frances Leigh Williams, Plantation Patriot: A Biography of Eliza Lucas Pinckney (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World), 1967); Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney; Susan Lee, Eliza Lucas (Danbury, CT: Children’s Press, 1977).

5. Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 148–49.

6. P. Wood, Black Majority, ch. 2; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, ch. 6.

7. Elise Pinckney, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney,” xvi–xviii.

8. Ives, Rich Papers, 18–19, 55.

9. Beckles, White Servitude, 26; Puckrein, Little England, 60; Ligon, True and Exact History, 24.

10. William Legett, Ancient and Medieval Dyes (Brooklyn: Chemical Publishing Co., 1944; Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 26–27; Rita Bolland, Tellem Textiles: Archaeological Finds from Burial Caves in Mali’s Bandiagara Cliffs (Amsterdam: Tropenmuseum / Royal Tropical Institute, 1991).

11. Thomas Phillips, A Journal of a Voyage Made in the Hannibal of London, Ann. 1693, 1694, from England to Cape Monseradoe, in Africa; And thence Along the Coast of Guiney to Whidaw, the Island of St. Thomas, and So Forward to Barbadoes (1746), in A Collection of Voyages and Travels, Some Now First Printed from Original Manuscripts, Others Now First Published in English, 3rd ed., ed. Answham Churchill (London, 1746), 6:236.

12. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 49–50.

13. Carney, Black Rice, 15.

14. Nyendael quoted in Talbot, Peoples of Southern Nigeria, 3:942; Basil Davidson, West Africa before the Colonial Era: A History to 1850 (London: Longman, 1998), 121; Van Dantzig, Dutch and the Guinea Coast, 208–9.

15. De Marees, Description, 11; Olfert Dapper, Olfert Dapper’s Description of Benin [1668], ed. and trans. Adam Jones (Madison: African Studies Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1998), 14; Adam Jones, “A Collection of African Art in Seventeenth-Century Germany: Cristoph Weickmann’s Kunst- und Naturkammer,” African Arts 27 (April 1994): 33, 35–36; Richard Blome, A Geographical Description of the World, Taken from the Works of the Famous Monsieur Sanson, Late Geographer to the Present French King, 1680, in Cosmography and Geography in Two Parts (London, 1682), 380; Talbot, Peoples of Southern Nigeria, 3:941–42; F. R. Irvine, Text-Book of West African Agriculture: Soils and Crops, 2nd ed. (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 155–57.

16. Adanson, Voyage to Senegal, 151, 166.

17. Mollien, Travels in the Interior, 155, 321; Richard Lander, The Niger Journal of Richard and John Lander, ed. Robin Hallett (New York: Praeger, 1965), 125.

18. Carney, Black Rice, 27, 53, 74; Irvine, Text-Book, 105–10.

19. Adanson, Voyage to Senegal, 295.

20. Testimony of William Littleton, in Minutes of the Evidence, 212.

21. Van Dantzig, Dutch and the Guinea Coast, 206.

22. Testimony of Littleton, in Minutes of the Evidence, 212; Claire Polakoff, Into Indigo: African Textiles and Dyeing Techniques (Garden City, NJ: Anchor Books, 1980); 25–26; Mungo Park, Journal of a Mission to the Interior of Africa, in the Year 1805 (London, 1815), 10–11; Adanson, Voyage to Senegal, 296; Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 119–21; Judith Byfield, “Women, Economy and the State: A Study of the Adire Industry in Abeokuta, 1890–1930” (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1993), 127–30.

23. Park, Journal of a Mission, 10–11; Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 142; Byfield, “Women, Economy,” 124–27.

24. George Roberts, The Four Years Voyages of Captain George Roberts (London, 1726), 397.

25. Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 44–55; Robert S. Smith, “Indigo Production and Trade in Colonial Guatemala,” Hispanic American Historical Review 39 (May 1959): 181–211.

26. Puckrein, Little England; George Frederick Zook, The Company of Royal Adventurers Trading into Africa (New York: Negro University Press, 1969), 72; Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 1:74–78. These indigo workers developed the raw material for the West African textile industry. A. Hampete Ba discusses the traditions of textile workers in the West African savannah and Sahel in “Living Tradition,” 180–87.

27. Spoeri, “Swiss Medical Doctor’s Description,” 7–8.

28. In Virginia during the 1620s, indigo production failed because the colonists did not know how to process the crop. Bruce, Economic History of Virginia, 1:246.

29. John Scott, Sloane Manuscripts 3662, fol. 62, British Library; Blackburn, Making of New World Slavery, 230; Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 122–44, 167–78.

30. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 167–68; Eltis et al., Voyages database; Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean (1970; repr., New York: Vintage Books, 1980), 114–15; Eltis, “New Estimates of Exports,” 639, 643; Pitman, Development of the British West Indies, 234.

31. K. N. Chaudhuri, The Trading World of Asia and the English East India Company, 1660–1760 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978), 334.

32. Eltis, “New Estimates of Exports,” 639, 643; Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 169; Sheridan placing the number of indigo works in 1670 at forty-nine, Sugar and Slavery, 212; P. Lea, “A New Mapp of the island of Jamaica” (1685), Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress.

33. Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 2:280; Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 91–93; William Sherman, Forced Native Labor in Sixteenth-Century Central America (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979), 252–54; David H. Rembert Jr., “The Indigo of Commerce in Colonial North America,” Economic Botany 33:2 (1979): 128–30; Alfred W. Crosby, The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972).

34. Irvine, Text-Book, 155; Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 91–92, 95; Polakoff, Into Indigo, 25, 42.

35. Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 2:281–83; Oldmixon, British Empire in America [1741], 2:400.

36. Colonel Charles Long to Peter Haywood, October 16, 1707, to May 6, 1708, West Indies Folder, West Indies Box, Rare Books and Manuscripts Division, New York Public Library.

37. Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 109–10.

38. Oldmixon, British Empire in America [1741], 2:400. Another lengthy description of the process of indigo fermentation in Jamaica is in Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 2:284–86. Some slaves drew upon their knowledge of indigo for domestic consumption. As the natural scientist Hans Sloane remarked, “Those of Madagascar beat Leaves to a Lump and make use of it to dye with.” Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 2:36.

39. Jean Baptiste du Tertre, Histoire générale des Antilles habitées par les François (Paris, 1667–71), vol. 2; Walter Edgar, South Carolina: A History (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998), 144–49.

40. Edwards, History, Civil and Commercial, 2:287.

41. Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 2:35–36.

42. P. Wood, Black Majority, 21; South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, 5:211.

43. South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, 5:124–27, 266–67, 297; as noted earlier, he was also advised to draw upon Native American expertise to establish his plantation.

44. Ibid., 5:333–34, 377–78; P. Wood, Black Majority, 25, 39.

45. Alexander S. Salley Jr., ed., Narratives of Early Carolina, 1650–1708 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1911), 147; A Letter from South Carolina, Giving an Account of the Soil, Air, Product, Trade, Government, Laws, Religion, People, Military Strength, Etc. of that Province Together with the Manner and Necessary Charges of Settling a Plantation there, and the Annual Profit it Will Produce, written by a Swiss gentleman, to his friend at Bern (London: A. Baldwin, 1710), 16.

46. South Carolina Historical Society, Collections, 5:211; Purry, “Proposals by Mr. Peter Purry,” 2:127.

47. Eliza Pinckney, Letterbook of Eliza Lucas Pinckney, 8, 16. Though it is not clear what kind of indigo was grown on the Lucas plantations, by the 1750s at least two kinds predominated, Indigofera tinctoria, or “French” indigo, and Indigofera suffruticosa. Rembert, “Indigo Commerce,” 128–33.

48. Elise Pinckney, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney,” xvii–xviii.

49. Blackburn, Making of New World Slavery, 295; Clarence J. Munford, The Ordeal of Black Slavery and Slave Trading in the French West Indies, 1625–1715, vol. 2, The Middle Passage and the Plantation Economy (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press), 544–45.

50. Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney, 105.

51. Elise Pinckney, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney,” xv–xvi; Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney, 104; “Col. Lucas’s List of Negroes at Garden Hill from Murray, May 1745,” in Pinckney Family Papers, South Carolina Historical Society, Charleston; for a treatment of Akan names, Florence Dolphyne, A Comprehensive Course in Twi (Asante) for the Non-Twi Learner (Accra: Ghana Universities Press, 1996), 14; for Akan day names in Côte D’Ivoire, Richard R. Day and Albert B. Saraka, An Introduction to Spoken Baoule (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1968), cycles 16–18; Sjarief Hale, “Kente Cloth of Ghana,” African Arts 3:3 (1970): 26–29; Dennis M. Warren, “Bono Royal Regalia,” African Arts 8 (Winter 1975): 16–21; Anquandah, Rediscovering Ghana’s Past, 93–94; Ivor Wilks, “The Mossi and Akan States,” in Ajayi and Crowder, History of West Africa, 1:369; Boahen, “States and Cultures,” 5:428.

52. Elise Pinckney, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney,” xvii. The figure of indigo exports is from “An Account of Goods Exported from Charles Town of the Produce of South Carolina from the 1st November 1749 to the 1st November 1750,” in Records in the British Public Records Office Relating to South Carolina, B. T., 16:366–67.

53. Description of South Carolina, 2:204; William Gerard de Brahm, Philosophico-Historico-Hydrogeography of South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida, in Documents Connected with the History of South Carolina, ed. Plowden Charles Jennett Weston (London, 1856), 197.

54. Description of South Carolina, 2:204.

55. Breen, Tobacco Culture; Jelatis, “Tangled Up in Blue”; Chaplin, Anxious Pursuit, 190–208.

56. David Coon, “Eliza Lucas Pinckney and the Reintroduction of Indigo Culture in South Carolina,” Journal of Southern History 42 (February 1976): 71–74; Philip Miller, The Gardener’s Dictionary: Containing the Methods of Cultivating and Improving the Kitchen, Fruit and Flower Garden (London, 1731); Gentleman’s Magazine, May 1755, 201–3, and June 1755, 256–59. The constant comparison and anxiety that Carolinians had about their indigo was not unlike that of tobacco planters as discussed in Breen in Tobacco Culture.

57. George C. Rogers Jr., The History of Georgetown County, South Carolina (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1970), 77, 87, 91–92; Ravenel, Eliza Pinckney, 106; Chaplin, Anxious Pursuit, 201.

58. Peter Manigault to Daniel Blake, February 6, 1770, in “Peter Manigault Letterbook,” 113.

59. I draw the term symbolic capital from Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990), 112–21. William de Brahm, “A Map of South Carolina and a Part of Georgia (1757),” Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress; James Cook, “A Map of the Province of South Carolina (1773),” Geography and Map Division, Library of Congress; Henry Mouzon Jr., “A Map of the Parish of St. Stephen in Craven County (1773),” Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library, Duke University.

60. Henry Laurens, Papers, 1:241, 324.

61. Eltis et al., Voyages database; Littlefield, Rice and Slaves; Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 4:377.

62. South Carolina Gazette, October 11, 1760.

63. The method of producing indigo in South Carolina was essentially the same as it was in the Caribbean. Guion Griffis Johnson, A Social History of the Sea Islands, with Special Reference to St. Helena Island, South Carolina (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1930), 20–21; Peter Manigault to Benjamin Stead, February 6, 1770, in “Peter Manigault Letterbook”; Jelatis, “Tangled Up in Blue,” 150–59; P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 159–64.

64. Testimony of Littleton, in Minutes of the Evidence, 212; Polakoff, Into Indigo, 25–26; Park, Journal of a Mission, 10–11; Adanson, Voyage to Senegal, 296; Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 119–21; Byfield, “Women, Economy,” 124–27.

65. P. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 164.

66. Margaret Washington Creel, “A Peculiar People”: Slave Religion and Community Culture among the Gullahs (New York: New York University Press, 1988), 321; Julie Dash draws upon these cultural practices in her film Daughters of the Dust (1992), as in the prominence of indigo-dyed clothing and the blue-stained hands of Nana Peazant.

67. Balfour-Paul, Indigo, 70–76.

CHAPTER 5

1. De Marees, Description, 118.

2. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 2:382, 516.

3. Christopher R. DeCorse, An Archaeology of Elmina: Africans and Europeans on the Gold Coast, 1400–1900 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2001), ch. 4.

4. Ives, Rich Papers, 27.

5. Hilary M. Beckles, “Plantation Production and White ‘Proto–Slavery’: White Indentured Servants and the Colonisation of the English West Indies, 1624–1645,” Americas 41 (January 1985): 35–37.

6. Beckles, White Servitude, 129–30.

7. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 182, 268; Beckles, White Servitude, 138.

8. Ligon, True and Exact History, 23; Handler, “Amerindians and Their Contributions,” 192–96, 203–7, quote from 207; Oldmixon, British Empire in America [1708], quotes from 2:238, 239; Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 2:39–40.

9. Dawson, “Enslaved Swimmers and Divers,” 1327–55; Thornton, Africa and Africans, 135; de Marees, Description, 186.

10. Ligon, True and Exact History, 52.

11. Ibid., 35.

12. Trevor Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves in the Anglo-Jamaican World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 198–200.

13. Blome, Description of the Island, 48–49.

14. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 190–201; Beckles, White Servitude, 125–27.

15. “Overseer’s Journal, Somerset Vale, 1776–80,” Somerset Vale Records, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI.

16. “An Account of Duckenfield Hall Estate’s Negroes,” Codex Eng 183, John Carter Brown Library, Providence, RI.

17. Mathew Gregory Lewis, Journal of a West India Proprietor, Kept during a Residence in the Island of Jamaica (1834; repr., New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969), 187.

18. Ligon, True and Exact History, 49.

19. Sloane, Voyage to the Islands, 1:lii. After slaves from Angola used drums to notify other slaves of the uprising at the Stono River, the 1740 South Carolina slave code banned slaves from possessing “wooden swords, and other mischievous and dangerous weapons, or using or keeping of drums, horns, or other loud instruments, which may call together, or give sign or notice to one another of their wicked designs or purposes.” Dena Epstein, Sinful Tunes and Spirituals: Black Folk Music to the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977), 59.

20. Douglas V. Armstrong, “Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Caribbean Plantation,” in Singleton, “I, Too, Am America,” 174–78.

21. David Geggus, “Sugar and Coffee Cultivation in Saint Domingue and the Shaping of the Slave Labor Force,” in Berlin and Morgan, Cultivation and Culture, 86, 88.

22. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 135–36; John S. Otto and Nain E. Anderson, “The Origins of Southern Cattle-Grazing: A Problem in West Indian History,” Journal of Caribbean History 21:2 (1988): 148; P. Wood, Black Majority, 28–34.

23. Blome, Description of the Island, 10.

24. J. Miller, Way of Death, 80; Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 1:103; Donnan, Documents Illustrative, 2:193.

25. Oldmixon, British Empire in America [1708], 2:103, 104, 321.

26. Blome, Description of the Island, 11.

27. Thornton, Africa and Africans, 139, 165; Hall, Slavery and African Ethnicities, 67–68.

28. Candace Goucher, “African Metallurgy in the Atlantic World,” African Archaeological Review 11 (1993): 206.

29. Armstrong, “Archaeology and Ethnohistory,” 178–80.

30. Oldmixon, British Empire in America [1708], 2:120.

31. Edmund Morgan, Virginians at Home: Family Life in the Eighteenth Century (Williamsburg, VA: Colonial Williamsburg, Inc., 1952), 53–54.

32. Weynette Parks Haun, Surry County, Virginia, Court Records, Book V, 1691–1700 (Durham, NC, 1991), 12; Mechal Sobel, The World They Made Together: Black and White Values in Eighteenth Century Virginia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), 44–53.

33. Sobel, World They Made Together, 112–26, 132–33.

34. Affidavit by Peter Legrand, Spragins Family Papers, MSS1, sp 716a, 1726–33, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.

35. Jefferson, Garden and Farm Books, 225.

36. John Michael Vlach, The Afro-American Tradition in the Decorative Arts (1978; repr., Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990), 108.

37. Laura Croghan Kamoie, Neabsco and Occoquan: The Tayloe Family Iron Plantations, 1730–1830 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007), 87.

38. Made of Iron, exh. cat. (Houston: University of St. Thomas Art Department, 1966), 106.

39. James A. McMillin, The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004), 32; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 308–09; Eltis et al., Voyages database.

40. Barbot, Barbot on Guinea, 2:519; de Marees, Description, 122–25.

41. John R. Commons et al., eds., A Documentary History of American Industrial Society, vol. 1, Plantation and Frontier, ed. Ulrich Bonnell Phillips (New York: Russell and Russell, 1958), 205–6; de Marees, Description, 121; Sylvia Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991), 281.

42. Henry Box Brown, Narrative of Henry Box Brown: Who Escaped from Slavery Enclosed in a Box 3 Feet Long and 2 Feet Wide, Afro-American History Series, no. 205 (1849; repr., Philadelphia: Historic Publications, 1969), 25.

43. Guion Griffis Johnson, Ante-Bellum North Carolina: A Social History (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1937), 556.

44. De Marees, Description, 121.

45. West, “John Bartram and Slavery,” 118–19.

46. P. Wood, Black Majority, 123; John Michael Vlach, Afro-American Tradition, 97–107; Charles Ball, Fifty Years in Chains; Or, The Life of an American Slave (New York: H. Dayton, 1859), 211; Lewis, Journal, 50, 67.

47. Ball, Fifty Years in Chains, 17, 203–18; Judith Carney makes a similar argument about the ways that slaves used their knowledge of rice cultivation to extract the task system from their owners in Black Rice, 98–101.

48. Release from Mortgage, George Lucas to Charles Alexander, Miscellaneous Records, vol. GG (1746–49), South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.

49. Bill of Sale, Charles Alexander to Charles Pinckney, Miscellaneous Records, vol. HH (1749–51), South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.

50. “A List of all ye Negroes at Warrhall,” Taylor Family Papers, South Caroliniana Library, Columbia.

51. City Gazette, March 29, 1788.

52. Bill of Sale, January 1, 1803, vol. NNN, and Bill of Sale, August 16, 1809, vol. AAAA, both in Miscellaneous Records, South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.

53. Bills of Sale, January 14 and July 9, 1789, Miscellaneous Records, vol. QQ, South Carolina Department of Archives and History, Columbia.

54. Ferguson, Uncommon Ground; Vlach, Afro-American Tradition.

55. George Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography, vol. 2, South Carolina Narratives, Parts 1 and 2 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972), pt. 1, p. 198.

56. John Michael Vlach, Charleston Blacksmith: The Work of Philip Simmons (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1981).

57. G. P. Collins, “Discovery of Lake Scuppernong (Phelps), North Carolina,” Publications of the Southern History Association 6 (1902): 24; Robert Hunter Jr., Quebec to Carolina in 1785–1786: Being the Travel Diary and Observations of Robert Hunter, Jr., a Young Merchant of London, ed. Louis B. Wright and Marion Tingling (San Marino, CA: Huntington Library, 1943), 265; William S. Tarlton, “Somerset Place and Its Restoration,” report prepared for the Department of Conservation and Development Division of State Parks, Raleigh, NC, August 1, 1954, 6; “Survey Made by Richard Slaughter to Explore the Lands of Messrs. Collins, Allen and Dickinson, July 27, 1787,” Josiah Collins Papers, Josiah Collins Elder Box, Collins, Allen and Dickinson Folder, North Carolina State Archives, Raleigh; Wayne K. Durrill, “Slavery, Kinship, and Dominance: The Black Community at Somerset Place Plantation, 1786–1860,” Slavery and Abolition 13 (August 1992): 3; Dorothy Spruill Redford, Somerset Homecoming: Recovering a Lost Heritage (New York: Doubleday, 1988), 103–7.

58. Collins, “Discovery of Lake Scuppernong,” 23; “An Act Enabling Certain Persons to Perfect a Canal Between Scuppernong River and the Lake Near Its Head,” in The State Records of North Carolina (New York: AMS Press, 1968–78), 24:861–62; Edmund Ruffin, Agricultural, Geological, and Descriptive Sketches of Lower North Carolina and the Adjacent Lands (Raleigh, NC: Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind, 1861), 234.

59. Durrill, “Slavery, Kinship,” 6–7; Tarlton, “Somerset Place,” 7.

60. Carney, Black Rice, 63–68.

61. Edmund Ruffin, Farmers’ Register, no. 12 (1839): 729; Tarlton, “Somerset Place,” 7–11.

62. Frederick Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855; repr., New York: Dover Publications, 1969), 69–70.

63. Samuel Gourdin Gaillard, “Recollections of Samuel Gourdin Gaillard,” South Carolina Historical and Genealogical Magazine 57 (July 1956): 120–23. African work practices on the plantation probably paralleled religious worship, which was prominent. Gaillard describes worship thus: “The ‘Fireside’ or day nursery was quite a large building, and had one very large room that was maintained as a chapel, holding benches to see the congregation. The ‘preaching’ was really an exhortation and reading from the Bible, after which the seats were removed and the floor cleared for the ‘Shouting.’ This—the shouting—must have come with the slaves from Africa. It was weird in the extreme. It began by someone—a woman—starting a low moaning hymn, gradually joined in by the entire congregation. As the singing increased in crescendo, one by one of the congregation slipped out into the center of the floor and began to ‘shout’—(that is whirl around and sing and clap hands, and go round and round in circles). After a time as this went on, the enthusiasm became a frenzy and only the ablebodied men and women remained—the weak dropping out one by one, returning to the ‘side lines’ to clap and urge the ‘shouters’ on” (123).

64. William J. Faulkner, The Days When the Animals Talked: Black American Folktales and How They Came to Be (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1993), 21, 102–9; for example, in West Central Africa, agriculturalists who grew manioc could leave the crop in the ground for storage. Marvin P. Miracle, Agriculture in the Congo Basin: Tradition and Change in African Rural Economies (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 193; Samford, Subfloor Pits.

65. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 1, pp. 4, 22, and vol. 17, Florida Narratives, 335–36.

66. Charles L. Perdue Jr., Thomas E. Barden, and Robert K. Phillips, eds., Weevils in the Wheat: Interviews with Virginia Ex-Slaves (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1976), 13.

67. Louis Hughes, The Autobiography of Louis Hughes: Thirty Years a Slave; From Bondage to Freedom; The Institution of Slavery as Seen on the Plantation in the Home of the Planter (Montgomery, AL: New South Books, 2002), 34–36.

68. Solomon Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave: Narrative of Solomon Northrup, a Citizen of New York, Kidnapped in Washington City in 1841 and Rescued in 1853, from a Cotton Plantation Near the Red River, in Louisiana, ed. Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon (1853; repr., Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1968), 127–31, 159–63.

69. Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005), 75, 84–91; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 314; Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); McMillin, Final Victims, 18–48.

70. Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave, 141–43.

71. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 17, Florida Narratives, 336. For a fuller discussion of slave accounts of being tricked aboard slave ships with red cloth, see Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 199–210. Others in Africa heard stories about people being enticed by ship captains and were much more cautious in their dealings with European merchants. Otto Friedrich Von Der Groeben of Brandenburg stated that when he attempted to trade on the West African coast, a group of African traders “did come aboard, and they promised to come with ivory the following day. Their fear derived from the fact that French ships often arrive, pretending to trade, and then, when they have attracted ten or twenty Negroes into the ship, the Blacks are caught, taken to the West Indies and sold as slaves.” Adam Jones, ed., Brandenburg Sources for West African History, 1680–1700 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1985), 29.

72. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 1, p. 75.

73. Ibid., pt. 1, p. 94.

74. George Rawick, The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography. Supplement, Series 1, vol. 4, Georgia Narratives, Part 2, 632.

75. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 3, South Carolina Narratives, Parts 3 and 4, pt. 4, pp. 222–23.

76. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 17, Florida Narratives, 59.

77. Toni Morrison, Beloved (New York: Plume, 1987), 60.

78. “Account Book, 1806, of John Tayloe,” Tayloe Family Papers, MSS1 T218 g7 Tayloe, Virginia Historical Society, Richmond.

79. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 1, p. 3.

80. Ibid., pt. 1, p. 22.

81. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 6, 8.

82. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 1, p. 93.

83. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 17, Florida Narratives, 230.

84. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 188.

85. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 17.

86. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 66, 101, 179; Vlach, Afro-American Tradition, 44–55; P. Wood, “Whetting, Setting,” 3–8.

87. Delany, Condition, Elevation, Emigration, 64.

88. Leon Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979), 425.

CHAPTER 6

1. Hilda Vitzthum, Torn Out by the Roots: The Recollections of a Former Communist, ed. and trans. Paul Schach (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1993), 129. Vitzthum was brought to my attention in an insightful essay by Peter H. Wood, “Slave Labor Camps in Early America: Overcoming Denial and Discovering the Gulag,” in Inequality in Early America, ed. Carla Gardina Pestana and Sharon V. Salinger (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England), 222–38.

2. Vitzthum, Torn Out by the Roots, 3–4, quotation from 185.

3. Wolf, Europe, 390.

4. My use of the term mnemonic devices derives, in part, from Africanist literature on memory and history. Mary Nooter Roberts and Allen F. Roberts, Memory: Luba Art and the Making of History (New York: Museum for African Art, 1996); Joseph C. Miller, “History and Africa/Africa and History,” American Historical Review 104 (February 1999): 10.

5. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 17.

6. Edward C. L. Adams, Tales of the Congaree, ed. Robert G. O’Meally (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 48–49.

7. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845; repr., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 47.

8. Rawick, American Slave, Supplement, Series 1, vol. 4, Georgia Narratives, Part 2, 355.

9. Alan Lomax, The Folk Songs of North America in the English Language (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1960), 514.

10. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 309.

11. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, p. 222.

12. H. Brown, Narrative of Henry Box Brown, 19.

13. Ibid., 54.

14. Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave, 86.

15. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, p. 322.

16. William Wells Brown, Narrative of William Wells Brown, A Fugitive Slave, in Puttin on Ole Massa: The Slave Narratives of Henry Bibb, William Wells Brown, and Solomon Northrup, ed. Gilbert Osofsky (New York: Harper and Row, 1969), 190.

17. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 30.

18. W. Johnson, Soul by Soul, 1–18.

19. H. Brown, Narrative of Henry Box Brown, 15.

20. Ibid., p. 56; W. Brown, Narrative of William Wells Brown, 210.

21. Adams, Tales of the Congaree, 5.

22. Duarte Lopez, A Report of the Kingdom of Congo (1597; repr., New York: Da Capo Press, 1970), 54.

23. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 4, 68; Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 51, 189; Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 1, p. 18.

24. William Dusinberre, Them Dark Days: Slavery in the American Rice Swamps (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000), 235–45.

25. Adams, Tales of the Congaree, 5.

26. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 119–20.

27. Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave, 74.

28. H. Brown, Narrative of Henry Box Brown, 19–20.

29. William Wells Brown, My Southern Home: Or, The South and Its People (1880; repr., Upper Saddle River, NJ: Gregg Press, 1968), 154–55.

30. Sterling A. Brown, Arthur P. Davis, and Ulysses Lee, eds., Negro Caravan: Writings by American Negroes (1941; repr., Salem, NH: Ayer, 1991), 449.

31. W. Brown, My Southern Home, 66.

32. Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom, 252–53.

33. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 18.

34. Ibid., 17.

35. Ira Berlin, Marc Favreau, and Stephen F. Miller, eds., Remembering Slavery: African Americans Talk about Their Personal Experiences of Slavery and Freedom (New York: New Press, 1998), tape 1; Mia Bay, The White Image in the Black Mind: African American Ideas about White People (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 127–49. This sentiment has resonances into the age of Jim Crow, when Fannie Lou Hamer lived on a plantation that provided better accommodations for the owner’s dog than for Hamer and her family.

36. Henry Bibb, Narrative of the Life and Adventures of Henry Bibb, an American Slave. Written by Himself with an Introduction by Lucius C. Matlock, ed. Charles J. Heglar (1849; repr., Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), 66.

37. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself, enl. ed., ed. Jean Fagan Yellin (1861; repr., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000), 76.

38. H. Brown, Narrative of Henry Box Brown, 29, 56.

39. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 116.

40. Bibb, Narrative, 131.

41. Gavin Wright, Slavery and American Economic Development (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006).

42. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 4.

43. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life, 19.

44. Ibid., 112–13.

45. Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom, 283.

46. Emmanuel Akyeampong and Pashington Obeng, “Spirituality, Gender, and Power in Asante History,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 28:3 (1995): 481–508.

47. Nat Turner, The Confessions of Nat Turner, Leader of the Late Insurrection of Southampton, Virginia, as Fully and Voluntarily Made to Thos C. Gray, in the Prison Where He Was Confined—and Acknowledged by Him to Be Such, When Read before the Court of Southampton, Convened at Jerusalem, November 5, 1831, for His Trial (1861; repr., Miami, FL: Mnemosyne, 1969), 4–5.

48. Herbert Aptheker, ed., A Documentary History of the Negro People of the United States, vol. 1, From the Colonial Times through the Civil War (1951; repr., New York: Citadel Press, 1990), 71.

49. Turner, Confessions of Nat Turner, 5–6.

50. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 310.

51. Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave, 35, 99.

52. S. Brown, Davis, and Lee, Negro Caravan, 430.

53. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 150–51.

54. Sarah H. Bradford, Harriet Tubman: The Moses of Her People (1869; repr., Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1981), 114.

55. Bibb, Narrative, 124.

56. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 60–65.

57. Sidney Bechet, Treat It Gentle (1960; repr., New York: Da Capo Press, 1978), 7.

58. Zora Neale Hurston, The Sanctified Church (New York: Marlowe, 1981), 85.

59. Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave, 104–5.

60. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 63, 66–67, and 286; for an in-depth study of the place of forests in the lives of Africans in the Low-country, see Stuckey, Slave Culture, 6–8, and Ras Michael Brown, “Walk in the Feenda: West Central Africans and the Forest in the South Carolina-Georgia Lowcountry,” in Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora, ed. Linda Heywood (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 289–318.

61. John Thornton, Africa and Africans, 274–79.

62. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 42, 57, 78, 152–54.

63. Wyatt MacGaffey, Religion and Society in Central Africa: The BaKongo of Lower Zaire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 109–11.

64. Douglass, My Bondage and My Freedom, 234.

65. Ibid., 234–46.

66. W. Brown, My Southern Home, 70–75.

67. Wyatt MacGaffey, “The Cultural Traditions of Forest West Africa,” in Insight and Artistry in African Divination, ed. John Pemberton III (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000), 17–18.

68. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 2, South Carolina Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, pp. 15–16; Jacobs, Incidents in the Life, 90–91.

69. Stuckey, Slave Culture, ch. 1.

70. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 195, 171–72.

71. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 39.

72. S. Brown, Davis, and Lee, Negro Caravan, 465.

73. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 4–5.

74. Bechet, Treat It Gentle, 30.

75. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 267.

76. Ibid., 39.

77. Northrup, Twelve Years a Slave, 108.

78. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 6.

79. L. Hughes, Autobiography of Louis Hughes, 56.

80. Jacobs, Incidents in the Life, 83.

81. Savannah Unit, Georgia Writers’ Project, Drums and Shadows, 176.

82. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 173–78.

83. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, p. 166.

84. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 83; Rastus Jones, interviewed in Rawick, American Slave, vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, p. 356.

85. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, p. 21.

86. Perdue, Barden, and Phillips, Weevils in the Wheat, 115.

87. Vlach, Afro-American Tradition, 45–48.

88. Rawick, American Slave, Supplement, Series 1, vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 135.

89. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 3, South Carolina Narratives, Parts 3 and 4, pt. 4, p. 268.

90. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 56.

91. Bradford, Harriet Tubman, 30.

92. Bibb, Narrative, 66, 169–70.

93. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, p. 5.

94. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 12, Georgia Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 1, p. 310.

95. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 4, Texas Narratives, Parts 1 and 2, pt. 2, pp. 215–16.

96. Rawick, American Slave, vol. 19, God Struck Me Dead, 112, 125.

97. Ibid., 5, 49, 55.

98. Ibid., 32, 147–48, 163.

99. Rawick, American Slave, Supplement, Series 1, vol. 3, Georgia Narratives, Part 1, 322–23.

100. Faulkner, Days When the Animals Talked, 53–58.