Hebrew to English Translation Chart

Description of Meaning of Hebrew Words That Have No Exact Equivalent in English

One of the constant challenges of exegesis involves the understanding of words. Most Bible readers are dependent on translations and so must be content to interpret the text based on what words the translators of their Bibles have chosen. Even readers who compare translations or consult commentaries can sometimes fall short of finding answers to their questions.

What readers do not often recognize is that even translators work with significant limitations. No ancient lexicon exists that offers explanations of the meanings of words by those who spoke classical Hebrew. We have traditions, sometimes ancient ones such as the translation offered in the Greek Septuagint; we have comments made by Medieval Rabbinic grammarians whose expertise was substantial; and, of course, we have the multitude of translations that exist today as an outpouring of scholarly attention. With all of that said, the fact is that we only perceive the meanings of Hebrew words by their usage, not from following some ancient academic repository of lexicography.

Finally, modern readers and translators face the problem that some Hebrew words that scholars understand well enough still pose problems because there is no English word that corresponds sufficiently to capture the breadth of nuance that the Hebrew word contains. Many of these are significant words pregnant with important nuances. The following list deals with a number of the Hebrew words that fall into this category; also included at the end of the chart are three English terms that require further explanation.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: brʾ (1343)

Hebrew:

NIV: create

Select Key Verses: Ge 1:1

This sort of creative act often entails giving something a role, purpose or function in an ordered system. Its emphasis is therefore on God acting with purpose and giving things a purpose rather than on simple materiality.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ḥesed (2876)

Hebrew:

NIV: unfailing love, kindness, mercy

Select Key Verses: Ge 19:19; Ex 15:13; 20:6; 34:6; Jos 2:12; Ru 1:8; 2Sa 7:15; 9:7; Ps 23:6; 100:5; 136; Pr 19:22; Isa 54:8; Da 1:9; Hos 6:6; Mic 6:8

Acting to fulfill an obligation formal or informal, stated and agreed upon or inherent in the normal expectations of human interaction or protocol. Conforming to an understood expectation and therefore addressing propriety.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: qādôš (7705, 7727, 7731)

Hebrew:

NIV: holy, holiness, consecrate, holy place

Select Key Verses: Ex 3:5; 19:6; 29:37; Lev 11:44; 19:2; Dt 7:6; Jos 24:19; 1Sa 2:2; 1Ki 6:16; 2Ki 19:22; Ps 48:1; 99:3–9; Isa 6:3; Isa 43; Hab 2:20; Zec 14:20

Situated in the divine realm. This is a conferred status; not something that can be pursued and achieved. God is holy and he conferred that holy status on Israel so that he could remain living among them. God’s presence brought benefits and relationship, but Israel’s failure to take their status into account when considering their behavior brought consequences. That status could not be gained or lost, but Yahweh’s presence could be.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: šālôm (8934)

Hebrew:

NIV: peace

Select Key Verses: Ps 34:14; Isa 9:6; 26:3

Though war or conflict can result in the absence of šālôm, true šālôm is not so much the absence of war or conflict, but the absence of fear and anxiety.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: qnʾ (7861, 7863)

Hebrew:

NIV: jealous

Select Key Verses: Ge 37:11; Nu 25:13; Dt 32:21; 2Ki 19:31; Ps 69:9; SS 8:6; Isa 9:7; Eze 39:25; Zec 8:2

Expression of proprietary rights with exclusivistic implications. When someone belongs to someone else it is expected others will recognize that and respect those rights. The basis of “belonging” is not economic (e.g., a possession) but is relational.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: tô ʿ ēbâ (9359)

Hebrew:

NIV: abomination

Select Key Verses: Ge 46:34; Lev 18:22–30; Dt 14:3; 18:12; 32:16; Pr 13:19; 29:27

Counterproductive to order. When God’s sense of order is involved, tô ʿ ēbâ indicates something that is contrary to holy status; it describes what is contrary to the inherent sense of order reflected in one’s inclinations or conventions and is therefore a description that is relative to the one who experiences the sense of revulsion.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʿ ārûm (6874)

Hebrew:

NIV: crafty

Select Key Verses: Ge 3:1; Job 5:12; Pr 12:16, 23; 13:16; 14:8, 15, 18; 22:3

People who are ʿ ārûm conceal what they feel and what they know. They esteem knowledge and plan how to use it in achieving their objectives; they do not believe everything they hear; they know how to avoid trouble and punishment. In sum, they are shrewd and calculating, willing to bend and torture the limits of acceptable behavior but not to cross the line into illegality. They may be unpleasant and purposely misleading in speech but are not out-and-out liars. They know how to read people and situations and how to turn their readings to advantage. A keen wit and a rapier tongue are their tools. (Z. Zevit, What Really Happened in the Garden of Eden, 163). The term is therefore not intrinsically pejorative but can be manifested in negative ways.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: tardēmâ (8101, 9554)

Hebrew:

NIV: deep sleep

Select Key Verses: Ge 2:21; 15:12; Jdg 4:21; 1Sa 26:12; Da 10:9; Jnh 1:5

In such a sleep one is either (a) unaware of threatening circumstances, or (b) prepared to receive a vision.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: hebel (2039)

Hebrew:

NIV: meaningless

Select Key Verses: throughout Ecclesiastes

The opposite of self-fulfillment; not able to give “meaning to life.”

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʿalmâ (6625)

Hebrew:

NIV: virgin (young woman)

Select Key Verses: Isa 7:14

A woman who has not yet given birth (thus an ʿalma can be pregnant). A woman ceases to be an ʿalmâ when she becomes a mother. It pertains to family status, not sexual status (see bětûlâ).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: śh (6913)

Hebrew:

NIV: do, make (plus many other translations)

Select Key Verses: Often in Ge 1; Ge 2:2–3; 3:21; Ex 20:8–11; Am 5:8

Indicates a role in causation, but does not specify whether direct or indirect; could be mediated or not; could involve material or not. Often involves supervising, commissioning or delegating. Can pertain to providing or preparing.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: nwḥ (5663)

Hebrew:

NIV: rest

Select Key Verses: Ex 20:11 (as a reflection on Ge 2:1–2, which does not use this word); Dt 12:10; Jos 1:13–15; 21:44; Ps 132:7–14

Can pertain to relaxation or refreshment, but more often refers to experiencing stability, security and equilibrium—everything as it ought to be. God’s rest is associated with his presence in the temple and his rule of the cosmos. Rest is the opposite of unrest and when God rests he is not disengaging, but engaging.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ṭôb/ raʾ (3201/8273)

Hebrew:

NIV: good/evil

Select Key Verses: Often in Ge 1; Ge 2:9; 2:18; Ps 34:8; 118:1; Isa 31:2; 45:7; Eze 14:21

“Good” refers to everything functioning in the way that it should. It does not refer to perfection, but to what is best from an optimal perspective. “Evil” can refer to wickedness, but it can be broadly used to refer to a variety of negative actions or results. Neither of these terms is essentially moral in nature, though they often are used in moral contexts. So, for example, God can be described as doing either (Ecc 7:14).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʿiṣṣābôn (6779)

Hebrew:

NIV: pains, painful toil

Select Key Verses: Ge 3:16; 3:19; 5:29

These are the only three occurrences of this word. The latter two give insufficient information to determine whether it refers to physical pain or psychological anxiety. Other words derived from the same root could refer to either. In Ge 3:16 it refers specifically to conception (despite the NIV’s more general “pains in childbearing”). Since conception did not involve physical pain but was fraught with anxiety in the ancient world (because a woman was not fully secure in the family until she conceived), the translation “anxiety” captures the nuance better. Ge 5:29 indicates that this word is one aspect of what interferes with rest.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: těšûqâ (9592)

Hebrew:

NIV: desire

Select Key Verses: Ge 3:16; 4:7; SS 7:11

These are the only three occurrences of this word. Since they refer to very different types of desire, we should infer that the word itself is more general than specific. It can be used to refer to any natural instinct, and only the context can specify which sort of instinct is intended.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ṣelaʾ (7521)

Hebrew:

NIV: rib, side

Select Key Verses: Ge 2:21–22; often in Ex chs. 25–27, 1Ki 6 and Eze 41

Only in Ge 2 does it refer to anatomy. Most frequently it refers to two sides of something (e.g., altar, temple), but can also refer to planks or beams in a construction. In Ge 2 this word would therefore more likely refer to one of Adam’s sides being taken rather than an individual rib (with NIV note).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʿrr/qll (826/7837)

Hebrew:

NIV: curse

Select Key Verses: ʿrr Ge 3:14, 17; 4:11; 5:29; 9:25; 12:3

Select Key Verses: qll Ge 8:21; 12:3; Ex 21:17; Lev 20:9; 24:15

ʿrr refers not to a magical hex but to something more like banishment, specifically removing someone or something from the protection of God. God is almost always the subject of this verb, and is never the direct object of the verb. qll pertains to belittling someone and can refer to anything from insult to blasphemy. People are usually the subject of this verb. It basically means invoking words of power against someone and ranges from expressing contempt to putting a curse on someone. So Ge 12:3 should be understood as saying that the one who invokes words of power (qll) against Israel will be removed from God’s protection and favor (ʿrr).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: bětûlâ (1435)

Hebrew:

NIV: virgin

Select Key Verses: Ge 24:16; Ex 22:16; Est 2; Job 31:1

Describes a woman who is still under the authority of her father rather than a husband. A woman ceases to be a bětûlâ when she becomes a wife. This is not specifically a term referring to sexual experience but rather to social status. Hebrew had no term of classifying a woman by sexual status (they had to use a phrase like, “she had not yet known a man”). See ʿalmâ.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʿ ôlām (6409)

Hebrew:

NIV: forever, everlasting

Select Key Verses: Ge 3:22; 17:7–8; 48:4; Ex 12:17; Dt 32:40; Jos 14:9; 1Sa 2:30; 2Sa 7:13–16; 1Ki 10:9; Ps 136; Isa 40:28

When qualified by context this word can refer to something or someone eternal, but that sense is not carried inherently by the word. Its basic meaning pertains to an enduring quality or an open-ended situation that is sustained in perpetuity.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: nš ʾ (5958)

Hebrew:

NIV: deceive

Select Key Verses: Ge 3:13; 2Ki 18:29; 19:10; Jer 4:10; 37:9; 49:16

Several different Hebrew words are translated “deceive” in the Old Testament. This one is used when the person being accused of deceiving does not know that the information they are conveying is false.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: hištāḥāwôt (2556)

Hebrew:

NIV: worship, bow down

Select Key Verses: Ge 18:2; 22:5; 23:12; 24:48; 49:8; Ex 20:5; 23:24; Dt 5:9; Jos 5:14; 1Sa 24:8; Est 3:2

Worship is one of the activities that accompany this posture, but in the end it is a position of the body intended to show respect, not the activity of worship. It is never used as a posture for prayer.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: rûaḥ (8120)

Hebrew:

NIV: spirit, wind, breath

Select Key Verses: Ge 1:2; 7:15; Ex 10:13; 15:8; Nu 11:25; Dt 34:9; Jdg 6:34; 11:29; 14:6; 1Sa 16:14; 2Ki 2:15–16; Ps 51:10–12; Ecc 3:19–21; Eze 8:3

Given its use that covers all three of these English words, it is likely that it does not strictly refer to any of them. All three are somewhat ethereal and unseen, yet the word conveys something having a noticeable effect (picked up even in Jesus’ comment in Jn 3:8). It is never used in the Old Testament to refer to the third person of the Trinity (even the Spirit of the Lord was not recognized in context as a person of the godhead) though some of the occurrences can today be recognized as reflecting the involvement of the Holy Spirit. The spirit in a person is given by God; it energizes one’s life and returns to God at death.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: nepeš (5883)

Hebrew:

NIV: life, soul, self

Select Key Verses: Ge 1:30;

In Israelite thinking, a person does not have a nepeš; he or she is a nepeš. The word does not refer to a “soul” in anything like the platonic or even theological sense. It is the nepeš that goes to the netherworld whereas the rûaḥ returns to God who gave it. It pertains to a human’s personal identity.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʾ ôhēl mô ʿ ēd (185+4595)

Hebrew:

NIV: tent of meeting

Select Key Verses: ʾ ôhēl mô ʿ ēd Ex 27:21; 29–30; 33:7; Lev 1–8; 16–17

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: miškān (5438)

Hebrew:

NIV: tabernacle

Select Key Verses: miškān Ex 25–40

miškān refers to the sanctuary as the place of Yahweh’s presence; it is his home and his throne room. ʾ ôhēl mô ʿ ēd refers to the sanctuary as the place where people meet with God; it is his audience chamber and it focuses on communication and relationship. The ʾ ôhēl mô ʿ ēd exists before the miškān is constructed, but once the miškān is constructed, it serves also as the ʾ ôhēl mô ʿ ēd.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: kippēr (4105)

Hebrew:

NIV: atonement

Select Key Verses: Ex 29–30; Lev 4–5; 16; Isa 6:7

It is common to hear that this verb basically means “to cover,” but that interpretation is based on a false association with a homonym. It most often refers to a ritual act (generally using blood) designed to remove the effects of sin from the sanctuary. It does not remove the sin from the person (Heb 10:4), but cleanses the sanctuary so that Yahweh can continue to dwell there. In this way it serves as a ritual disinfectant. In contrast, “atonement” (the English technical theological term) speaks of paying the penalty for sin; that is done by the animal that is put to death. Kippēr is closer in concept to the English technical theological term “justification” (but of a location, not of an individual).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ḥṭ ʾ (2627)

Hebrew:

NIV: sin

Select Key Verses: Ge 20:6; Jos 7:11; Jdg 11:27; 1Sa 2:25; Job 1:22; Ps 51:4–7

It is not uncommon to encounter the statement that “sin” in the Old Testament means “missing the mark.” It is true that this verb can refer to failing to achieve an objective (Pr 8:36; Isa 65:20) and once is even used for slingers who do not miss their target (Jdg 20:16). There is no reason, however, to think of these uses as reflecting the “original” meaning of the word that is translated “sin.” This verb simply means “to sin” and is not necessarily limited to the idea of missing a mark or failing to achieve an objective. Sin can be seen as a threat to relationship with God—it results in alienation because offense has been committed against God. In this case, the translation “sin” is straightforward, but the more “in-depth” explanations sometimes offered can be misleading.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ḥaṭṭ ʾ āt (2633)

Hebrew:

NIV: sin offering

Select Key Verses: Lev 4–9

Since this word is built from the same root as the word for “sin” it has traditionally been rendered “sin offering,” but that rendering fails to capture the essence of this ritual. This sacrifice is called for when anything that is insufficiently pure or holy infringes on sacred space. The profane has encroached on the holy; the presence of impurity defiles sacred space and must be removed (kippēr) through appropriate procedures.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʾ āšām (871)

Hebrew:

NIV: guilt offering

Select Key Verses: Lev 5, 14

Guilt has little to do with this ritual. Instead of the profane encroaching on the sacred, this sacrifice is called for when the sacred is appropriated for profane use—that is, when something which is restricted to use in sacred space or belongs to Yahweh is removed from sacred space or never delivered (as in a vowed animal).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: śaṭān (8476–7)

Hebrew:

NIV: satan, adversary

Select Key Verses: Nu 22:22; 1Ki 11:23–25; 1Ch 21:1; Job 1–2; Ps 109:20; Zec 3:1–2

As a verb this can refer to any being who plays a role as adversary, opponent or challenger—whether in service to God or acting contrary to his plan and people. It is not essentially a role that is inherently morally deficient or evil (the angel of the Lord takes this role at one point). As a noun it can refer to either human or heavenly beings. Capitalizing the word is misleading since Hebrew has no capital letters and since the designation of this being typically uses the definite article, thus indicating that it is not a personal name. Furthermore, OT Israel had not yet developed a concept of “the devil” and the NT never indicates that any of these passages refer to the devil.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: yrʾ (3707, 3710–11)

Hebrew:

NIV: fear

Select Key Verses: Ge 3:10; 15:1; 32:7; Ex 1:17; Lev 19:3; Dt 10:20; Job 1:9; 28:28; Pr 1:7

This verb (and associated substantive) has broad usage with either people or God as the direct object. In the latter cases, it can refer to being afraid of God (particularly of his anger or judgment when sin has been committed). Translation problems arise from the misunderstanding that is created when the word serves as a positive and necessary response to God, a nuance not expressed by the English word “fear.” It refers to holding God (and occasionally humans of authority) in high esteem and therefore treating them with respect. That respect can at times be motivated by the consequences of failure to do so, but in the end it should operate independently of consequences. “Fear” of the Lord accords God his proper place and role and is a response to his authority. By way of example: When someone today works with radioactive material, there is potential danger in the interaction that they need to respect.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ḥōkmâ (2683)

Hebrew:

NIV: wisdom

Select Key Verses: Ex 28:3; Dt 34:9; 1Ki 4:29–34; 2Ch 1:10–12; Job 12:13; 28:28; Ps 104:24; 111:10; Pr 1:7; 2:6; 8:12; Isa 11:2; Jer 9:23

This concept in Hebrew has a different focus than the English word. It does not pertain to intelligence or common sense (though both of those could be expressions of ḥōkmâ). Ḥōkmâ is intimately connected with the concept of order. Wisdom is the pursuit of order and Yahweh is the source and center of both. Ḥōkmâ perceives what constitutes order and pursues, preserves, promotes and practices order in every area of life. Relationship with God is primary, but ḥōkmâ seeks order in family relationships, response to civil authorities, making good choices, controlling one’s tongue, etc.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: māšīaḥ (5431)

Hebrew:

NIV: Messiah, anointed

Select Key Verses: Lev 4:3; 1Sa 2:10; 16:6; 24:6–10, Ps 2:2; 18:50; 89:38; 132:10; Isa 45:1; Da 9:25–26; Hab 3:13

Capitalizing this word creates confusion. It can refer to anyone who is anointed to a position of authority. Anointing someone is a visual indicator for their endowment with the spirit of God. It is used only four times in the prophets (once to refer to the Persian king Cyrus) and it is not until the intertestamental period that it comes to be used as a technical term for the future, ideal, Davidic king. Most occurrences in the OT use it to refer to the kings in the Davidic line. Though Jesus fulfills this role, the OT authors were not aware that he was the one of whom they spoke.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ṣedeq (7404–7)

Hebrew:

NIV: righteous(ness)

Select Key Verses: Ge 6:9; 15:6; 18:23; Job 9:2; 27:6; Ps 33:5; Eze 18:5

This word should not be read as the NT technical theological term for the status of righteousness that no one can achieve. In fact, though it can be used as a description of Yahweh (e.g., Ps 119:137), a high percentage of its uses describe people. It can describe integrity, honesty or innocence as it represents a certain relative standing in society. It is expected of God’s people and is achievable to a large degree.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: mišpaṭ (5477)

Hebrew:

NIV: justice

Select Key Verses: Ge 18:19; Ex 21:1; 23:6; 28:30; Lev 19:15; Dt 1:17; 16:19

This term is sometimes paired with ṣedeqâ (“righteousness”), combining to express one’s social responsibility toward others (pursuing mišpaṭ) and one’s responsibility toward God (ṣedeqâ). This word can also be used to refer to judicial decisions that are made and to certain types of regulations, rights and even customs. Yahweh is viewed as the source of mišpaṭ and he is pleased when his people are characterized by it; his laws and ways are just, and he does not pervert justice, but it is not a word that describes an attribute of people or God. The word pertains to what one does (cf. Jer 22:3); not what one is. God himself is never described as “just.”

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ḥerem (3049, 3051)

Hebrew:

NIV: devoted (to destruction)

Select Key Verses: Lev 27:21, 28–29; Nu 18:14; Dt 7:2, 26; 20:17; Jos 6:17–21; 7:1–15; often in 1Sa 15

No English word even approximates the wide range of meaning of this Hebrew term: from its description of things devoted to the Lord, to the instruction regarding enemies and their cities. Unlike qādôš where something is identified as belonging to the divine realm, ḥerem refers to something as no longer eligible for use in the human realm (see them compared in Lev 27:21), except on occasion by priests (Nu 18:14). Its focus is not on destruction per se; instead, destruction is one of the possible ways of putting something beyond human use. A city so designated cannot be resettled; an object so designated must be burned or given to the sanctuary; a person so designated cannot be taken into possession by another human. The main point is that such a city needs to be returned to God with no inhabitants (whether they are killed or driven away). None shall survive in the city or from the battle. Decreeing ḥerem is not the same as calling for the death of all, so the “destruction” element is misleading. God repeatedly says that he will “drive out” the inhabitants before them, not that he will annihilate them.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: hb (170, 173)

Hebrew:

NIV: love

Select Key Verses: ʾhb Ge 22:2; 24:67; 25:28; 29:20, 30; Ex 20:6; Dt 4:37; 21:16; Jdg 14:16; 1Sa 16:21; 18:1–3; 2Sa 1:26; 1Ki 5:1; 11:1; Est 2:17; Ecc 3:8; Jer 2:25; Hos 2:5; Mal 1:2

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: śnʾ (8533–4)

Hebrew:

NIV: hate

Select Key Verses: śnʾ Ge 26:27; 29:33; Ex 20:5; Dt 21:17; 22:13; Pr 19:7; Mal 1:3; 2:16

Though these terms can carry emotion or sentiment, they pertain primarily to either being in relationship or not. They can refer to preference and favor or the opposite. They can also refer to political alliances and the formal aspects of marriages.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: rāqîaʿ (8385)

Hebrew:

NIV: vault

Select Key Verses: Ge 1:6–8, 14–20; Eze 1:22–26

Going back to the KJV translation of “firmament,” this word was understood to refer to the solid sky—a standard element of ancient cosmic geography. In more recent times “expanse” was favored in an attempt to bridge the gap between science and Scripture. Some translations have now returned to words like “vault” and “dome” to reflect the ancient thinking believed to stand behind this word. The ancient Israelites unquestionably understood the sky to be a solid dome, but uncertainty remains as to whether rāqîaʿ is the Hebrew word that refers to the dome (other stronger candidates exist). “Expanse” may not be far off if we think of the space inside the dome (rather than in modern terms of an atmosphere) since it separates waters above from waters below (rather than heaven and earth). Also note that the sun, moon and stars are said to be in the rāqîaʿ.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: šôpēṭ (9149)

Hebrew:

NIV: judge

Select Key Verses: Ex 18; Jdg 2:16–18; 1Sa 7:6

A label used to refer to someone who helped establish justice. In some cases such officials were engaged in deciding cases, but in the period of the Israel’s judges, they filled military roles bringing about justice for the people of Israel who were oppressed by enemies.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: plʾ (7098–7099)

Hebrew:

NIV: wonderful, miracles

Select Key Verses: Ge 18:14; Ex 3:20; Dt 30:11; Jdg 6:13; 2Ch 2:9; Job 42:3; Ps 139:14; Pr 30:18; Isa 9:6; 28:29; Jer 32:17

Israelites had no category for “natural” so they likewise had no category “supernatural.” Consequently “miracles” would not be an appropriate translation (since that English word pertains to phenomena without natural explanation). At the same time, they believed that some issues and levels of understanding were beyond human capacity to grasp. “Incomprehensible” captures it fairly well, with the additional nuance that it is incomprehensible because it is something characteristic of deity: not for frail mortals to expect to understand.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʾ ôt (253)

Hebrew:

NIV: sign

Select Key Verses: Ge 1:14; 4:15; 9:12; Ex 3:12; 4:8–17; 12:13; Dt 6:8; Isa 7:11, 14; 8:18; Jer 32:20–21; Eze 20:12

“Sign(s)” is an adequate translation as long as it is understood that something does not have to be miraculous in order to qualify for being so designated. A sign demonstrates God’s power, ability to deliver, love for his people, faithfulness to the covenant, etc. It indicates God’s actions, though we should recognize that Israel understood that God acted through both what we call “natural” events and those that we label supernatural.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: zkr (2349)

Hebrew:

NIV: remember

Select Key Verses: Ge 8:1; 9:15–16; 19:29; Ex 2:24; 20:8; Ps 25:6–7

Remembering, and the corresponding forgetting, often do not have to do with memory per se, but with attention. zkr means to give attention to someone or something: to act on their behalf, especially when God is doing the remembering.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: tāmîm (9459)

Hebrew:

NIV: without defect, blameless, perfect

Select Key Verses: Ge 6:9; 17:1; Lev 1:3; Dt 18:13; Ps 18:30; 19:7

Refers most often to the idea that animals for sacrifice are without defect. As a description of a person, it describes them as blameless—having no obvious faults or besetting sins. God’s laws and ways are so described, but this is never used as an attribute descriptor of God himself. He expects this quality in sacrifices offered to him and in the lives of his people.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʾmn (586)

Hebrew:

NIV: believe, trust

Select Key Verses: Ge 15:6; 45:26; Ex 4:1–9; Nu 14:11; 20:12; Jnh 3:5

Involves more trusting than reflecting a belief system. Believing that what someone says is true (affirming the truth of the testimony) falls somewhat short of “believing in them.” English uses “believe in” to express metaphysical commitments affirming that someone or something exists and thus accepting all the implications of that. ʾmn is not used that way. In other forms ʾmn pertains to being trustworthy or reliable.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: slḥ (6142)

Hebrew:

NIV: forgive

Select Key Verses: Ex 34:9; Lev 4–5; Nu 14:19–20; 1Ki 8:30–39; Ps 103:3

This is a relational term not a judicial one, so it does not pertain to exoneration or absolution. It is used in the sacrificial system to express that the person who has offered a sacrifice has done what was necessary to be welcomed back into fellowship with and relationship to God. The concern of Israelites was that their sinful behavior may cause God to abandon his sanctuary. Forgiveness was the assurance from God that access to his presence was restored.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ʿebed (6269)

Hebrew:

NIV: slave, servant

Select Key Verses: Ge 9:25; 14:15; 19:19; 40:20; Ex 21:2; 32:13; Lev 25:39, 44; 26:13; Dt 5:15; 1Sa 16:17; 2Sa 3:22; 1Ki 9:22; Job 1:8; Est 1:3; Isa 20:3; 52:13; 53:11

ʿebed is an appropriate designation for a slave, but also for a servant or even a high-ranking royal administrator. Slavery in ancient Israel and in the ancient world as a whole showed little similarity to the ethnic dehumanization that is characteristic of the slavery of American history. Some of the distinctions result from Israel being a communal society; others point to the reasons for slavery (e.g., managing debt in an agricultural society).

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: tôrâ (9368)

Hebrew:

NIV: law, regulations, instruction

Select Key Verses: Ge 26:5; Ex 18:16, 20; 24:12; Lev 6:9; 13:59; Dt 4:44; 17:18; 27:8; 30:10; 31:9; Jos 1:7–8; 8:32; 1Ki 2:3; 2Ki 22:8; Ezr 7:10; Neh 8–9; Ps 1:2; 19:7; 78:1; 119:174; Pr 1:8; 13:14; 31:26; Jer 31:33; Mal 2:8; 4:4

Too often when we think of “law” in English we think of formal, statutory legislation and/or codified, prescribed behavior. The ancient world and Israel were more inclined to think in terms of instruction from an authority figure that became accepted as foundational for societal expectation and obligation. Informal aspects of behavior such as customs, mores and taboos would all be included. In ancient Israel the tôrâ offered instruction in wisdom for understanding how Israel was to live out its holy calling. It helped them understand how to live so that Yahweh could continue to dwell among them.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: gô ʾ ēl (1457)

Hebrew:

NIV: redeemer; kinsman redeemer; avenger

Select Key Verses: Lev 25–27; Nu 35; Ru 2:20; 4:1–8; Job 19:25; Ps 19:14; 107:2; Isa 41:14; 44:6–24; 48:20

“Redeem” has become a technical theological term in Christian usage to refer to the work of Christ on our behalf, but we must be careful not to import that meaning into the Hebrew Bible. In the OT, the gô ʾ ēl is one who carries out family obligations to get a family member out of trouble or protect the family interests. It may require a man to marry his deceased brother’s widow to make sure the deceased has a descendant. It may involve making sure that allotted land remains in the family. It may require revenging the death of a family member. When God takes this role he is responding as a father to the plight of his children to get them out of some trouble (rarely understood in the OT as the problem of sin that needs to be resolved). In Job 19:25, for example, the gô ʾ ēl that he looks for is the one who will come to his aid by demonstrating that Job does not deserve what he has been experiencing. In other words, Job is not looking for someone to redeem him from his sins, but to demonstrate that he doesn’t have any. His redemption would then be his vindication from wrongdoing.

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ṭâmē ʾ (3238)

Hebrew:

NIV: unclean

Select Key Verses: ṭâmē ʾ Lev 5:2; 7:19–21; 11; 15:2, 25–33; Jos 22:19; 2Ch 23:19; Isa 6:5; 52:1; Hag 2:13–14

Transliteration and Goodrick/Kohlenberger #: ṭâhôr (3196)

Hebrew:

NIV: pure, clean

Select Key Verses: ṭâhôr Ge 7:2, 8; Lev 13:13–41; Ps 12:6; 51:10; Pr 30:12

These terms do not have to do with hygiene. Outside of ritual texts these refer to something that is polluted or unpolluted (e.g., gold of a certain quality), but most uses are in ritual texts and refer to ceremonial defilement or lack of it. Uncleanness can be caused by sin, but often simply represents a breach in propriety.

Prophet: A prophet is not a fortune teller. He or she is more involved in prognosticating than in predicting. Prophets served as champions of the covenant by being mouthpieces for God. They proclaimed God’s plan whether in reference to the past, the present or the future. Prophetic oracles were more interested in revealing God than in revealing the future.

Priest: Though priests performed rituals and instructed people in the fine points of the Torah, those only encompass a few of their tasks rather than circumscribing their identity. Above all, priests had the responsibility to preserve the sanctity of sacred space. Yahweh was living in their midst and his presence needed to be preserved at any cost. The priests were experts not only on Torah, but on holiness. People needed to receive instruction in holiness and in the rituals required to preserve it so that God’s presence would not be lost. The priests therefore provided continued access to God’s presence and revelation from God to assure ongoing relationship.

King: Modern ideas about kingship are distorted when we think of European history. Kings in the ancient world were believed to be conceived by the gods, chosen by the gods, sponsored by the gods and directed by the gods. They were accountable to the gods and were the link between heaven and earth.