Note: Italicized page numbers indicate illustrations. Names of people interviewed are pseudonyms and are shown with first name followed by (pseud.).
A
accountability, and flow experience, 151–52
accountability, of museums in 21st century, 246–48
advance organizers, 95
adventure tourism, 41
advertising. See marketing
affective learning, in zoo/aquarium study, 85–86
African Americans, 29, 49, 50, 207–10
aquariums, 204
See also zoo/aquarium study
art museums
audience development efforts by Virginia Museum of Fine
public perception of, 189
Rechargers and, 204
Toledo Art Museum study, 48–50
visitor experiences at National Gallery of Art, 91–95
visitor frequency and criteria for leisure experiences, 49
assessments
museum visitor experience model and, 248–49
as necessity for survival, 20–21, 246–49
outcomes-based, 247
Association of Zoos and Aquariums, 83
audio guides, 226
B
Bandura, Albert, 75
behind-the-scenes tours, 228–29
benches, 230
Berkeley Botanical Gardens, visitor experiences at, 67–71
Berry, Leonard, 118
black churches, outreach through, 209
blockbuster exhibitions, 182, 191, 205, 218–19
Borun, Minda, 223
brain function, 143–44, 147–48
Bronnenkant, Kerry, 83
C
café
Experience seekers and, 227
Explorers and, 221
Facilitators and, 224
Professional/Hobbyists and, 229–30
and Goose Bumps exhibit, 148
visitor experiences at, 103–8, 121–27, 129–33
challenge, and flow experience, 151–52
children, and field trips, 26, 133, 269n29
Children’s Museum, Indianapolis, 233–34
choice, in memory and learning, 142–45, 218
See also free-choice learning
churches, outreach through, 209
cognitive dissonance theory, 120
cognitive learning
emotion, and short-term vs. longterm, 148
in San Antonio museums study, 55
structure and, in children, 269n29
cognitive lock-in, 97
collaborations with other organizations, 235
collector fairs, 203
Colonial Williamsburg, marketing budget of, 24
communication goals for museum professionals, 235–36
competition for funding, 244–46
competition for museum visitors, 183
conceptual advance organizers, 223
conceptual change studies, 134
content of exhibits, 23–27, 24, 35, 97
See also exhibitions
contextualization, 87, 96–100, 150–52, 196
Contextual Model of Learning, 34–36, 96–100, 159, 216
control, in memory and learning, 142–45, 218
criteria for success, 239–40, 248
crowds, 231
cultural enrichment, and leisure, 43–44
cultural value, 240
culture, defined, 100
customer satisfaction, 46, 57, 117–20, 159
customer service, 226
Cxikzentmihalyi, Mihalyi, 151–52
D
del Bosque, Ignacio Rodriguez, 120
demographic characteristics of museum visitors, 28–32
Dweck, Carol, 79
E
education. See learning
Einstein, Albert, 17
Ellenbogen, Kristin, 60
emotions
and flow experiences, 152
and the unconscious mind, 82
entering identity-related motivations
entry narratives and, 265n21
and meaning-making, 136
and museum experience, 188, 215, 216
as predictor for visitor behavior, 87, 140
and predisposition of visitor, 156, 176–77
See also identity-related motivations
See also leisure experiences
entrance trajectories, stability of, 109
entry narratives, and learning outcomes, 52
escape mechanisms, 41
essential services, museums and, 244–46
evolution, and memory, 147
blockbuster, 182, 191, 205, 218–19
for Explorers, 219
for Facilitators, 223
Human Miracle, 105–6, 107–8, 129–30, 130, 145
in-museum use of, by public, 242
for Professional/Hobbyists, 228
viewing time for elements of, 98–99
World of Life, 105, 121–22, 129, 150, 161–64, 168–69
expectancy theory, 140
expectations. See pre-visit expectations
accommodating needs of, 225–27
as ambassadors, 236
gains in cognitive and affective learning by, 85–86
marketing to identity-related needs of, 196–99
memories of museum visit, 176
and physical context, 99
trajectories of, 175
in typology of museum visitors, 64
in zoo/aquarium study, 87
See also Shawn (pseud.)
experiential approach to leisure experiences, 46
accommodating needs of, 217–21
marketing to identity-related needs of, 190–92
and physical context, 99
sense of self-efficacy, 216
trajectories of, 174
in typology of museum visitors, 64
visit motivations of, 108
visitor experiences of, 112
See also Elmira (pseud.); Hanna (pseud.); Maria (pseud.); Sara (pseud.)
F
Facilitating Parents, 192–96, 222, 224–25, 233–34
Facilitating Socializers, 192–96, 222, 224, 225
accommodating the needs of, 221–25
choice and control in memorable visit experiences for, 145
marketing for identity-related needs of, 192–96
memories of museum visit, 176
and physical context, 99
reinforcement for, 155
sense of self-efficacy, 216
in typology of museum visitors, 64
See also Felipe (pseud.); Frank (pseud.); George (pseud.); Susan (pseud.)
familiarity, search for, as dominant strategy for museum visitors, 97
family guides, 222
feedback, and flow experience, 151–52
field trips for children, 26, 133, 144–45, 269n29
financial stability, as criteria for success, 240
financial support for museums, 21–22, 54–56, 244–46, 247–48
Florida Museum of Natural History, 203
focus of museum visitors, 25
Frances (pseud.), 67–71, 79, 88–89
entering frame of, and memories, 153–54
identity-related needs of, 139–40
pre-visit expectations and post-visit memories, 141–42
visitor experiences of, 129–33, 137–38, 145, 149–51
choice and control in, 258n32
and identity formation, 57–58, 60–61
rise in demand for, 182
frequent visitors, 26–27, 48–50, 191, 194, 229
front-end evaluations, 219
funding for museums, 21–22, 54–56, 244–46, 247–48
G
Geertz, Clifford, 137
geographical memory, limbic system and, 146–48
George (pseud.), 17–20, 30–31, 224
gift shop
Experience seekers and, 227
Explorers and, 221
Facilitators and, 224
Professional/Hobbyists and, 229–30
Godbey, Geof, 44
Goffman, Erving, 67
Goose Bumps: The Science of Fear (exhibition), 148–49
Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA), 247
H
Hall, Edward T., 91
Heimlich, Joe, 83
hierarchy of needs theory, 43, 54–55
High Desert Museum, Bend, Oregon, 110–12
Holmes, Len, 58
Human Miracle (exhibition), 105–8, 129–30, 145
human selves, at biological level, 261n12
I
identity
identity-building, 153–54, 182
identity-related categories of leisure benefits, 63–64
identity-related goals, 110–12
identity-related motivations evidence for, 82–89
exploring as, 61
as frame for experience, 81–82, 95
and leisure decision-making, 186–87
and museum visitor experience, 161
in museum visitor experience model, 35–37, 158–69, 159
proactive gauging of, 265n21
See also entering identity-related motivations
identity-related needs
as experiential filter, 136–42
and leisure decision-making, 45–48, 80–81
in museum visitor experience model, 158
of Professionals/Hobbyists, 199–203
self-aspect and, 80
and visitor trajectories, 173–75
impact model of museums, 242–44
Industrial Age, hallmark of, 181
informed visitors, satisfaction of, 232–34
intellectual enrichment, and leisure, 43–44
intention/action relationship, 140
International Spy Museum, 198–99
Internet use for communication and marketing, 202, 211, 235
interpretive tools, 218
J
K
Kang, I., 119
Knowledge Age, trends in, 41–45, 181–82
laddering procedures, 82
lapel buttons, 236
Lave, Jean, 60
learners, persistent, 79
cognitive, 55, 85–86, 97, 148, 269n29
entry narratives and, 52
inseparability of components of, 147
motivational variables in, 144–45
motivation of, as intrinsic to museums, 49, 50, 64
predictors of, from museum experiences, 26–27
socio-cultural approach to, 60
and the unconscious mind, 82
See also Contextual Model of Learning; free-choice learning
lectures, 229
Lee, B. K., 119
leisure behavior
historical patterns of, 50
in the Knowledge Age, 41–45, 182
motivations for, 45–46, 46–48, 54–55
time as limiting determinant of, 196
leisure benefits, identity-related, 63–64
Facilitating Parents and, 194–95
identity-related motivations and, 186–87
identity-related needs and, 45–48, 80–81
lack of institutional awareness of, 185–86
personal values and interests and, 50
as value-, cost-, and time-related, 42–44
experiential approach to, 46
positive feedback system in, 89
satisfaction in, 46, 57, 117–20, 159
and self-affirmation, 44
leisure learning, 43–44, 56–58
lenses of belief about museums and visitors, 23
life-cycle experience, 51
limbic system, and memory, 146–48
live performances, 210
M
Mara (pseud.), 91–95, 97–98, 100
budgets for, 185
communicating multiple messages in, 189–90
content-focused, 24
effectiveness of, 187
for identity-related needs, 188–206
by International Spy Museum, 198–99
investment in, by museums, 155
museum visitor experience model and, 206–13
by Tyne & Wear Museums, England, 210–11
Matusov, Eugene, 100
meaning and meaning-making
in constrained situations with externally imposed goals, 143
evolutionary history of, 138
humans and, 137
identity-related needs and, 35
leisure participation and, 46
role of content in, 26
self-aspects as cognitive framework for, 86
shaping of, by entering identity-related visit motivation, 136
Medved, Maria, 134
meetings of hobby groups at museums, 202–3
memory and memories
admission of pleasant vs. unpleasant experiences into, 147
children’s, of field trips, 26, 133
choice and control in, 142–45, 218
limbic system and regulation of, 146–48
of museums, 133–36, 141–42, 176
self-aspects as framework for, 81–82
social interactions and, 33
and the unconscious mind, 82
memory-making, 142–45, 150–52, 196
memory retrieval, 151
Merton, Robert, 120
Monterey Bay Aquarium, 83
Morris Hargreaves McIntyre, 53–54
motivational categories, and characteristic visitor trajectories, 95–96
motivations of visitors categories of, 53
for engaging in recreational activities, 46–48
of Experience seekers, 197
self-aspects and, 79
See also entering identity-related motivations; identity-related motivations; learning
Mounir, Ragheb, 46
Mounir, Ragheb, 57
museum brand, dilution of, 183
museum-going as leisure experience, 41
museum-going decisions, 185–87
See also leisure decision-making
museum membership, motivations for, 54–56
museum model, emulation of, 183, 244
museum professionals, 200–201, 235–36
museums
business models for, 181
competition with, for funding, 244–46
competition with, for visitors, 183, 244
institutional impact, 241–46, 248
realignment of institutional goals, 243
reasons for not visiting, 212
re-envisioning as educational institutions, 235
museum space, hobby groups and, 202–3
museum staff
communications with visitors, 235–36
Experience seekers and, 225–26
Explorers and, 220
Facilitators and, 223
Professional/Hobbyists and, 229
Rechargers and, 231
museum visitor experience
complexity of, 95
extension of, after departure, 234–37
factors influential in, 216–17
of Goose Bumps exhibition visitors compared to control group, 148–49
identity-related motivations and, 161
as influence on future visits, 188
model of, 65
as personally-constructed reality, 137
pre-formed expectations and, 87–89, 126–27
re-envisioning, 184
museum visitor experience model
and identity-related motivations, 35–37, 158–69
and identity-related needs, 158
in measuring success of museums, 248
predictive possibilities of, 155–56, 176–77
and public good, 245
museum visitors
construction of meaning by, 138
demographic characteristics of, 28–32
disparities between white and black, 50
first-time, 186, 191, 220, 229
focus of, 25
frequent, 26–27, 48–50, 191, 194, 229
lenses of belief about, 23
topics pursued during museum visits, 107
typology of, 64–65, 95–96, 158–59 (See also Experience seekers; Explorers; Facilitators; Professionals/Hobbyists; Rechargers)
N
National Aquarium, Baltimore, visitor experiences at, 17–20
National Gallery of Art, visitor experiences at, 91–95
National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C., 115–18, 198
Navratilova, Martina, 74
non-exhibit amenities
for Experience seekers, 226
Experience seekers and, 227
Explorers and, 221
Facilitators and, 224
O
Oatley, Phillip, 134
once-in-a-lifetime experiences, 199
Ontario Science Center study, 134
organizational investment, as criteria for success, 239–40
orientation materials, 222, 225–26, 229, 231, 232–34
outcomes-based assessments, 247
P
Parasuraman, A., 118
parent-educator training workshops, 234
Pekarik, Andrew, 52
Perry, Deborah, 144
persistent learners, self-defined, 79
personal context, and museum experience, 96–100
personal interaction with visitors, 236–37
photo opportunity settings, 226–27
physical context, and museum experience, 97–99
place, as motivation for museum-going, 51
populations of visitors, 48–49
positive feedback system in leisure situations, 89
postcards, 236
post-visit narratives, 70, 86, 141–42, 165–70, 234–37
practical issues, as motivation for museum-going, 51
predictions of visitor experience, 22–23, 34–37
pre-visit expectations, and visitor experience, 46, 87–89, 120, 121–27, 141–42
See also entering identity-related motivations
pre-visit orientations, 232–34
price-consciousness, 196
professional groups, and lectures, 229
accommodating needs of, 228–30
marketing to identity-related needs of, 199–203
memories of museum visit, 176
in typology of museum visitors, 64
visit trajectories of, 102
in zoo/aquarium study, 87
See also Mara (pseud.)
Proust, Marcel, 9
public good, support of, 239–41, 244–45
publicity programs. See marketing
public’s knowledge of museums, 96–97, 155–56
public’s perception of museums, 140, 189, 245
public value, 20–21, 240, 246–49
R
reaching new audiences, 211–13
Rechargers
accommodating needs of, 230–32
marketing to identity-related needs of, 203–6
memories of museum visit, 176
and physical context, 99
reinforcement for, 155
in typology of museum visitors, 64
visit trajectories of, 102, 173–74
in zoo/aquarium study, 87
See also Frances (pseud.)
recreational motivation theory, 54–55
restorative experiences, 204–5
Rogoff, Barbara, 100
Russell’s Grid, 149
S
Salmi, Hannu, 144
San Antonio museums study, 54–55
San Martin, Hector, 120
school-based programs, museum-supported, 210
school field trips, 26, 133, 144–45, 269n29
Schrodinger, E., 157
science centers, public perception of, 189
Science Center study. See California Science Center
self-affirmation, leisure and, 44
self-aspects
as cognitive framework for meaning making, 86
as contextually constructed, 87
as framework for memory, 81–82
importance of, on motivations and behavior, 79
self-concept, as multi-faceted construct, 77
self-fulfilling prophecies, 120–21, 142
self-perception, and motivation, 45–46
self-regulation, 75
seminars, 229
sense of self, 75
Shafer, C. S., 119
social gatherings at museums, 202–3
socio-cultural context, and museum experience, 32–34, 51, 99–100
stochastic models, 100–102, 173–77
Storksdieck, Martin, 62, 129, 217
success, criteria for, 239–40, 248
identity-related aspects of visit, 170–73
museum visit experience, 163–65
T
technologies, new, 219
time, context of, 43, 98–99, 196
Toledo Art Museum study, 48–50
tours, behind-the-scenes, 228–29
trends, in Knowledge Age, 42, 181–82
Tyne & Wear Museums, England, 210–11
typology of museum visitors, 64–65, 95–96, 158–59
U
unconscious mind, the, 82
U.S. National Science Foundation, 82–83
V
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 207–10, 212
visit frequency, as measurement, 32
visitor experiences, categories of, 52
visitor groups, categories of, 53–54
visitor needs, accommodating, 232–34
visitors, as informed consumers, 232–34
visitor satisfaction, 46, 57, 117–20, 159
Contextual Model of Learning and, 216
creation of, and influences on, 95–96
of Explorers, 218
identity-related need and, 173–75
visit pathway. See visitor trajectories
Vroom, Victor, 140
Vygotsky, Lev, 59
W
Weil, Stephen, 239
Wenger, Etienne, 60
Wertsch, James, 60
Witgert, Nettie, 83
word-of-mouth recommendations Experience seekers and, 227
Explorers and, 192
influence of, on museum-goers, 187
and motivation to visit museum, 187
and public’s knowledge of museums, 155–56
workshops, 229
World of Life (exhibition), 105, 121–22, 129, 150, 161–64, 168–69
Z
entering identity-related motivations and predictability of visitor experience in, 87
generalizability of, 88
instrument development, 83
results, 85