35:2 one of the side rooms of the house of the LORD. The temple was surrounded by an outside construction on three sides—a building that had three slight stories alongside three of the walls of the temple. The lower story was similar to the rooms that flanked certain temples in Egypt and Mesopotamia. This building was under the jurisdiction of the Levitical priests (1Ch 23:27–28). These chambers were living and working quarters for priests who were responsible for different functions within the temple. give them wine. We can surmise that Jeremiah takes the Rekabites to the room of the sons of Hanan (v. 4) because that is where they store the wine.

35:11 Aramean armies. In the eleventh to ninth centuries BC, the Arameans were present all along the Euphrates from Babylon to Carchemish. As such they posed a constant problem to the Assyrian Empire. During the time of Jeremiah, the Aramean army was under the control of Nebuchadnezzar and had to support the Babylonian king’s needs. Shortly after Nebuchadnezzar’s rise to power in Babylon, he moved into Syria practically unopposed to exact tribute and to punish rebellious towns and territories.

36:1 fourth year of Jehoiakim. Coincides with Nebuchadnezzar’s first year, which places the writing of the scroll (v. 2) in 605 BC. This year was a critical one for the entire ancient Near East. In this year, just before his accession to the throne, Nebuchadnezzar decisively defeated Pharaoh Necho II and the Egyptian army at Carchemish. The balance of power in the region shifted in favor of the Babylonians, and this opened the way for Babylon to begin subjugating Syria and Palestine (2Ki 24:7). During 604 BC, presumably the year when the scroll was read, Nebuchadnezzar demanded submission and tribute of all the states in Syria and Palestine. Apparently, the only city that rebelled was Ashkelon. This rebellion cost Ashkelon more than it ever imagined. Its citizens had hoped to get support from Egypt, but that never materialized. The Philistine city was defeated and utterly destroyed. It became a heap of ruins (Jer 47:5–7). There is archaeological evidence that the city was thoroughly burned, and a complete skeleton of one of the victims was found lying amid the burned debris. By 592 BC a number of exiled skilled laborers from Ashkelon were living and working in Babylon. These events certainly had an effect on the inhabitants of Judah, and it is in the midst of this context that Jeremiah dictates the material that is to be copied onto a scroll by the scribe Baruch.

36:2 Take a scroll and write. This is the only time that the Hebrew Bible talks about the process of writing prophetic words on a scroll. These words are intended for public reading. We cannot be sure whether this is the first time that Jeremiah’s words are recorded on a scroll. Most of his proclamations, as well as those of other Hebrew prophets, were first issued orally. The final process of when and how the words of the prophets are committed to writing is still a matter of debate. The Hebrew text here uses two words for what is translated “scroll.” This may be a technical term that designates a special kind of scroll. We can assume that this scroll is made either of pasted papyrus or sewn skins, both of which were used for writing in Israel at this time (see note on 30:2; see also the article “Scrolls in the Ancient World”). This kind of scroll may have been used only for important documents.

36:4 Baruch. Jeremiah employs the services of a professional scribe named Baruch. This person has traditionally been considered a scribe of importance, perhaps even a royal scribe. His seal impression has been found among bullae belonging to royal officials. Based on this finding, it is assumed that Baruch was an official scribe and not simply Jeremiah’s personal scribe. The Jewish historian Josephus writes that Baruch came from a distinguished family and was a capable scribe who knew his native tongue well.

36:6 a day of fasting. We have no evidence that in preexilic times in Israel there were any fixed days of fasting, with the possible exception of the Day of Atonement (cf. Lev 16:29, 31). Any days of public fasting during Jeremiah’s time, then, were the result of specific situations that merited such a practice. Fasts in the ancient Near East could be called in the face of national emergencies such as a military defeat or threat, the death of a king, a plague, a drought or a military siege. Thus, the reason for an upcoming public fast day here is most likely the military incursion of Babylonian forces in the region of Judah. Jeremiah chooses such a day since he can expect a bigger audience and perhaps a more receptive one because of the fear of military attack.

36:9 ninth month. The month Kislev, which corresponds to our November–December. fifth year of Jehoiakim. 604 BC. If this is the time when a public fast is called for, the reason may have been the devastating attack Nebuchadnezzar carried out against Ashkelon (see note on v. 1). This would signal a terrible threat to Jerusalem, and it would be natural for a public fast of mourning to be held at this time.

36:10 the room of . . . the secretary, which was in the upper courtyard at the entrance of the New Gate. The various rooms that surrounded the temple served different functions (see note on 35:2). This verse provides a lot of detail, though the exact locations of the secretary’s room, the upper courtyard, and the New Gate are still unknown. According to some, the New Gate was perhaps located to the south of the inner court of the temple, which served as a connection to the royal residence. As to the secretary’s room one can speculate that it led to the “great court” since it was from that room that Baruch reads Jeremiah’s scroll in the hearing of all the people.

36:16 We must report all these words to the king. Prophecies that represented a threat to the kingdom had to be brought to the king’s attention, but that is not a job that anyone would want to do. Excavations at Mari, a city on the Euphrates, have brought to light archives that contain numerous examples of oracular speech that date from the eighteenth century BC. If the prophecies proclaimed by the prophets at Mari had implications for state affairs, they were written on clay tablets and reported to the king. This document was often accompanied by a hem of the prophet’s clothing to serve as a kind of guarantee of authenticity. Once again the role of the scribe was critical. He was the one who wrote down the message received by the prophet through a dream or some ecstatic experience.

36:22 firepot. The Hebrew term seems to be an Egyptian loanword that means “brazier.” This kind of stove was a common feature in the king’s palace. There were two kinds, one made out of clay and the other made out of metal. The ones in the palace were probably made out of metal. This brazier would be a convenient instrument for burning a scroll.

36:23 columns. The Hebrew word usually means “door” and is also used for a manuscript column in one of the Lachish letters. The origin of this transfer of meaning from “door” to “column” in a scroll may come from writing boards. A group of 16 writing boards made out of ivory were found in the Assyrian city of Nimrud from the Neo-Assyrian period (750–625 BC). Such boards were hinged pieces of hard material (here ivory, but often wood) that open and shut like a book. Inside were shallow compartments filled with wax for writing. Thus each side of the writing board that would contain a column of writing was like a door. scroll. It was likely made out of papyrus rather than animal skin parchment. A king would not likely have endured the strong odor of burning animal skin. scribe’s knife. A small knife used for cutting papyri. In this case the knife most likely belongs to Jehudi. until the entire scroll was burned in the fire. Upon hearing the words of Jeremiah written on the scroll, the king of Judah becomes upset. He does not like what he hears. In Hebrew culture words are considered to have the power to bring things to pass. By eliminating the words, by burning them in a ritual of sorts, King Jehoiakim seeks to annul the reality that the text proclaims. It is interesting to compare this with the warnings in the vassal treaties of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria (681–669 BC). There are severe instructions to the vassals with respect to the clay tablets on which the treaty stipulations are written. Any attempt to destroy them and thus nullify the agreement would activate a curse.

36:30 his body will be thrown out and exposed. See note on 22:19.

37:1 Zedekiah . . . was made king of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. King Jehoiakim was succeeded by Jehoiachin during the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem. The city was defeated three months later in 597 BC, and his reign quickly came to an end (see note on 24:1). At this point Nebuchadnezzar places Mattaniah, Jehoiachin’s uncle, on the throne. In order to further demonstrate his power and authority over Mattaniah, Nebuchadnezzar changes his name to Zedekiah (see note on 21:1). Zedekiah rules Judah under the watchful eye of Nebuchadnezzar from 597–586 BC, when Jerusalem is destroyed by the Babylonian army. See the article “Historical Setting of Jeremiah.”

37:5 they withdrew from Jerusalem. Jerusalem is under siege by the Babylonians. In 589 BC, after the death of Psammetichus II, a new pharaoh named Apries (called Hophra in 44:30) rises to power in Egypt. This pharaoh is ambitious but totally incompetent. According to Eze 17:15, Judah sends a request to Apries early in his reign, soliciting military aid to fight off the Babylonians. This request is perhaps corroborated by one of the Lachish letters, in which there is mention of a commander from Judah who goes down to Egypt. Apries responds to this request and dispatches an army into Judah, which effectively forces the Babylonians to withdraw their suffocating siege on Jerusalem. There seems to be no record of any battle taking place between the Egyptians and Babylonians at this time. Perhaps the mere presence of the Egyptian army in Judah’s territory forces the Babylonian withdrawal. There is a text, however, from the so-called annals of Nebuchadnezzar that may refer to a battle. The military conflict between Babylon and Egypt ends in a standstill, with heavy losses on both sides. This may have given Zedekiah and his people some hope. However, history tells us that it is short-lived.

37:13 Benjamin Gate. The location of this gate and its exact identification are still a matter of speculation. The fact that Jeremiah goes through this gate on his way to Anathoth, which is to the north-northeast of Jerusalem (see note on 1:1), suggests that this gate opens up toward the northeast. This means that it is not far from the temple courts. Some scholars identify this gate with the Gate of the People (see 17:19 and note), the gate kings used. The Benjamin Gate has been identified with different gates mentioned in postexilic texts, such as the Inspection Gate (Ne 3:31) and the Sheep Gate (Ne 3:32). Others identify it with the Upper Gate of Benjamin (Jer 20:2). What we can say is that Zedekiah uses it as a place to conduct official business (38:7). See notes on Job 5:4; 29:7; Pr 8:3; 31:23.

37:15 house . . . made into a prison. Generally speaking, formal prisons were not part of the societies in the ancient Near East. This was because “prisons,” understood as places of confinement, were not used to punish a person. They were merely used as places of detainment, where a person would be held until a decision was reached regarding his case. The person was either set free, put to death or left to die. Thus, “prisons” in this sense often were chambers in temples, royal palaces and private homes. Some prisoners were placed in granaries, silos or storerooms. In the Mesopotamian Hymn to Nungal, we read that a person was imprisoned in a holding cell in a temple. So-called prisons at Mari, in Mesopotamia, during the second millennium BC were not so different from regular dwelling places. These examples show us that what is stated in Jeremiah is not uncommon at all. Jonathan the secretary. Though we know nothing of him, we can suggest that he is a royal scribe, since he has a kind of prison right in his house.

37:16 vaulted cell in a dungeon. It is difficult to know exactly what this cell looked like. One of the Hebrew terms used here is rare and used only in this context in the Hebrew Bible. Presumably, from what Jeremiah says in v. 20, this was an uncomfortable and life-threatening place. Based on a comparison with the empty water cistern where Jeremiah sunk in the mud (38:6), one can suggest that this was an underground dungeon that was part of the house. If this place was in good condition, it may have been used originally to store grain.

37:21 a loaf of bread. The custom of handing out a ration of bread is illustrated by an ostracon from Arad that most likely dates from the late seventh to early sixth centuries BC. That letter contains an order authorizing the commanding officer at Arad to hand out rations to the soldiers under his command. Each soldier would have received about the equivalent of one loaf of bread per day. the street of the bakers. It was customary in antiquity to cluster together craftsmen of the same type in defined districts or in the same quarter. This was especially true in Mesopotamia. In Israel there was a defined district where cloth was bleached (Isa 7:3) and a section for the potters (Jer 18:2; cf. 1Ki 20:34).

38:6 the cistern . . . had no water in it, only mud. An empty cistern during a time of enemy siege may indicate that matters are critical in Jerusalem at this time. Cisterns full of rainwater were important for the survival of the people during times of siege because people were unable to leave the city to get water from springs or wells that were usually situated outside of the city walls. Some cisterns were bottle-shaped, about three yards (2.75 meters) wide and five yards (4.5 meters) deep. They would be covered with a stone placed over the small opening at the top. Other cisterns were bell-shaped, about three yards wide (2.75 meters) and four yards (3.7 meters) deep. Still others, like the ones at Qumran, where the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered, had steps leading into them. Cisterns could be carved out of natural rock or converted from cave formations. Some cisterns had to be lined with plaster to make them waterproof. Others were carved into what is called Cenomanian limestone, which is impermeable and therefore needed no additional treatment to hold water. Cisterns were also used to store grain and food (see note on 2:13). Jeremiah was lowered into a water cistern that was empty, but the bottom had a considerable layer of sediment turned into mud, which in and of itself was life threatening.

38:7 Ebed-Melek. This official’s Hebrew name means “servant of the king.” Having received a Hebrew name suggests the possibility that this Cushite official had come north as a slave. official. This Hebrew term is generally understood as “eunuch” (see note on Isa 39:7). We cannot state for sure whether this term designates Ebed-Melek’s physical condition or his capacity as a royal official. the king was sitting in the Benjamin Gate. Legal and civil decision making in Israel took place at the city gate (see notes on Job 5:4; 29:7; Pr 8:3; 31:23). Benjamin Gate. See note on 37:13.

38:14 third entrance to the temple. This entrance to the temple in Jerusalem is mentioned only here. Its location is unknown. The most that we can suggest at this point is that it is a private place and thus can be considered as the king’s private entrance into the temple.

38:23 All your wives and children will be brought out to the Babylonians. When a nation or city was conquered in the ancient Near East, the defeated were vulnerable to the whims and appetites of the victors. The Babylonians normally exiled the best of society, thus depriving them of their land, identity, religion and sense of worth. Others were raped, tortured and killed. There are reliefs from the time of Shalmaneser III of Assyria (858–824 BC) that show women and children being marched away.

39:1 ninth year of Zedekiah. Once again the matter of chronology is difficult (cf. notes on 25:1; 32:1). Some scholars prefer a chronology that places the beginning of the Babylonian siege in 587 BC. Other scholars argue for 588. The different dates are the result of different calendars. Some believe that at this time Judah was using the Babylonian calendar, in which a new year begins in March–April (the month of Nisan/Aviv), whereas others believe that the older Israelite calendar was still in use, in which a new year begins in September–October (the month of Tishri/Ethanim). Following the 588 BC view, the siege begins approximately in January (the month of Tebeth) of 588 BC. As to when the wall of Jerusalem is finally breached, the same chronological problems apply. But if we use 588 as the beginning of the siege, the wall is breached in July (the month of Tammuz) of 586 BC. This tragic event takes place during the 11th year of Zedekiah, which can be synchronized with the 18th year of Nebuchadnezzar.

39:3 Middle Gate. Mentioned only here in the Hebrew Bible. Scholars have offered numerous identifications. Some suggest it is the same as the Fish Gate (see Ne 3:3 and note). Others identify it with a gate in the center of the city. More recent excavations conducted within the Jewish Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem suggest that the Middle Gate was situated in the middle of the northern defense wall. If so, the Middle Gate can be seen today at the “Israelite Tower,” also located in the Jewish Quarter of the Old City. This gate, which faces north, coincides with the suggestion that the Babylonian attack came from the north, as most attacks on Jerusalem did because that is where the city was most vulnerable (see note on 1:13). It is at this gate that the Babylonian officials who claim victory take their seats to send a clear signal to a defeated Judah that they are now in charge. Nebo-Sarsekim a chief officer. Recently (July, 2007), a very small cuneiform tablet that is stored in the British Museum seems to have shed light on this person. The tiny tablet has been dated to c. 595 BC, which is eight to nine years before the destruction of Jerusalem. The name on the tablet is written as Nabu-sharrussum-ukin, and this person is described as the “chief eunuch” of Nebuchadnezzar II, king of Babylon. The cuneiform tablet informs us that Nabu-sharrussum-ukin presented a gold offering of almost two pounds (900 grams) to a temple in Babylon. The person mentioned in this cuneiform tablet could very well be the same person that is mentioned in this verse of Jeremiah.

39:4 they fled . . . toward the Arabah. When Zedekiah king of Judah becomes aware that the city of Jerusalem has fallen to the Babylonians, he flees the city along with his court officials. Note that Zedekiah flees from the south side of the city, most likely because the Babylonians have attacked from the north. the king’s garden. Location unknown. gate between the two walls. The identity of this gate is unknown. As with other gates mentioned in Jeremiah, this one also has been identified with different gates mentioned elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. Some have suggested this is the Fountain Gate (see Ne 2:14 and note), while others suggest the Dung Gate (see note on Ne 3:1–32). between the two walls. The double wall is most likely the result of Hezekiah’s earlier construction of a second wall to protect Jerusalem against an Assyrian attack (Isa 22:9–11). the Arabah. Generally speaking, the Arabah refers to the Jordan Valley, although technically it is the rift valley that extends from the Sea of Galilee to the Gulf of Aqaba (see note on 17:6). In this case, the name designates the semidesert area south of Jericho. Zedekiah is probably hoping to cross over the Jordan River into Moab or Ammon and seek protection there.

39:5 Riblah. Strategically placed on the cross section of military highways that run from Egypt to Mesopotamia. Pharaoh Necho II used Riblah in 609 BC, when King Jehoahaz of Judah was brought before him and was subsequently taken away to Egypt in chains (2Ki 23:33). He also used this city as his base in preparation for the battle of Carchemish in 605 BC. Even before this time, the Assyrians had used the city as a military outpost. Nebuchadnezzar used Riblah as his military headquarters while laying siege against Jerusalem.

39:7 put out Zedekiah’s eyes. The practice of blinding a captured enemy, as well as slaves, was relatively common in the ancient Near East. Slaves were often blinded in just one eye so that they could continue working. bound him with bronze shackles. The use of shackles or chains to bind prisoners is illustrated by bas-reliefs from the palace of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669–633 BC). Egyptian prisoners are depicted being marched away from Thebes with their feet in chains and their hands tied. Samson too was bound by bronze shackles after being blinded by his Philistine enemies (Jdg 16:21).

39:9 carried into exile. The first (great) exile of the Jews to Babylonia occurred in 597 BC; at that time 3,023 persons were carried away (52:28). This verse narrates a second (lesser) exile, which takes place in 587/586 BC; only 832 persons are exiled to Babylonia (52:29). In 605 BC, another 745 were taken. These represent the most qualified people of Israelite society. The practice of exiling people from a defeated nation began much earlier with the Assyrian kings (see notes on 2Ki 15:29; Isa 5:13).

39:10 the poor people . . . he gave . . . vineyards and fields. The Babylonian king did not take the poor of Israelite society to Babylonia, for they were of no use to the Babylonian kingdom. And since they have no resources, they do not represent any threat to Babylon. The Babylonian king gives land to the landless of Israel and in this way begins a process of redistribution of the land.

40:1 Ramah. See note on 31:15. In this context, Ramah is used as a holding place for the deported prisoners from Judah. It is located on the road that leads north toward Syria and then on to Babylon.

40:5 Gedaliah son of Ahikam, the son of Shaphan. Nebuchadnezzar’s newly appointed governor of Judah, Gedaliah, is mentioned with a double patronym. Gedaliah belongs to an important scribal family that has a long-standing relationship with Jeremiah. Shaphan was one of the persons present when the Book of the Law was found in the temple during Josiah’s reform (2Ki 22:3–14). Shaphan’s son Ahikam was instrumental in providing protection to Jeremiah when Jeremiah’s life was threatened (Jer 26:24). Thus, it would only be natural for Jeremiah to live under the protection of Gedaliah, the newly appointed governor. Gedaliah sets up his headquarters at Mizpah (v. 6), the new capital of what has become a Babylonian province, since Jerusalem is now uninhabitable. At the beginning of his mandate, Gedaliah is somewhat successful at implementing a process of restoring Judah’s economy and reconstructing a beaten and weakened society.

40:10 harvest the wine, summer fruit and olive oil. Jerusalem fell in July of 586 BC. This is just before grapes, olives, figs, dates and other fruits are ready to be harvested.

40:14 Baalis king of the Ammonites. This king appears only here in the Hebrew Bible. We know little about him. He may have been present at the Jerusalem political gathering (594–593 BC), when a number of kings got together to plan a rebellion against Babylon—a conspiracy that never materialized (see notes on 27:3; 30:14). Baalis may also have supported Gedaliah’s opponents, who represented the Davidic family’s claim to the throne. But perhaps he wanted to destabilize the process of reconstruction initiated in Mizpah, so that Judah would not represent any threat to Ammon in the near future. In any case, he evidently participates in a plot to kill Gedaliah, the governor Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon has placed to rule over what remained of Judah. In recent years an Ammonite seal has been discovered at Tell el-‘Umeiri that bears the name of Baalis. This site is located about eight miles (almost 13 kilometers) southwest of Amman, Jordan. This is the first extra-Biblical information available to us regarding this Ammonite king.

41:1 seventh month. Tishri/Ethanim, which is the equivalent to September–October. No year is given here. Though some scholars consider that the events narrated here happened three to five years after the fall of Jerusalem, others suggest it happened within the same year as the fall of the city (i.e., 586 BC). If so, then Gedaliah would have ruled only two to three months before his assassination. The month of Tishri/Ethanim is the month when the Feast of Booths was celebrated. At this time many of the inhabitants of Judah who were left behind by the Babylonians would celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles (Booths), a festival clearly associated with the agricultural life of Israel. This would have been a good time for Ishmael and his group to approach the town of Mizpah without being noticed.

41:5 shaved off their beards, torn their clothes and cut themselves. These are clear and common signs of mourning (see the article “Mourning”). bringing grain offerings and incense. With Jerusalem and its temple destroyed, it seems curious that pilgrims would be on their way to make sacrifices there. Considering the places from which these pilgrims are coming (Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria), all of which have been cultic and political centers, their journey may have overtones of an attempted restoration of Jerusalem. It may be that they even were planning to perform cultic rituals to purify the destroyed temple and thus restore its usefulness (compare the restoration by Josiah in 2Ch 34:8, see note on 2Ch 24:4–14). Considering the number of destroyed shrines throughout the ancient Near East, there must have been proscribed rituals designed to cleanse them and prepare them to be used once again. Evidence of this is found in the Assyrian annals of Esarhaddon, which describe how Marduk allowed Babylon and its temples to be destroyed and restored.

41:12 great pool in Gibeon. If the party is trying to get to Ammonite territory, Gibeon is in the wrong direction. The most direct way to Ammon from Mizpah does not go through Gibeon. From Mizpah one would go north to Bethel and then connect with a major road that goes east toward Jericho and the Jordan Valley. Gibeon is about three miles (4.8 kilometers) southwest of Mizpah. This means that Ishmael and his group head in almost the opposite direction of Ammon. However, Ishmael probably would try to deceive his pursuers. Furthermore, he may have been planning on taking an alternative route that goes southeast from Gibeon to Jerusalem, where he could then take the Ascent of Adumim down to the Jordan Valley. One should not expect a fugitive to follow what would be considered the most normal route.

41:17 Geruth Kimham. Probably the name of a small town or village located near Bethlehem. “Geruth” appears only here in the Hebrew Bible. Its exact meaning is unknown, though it most likely refers to a kind of lodging place, fief or habitation. The name of this village can presumably be traced to the Kimham of 2Sa 19:38–41, who had the honor of escorting King David across the Jordan on his way back to Jerusalem. Kimham was of the house of Barzillai, a wealthy man from Gilead. According to 1Ki 2:7 he received a royal pension. Presumably, therefore, he received a portion of land from David that was near Bethlehem. This place eventually becomes known as Geruth Kimham.

42:10 I have relented. In the Mesopotamian epic “Erra and Ishum,” Marduk abandons his shrine in Babylon to allow Erra, a destructive god, to bring judgment on the people of the city. When the destruction has been carried out, Marduk is full of grief for the city of his dwelling. Yahweh’s grief is over the destruction that Jerusalem brought on herself; he is not having second thoughts, wishing that he had not acted the way that he did. There is much that is different between the Israelite and Babylonian material, but the motif of a deity grieving over destruction that he himself has brought or allowed is an element common to both. In earlier Sumerian literature, a similar motif is reflected when deities abandon a city for which the divine council has decreed destruction.

43:7 they entered Egypt. This event can be defined as the Egyptian Diaspora. It is generally considered to be less significant for the future of Judaism than the Babylonian Diaspora. Though perhaps a number of Israelites fled to Egypt during the Assyrian period (cf. Isa 11:11), the main settlement of Jews takes place at this time. Tahpanhes. See note on 2:16. Tahpanhes is a desert site bordering on the Sinai peninsula and is located about 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) west of the present-day Suez Canal. Excavations have demonstrated that its main period of occupation took place in the seventh century BC. At that time Psammetichus I (664–610 BC) placed a group of Greek mercenaries to protect the area. Because of its strategic location on the main commercial road that led to Palestine, it would be natural for a group of Judahites to settle there. According to the pseudepigraphal text known as The Lives of the Prophets, Jeremiah was stoned to death and buried at Tahpanhes.

43:10 my servant Nebuchadnezzar. See note on 25:9.

43:11 He will come and attack Egypt. We know little of Nebuchadnezzar’s final years and possible military incursions into Egypt. Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel fully expected Babylonia to invade Egypt. There is a questionable reference to an attack against Egypt by Nebuchadnezzar in the writings of Josephus, who writes that during the 23rd year of Nebuchadnezzar (582 BC), the Babylonian king first attacked the Ammonites and Moabites, then invaded Egypt. If this indeed happened, it would have coincided approximately with the time that the Jewish group arrived at Tahpanhes. In addition to this source, there are some fragmentary Babylonian texts that suggest that in Nebuchadnezzar’s 37th year (c. 568 BC) he attacked Egypt. Amasis II was the pharaoh in Egypt at this time. Scholars by and large agree that Nebuchadnezzar was not able to conquer Egypt at this time. Nevertheless, he may well have caused much damage to the military outposts populated by Jewish exiles.

43:13 temple of the sun. This phrase translates a Hebrew expression that normally designates a place-name. Here it obviously points toward a place in Egypt. Most agree that Jeremiah uses this term to designate the Egyptian city of Heliopolis (Biblical “On” [cf. Ge 41:45]). The site of this city is presently in a northeast suburb of Cairo. Heliopolis was the center for the worship of the sun-god Ra and an important political and cult center in Egypt. sacred pillars. Also called sacred stones, they were erected in Israel for a variety of reasons. They could be used as memorials to a person who had died (Ge 35:20), as a kind of marker at the entrance of a sanctuary (Ex 26:32, 37), and as pagan objects of worship (Ex 23:24; see note on 1Ki 14:23). In the Egyptian context, this term refers to what is known as an “obelisk”—a sacred monument native to ancient Egypt, considered to have originated in the cult center of Heliopolis. The destruction of such a sacred object at the hands of the Babylonians would have represented a disgrace for the Egyptians.

44:1 Migdol. The Hebrew term has a West Semitic origin and means “tower, fortress.” The Egyptians borrowed it and used it both as a noun and as a proper name. As a place-name it was used for various military outposts that served to protect Egypt’s boundaries. In Jeremiah Migdol denotes an Egyptian border town that lies about 25 miles (40 kilometers) northeast of Tahpanhes (see notes on 2:16 and 43:7). Tahpanhes. See note on 43:7. Memphis. See note on 2:16. Upper Egypt. The Hebrew term here is patros, the equivalent of the Egyptian Patoris, meaning “South Land.” It is a place-name that encompasses the area south of the delta in Upper Egypt. Assyrian texts from the time of Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) indicate that Esarhaddon conquered Egypt, Paturisi and Nubia.

44:15 Lower and Upper Egypt. These geographic designations are influenced by the fact that the Nile River flows north. Hence, Upper Egypt refers to the southern portion of Egypt, whereas Lower Egypt designates the northern region that encompasses the delta all the way to the region of Memphis. In this context, the geographic location for the various Jewish settlements in Egypt is given in general terms. We can perhaps assume that places such as Memphis, Tahpanhes and Migdol are included in this description.

44:17 Queen of Heaven. This deity perhaps has its origin in the Babylonian-Assyrian deity Ishtar (see note on 7:18). She is known in Palestine as the goddess Asherah. Her presence in Egypt is now confirmed by an Aramaic papyrus discovered at Hermopolis in the delta region of Egypt, dated to the fifth century BC.

44:19 When we burned incense. See note on 19:13. In this case the Jewish women, far from being loyal to Yahweh, argue that when they worshiped the Queen of Heaven, they were well off and did not suffer hunger and violence. incense. See notes on 6:20; 7:9. poured our drink offerings. See note on 7:18. cakes impressed with her image. It is likely that the use of offering cakes shaped in the goddess’s image is a practice borrowed from Mesopotamia, where such molds have been found. cakes. The Hebrew word (kawwanim) is a loanword from Akkadian kamanu, a type of sweet cake associated with the cult of Ishtar. They were baked in ashes and often were sweetened with honey or figs. The ritual texts describing eshsheshu festivals in Mesopotamian cities include both meat and cake offerings.

44:30 Pharaoh Hophra king of Egypt. “Hophra” is the Biblical name given to Pharaoh Apries (see note on 37:5) of the Twenty-Sixth (Saite) Dynasty in Egypt. Apries succeeded Psammetichus II and ruled Egypt from 589–570 BC. In Jeremiah Hophra is portrayed as the Egyptian king who opposed Nebuchadnezzar before Jerusalem fell. This resulted in a violent retaliation from the Neo-Babylonian Empire. After failing in his first attempt to thwart Babylon’s advance into Palestine, Hophra led a naval operation against Phoenicia with the same purpose—to check Babylon’s advance against Judah and later into Egypt. After this, he focused his efforts on setting up and maintaining the military outposts to protect Egypt. He also allowed Jewish refugees to settle at various locations in Egypt. During his final years as king, Hophra showed a sad lack of judgment. He relied too heavily on foreign mercenary troops who did not respond as he expected. Classical sources such as Herodotus and Diodorus report that Apries was assassinated in a military coup led by his successor, Amasis II, who ruled from about 570–526 BC. A slightly different version records that Amasis, realizing how much Apries was loathed by the people, turned Apries over to the people, who then strangled him. For possible military incursions by Nebuchadnezzar into Egypt during this time, see note on 43:11.

45:1 fourth year of Jehoiakim. Identified with the year 605 BC (see note on 36:1). This was an important year in terms of power shifts in the ancient Near East. It was the year when Yahweh instructed Jeremiah to write the first scroll. It was also the year that the Babylonians defeated the Egyptians at Carchemish. The Egyptians had come to the aid of the Assyrians, but they were met head-on by the Babylonians. The defeat of the Egyptians at the battle of Carchemish signaled the end of the Assyrian Empire.

46:1 concerning the nations. Ch. 46 begins a section in Jeremiah defined as the “Messages Against the Nations” (chs. 46–51). This is a distinct literary genre within the Prophets. A particular feature of such oracles against the nations is that they are rarely pronounced in the presence of the foreign nations. Furthermore, even though they are directed against the foreign nations, these oracles are primarily intended for Israelite ears.

46:2 Pharaoh Necho. Pharaoh Necho II was part of the Twenty-Sixth (Saite) Dynasty in Egypt (664–525 BC); he ruled from 610–595 BC. At the beginning of his rule much was changing in Mesopotamia. The powerful Assyrian Empire had suffered two deadly blows. Nineveh was defeated by the Babylonians and Medes in 612 BC, and two years later the Assyrians suffered another defeat at Harran. In light of this, Necho II decided to venture north through Palestine in order to provide help to the Assyrians. On the way he killed Josiah king of Judah at the battle of Megiddo in 609 BC (2Ch 35:20–24). This turned out to be a devastating blow to the inhabitants of Judah. Necho II then attempted to aid the Assyrians by establishing himself at Carchemish. However, in 605 BC, during the famous battle of Carchemish, the Babylonian army defeated the Egyptians, sending them back to Egypt. Shortly thereafter, the Babylonians continued to conquer southward until they had control over all Palestine, right to the border of Egypt.

46:3 shields, both large and small. Most ancient Near Eastern soldiers were armed with shields for protection. At least two types of shields were used by Israelite warriors. The small one was round and rather light. It served as a buckler, was generally held in the left hand, and was often used to protect the face. This type of shield can be seen in the Lachish relief and is frequently mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. Egyptian soldiers also used a small shield. These were rounded at the top and rectangular at the bottom. Unfortunately, most shields in the ancient Near East were made of perishable materials such as wood covered with skin or wickerwork and leather, so they have not been preserved for archaeologists to find. The larger shield could be of different shapes: rectangular, oblong or figure eight. These protected the entire body, particularly from spears, lances and arrows. They were used often in siege warfare to protect the archers. It was a heavier shield that did not allow for quick maneuverability. This meant that some foot soldiers were aided by a shield bearer, who stood by his side. There are a number of reliefs that show King Ashurbanipal of Assyria (669–627 BC) at war in which one can see these larger shields, both oblong and rectangular.

46:4 Harness the horses, mount the steeds! There is no conclusive evidence that the Egyptian army used cavalry at this time (seventh century BC). But Assyrian and Babylonian armies had been using chariots and cavalry already in the tenth century BC. There are numerous reliefs from the time of King Ashurnasirpal II (884–858 BC) on that depict Assyrian armies with both chariots and cavalry. By the time of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC), cavalry became much more important in Mesopotamian armies. Sometime later, during the reign of Ashurbanipal (669–627 BC), horses were also used for hunting lions and onagers. The intensive use of cavalry may have given the Assyrians and Babylonians a decided military advantage over the Egyptians. Take your positions with helmets on! Helmets in the ancient Near East were usually made of leather or metal and were used as defensive headgear. Goliath wore a bronze helmet (1Sa 17:5, 38). The helmets had different shapes: round, cone-shaped, and with flaps to cover the cheek and ears. Reliefs from Assyria show their warriors wearing cone-shaped helmets.

46:9 Cush. The Biblical name for ancient Ethiopia—an area south of Egypt that corresponds to modern-day Sudan and perhaps includes Ethiopia as well. It was inhabited by non-Egyptians. It was also identified from early times as Nubia. See note on Isa 18:1–7. Cush, Put and Lydia represent mercenary contingents who participated in the Egyptian army and thus served as reminders of past political and military events in Egypt’s history. A Nubian named Shabako founded the Nubian (Cushite) dynasty (eighth to seventh centuries BC), also known as the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty in Egypt. The third king of that dynasty (Tirhakah) sent an army to aid Hezekiah in his struggle against Sennacherib king of Assyria (704–681 BC). This surge in power is perhaps the reason why Cush receives a prominent place in this message for Egypt. Put. Its identity cannot be known with certainty, but it is generally identified as Libya on the basis of the translation of Put in the Septuagint (the pre-Christian Greek translation of the OT) and in the Vulgate, as well as Old Persian inscriptions. Put and Cush are listed in the table of nations in Ge 10 as sons of Ham and brothers of Egypt (Ge 10:6). Lydia. Identified with the Ludites of Ge 10:13. We suggest that Lydia here refers to the Lydia in Asia Minor. History tells us that Psammetichus of the Egyptian Saite Dynasty received help from Gyges, king of Lydia, to resist the Assyrian army during the first half of the seventh century BC. Since then, Lydian mercenaries were present in Egypt.

46:11 Go up to Gilead and get balm. See note on 8:22.

46:13 Nebuchadnezzar . . . to attack Egypt. See note on 43:11.

46:14 Migdol. See note on 44:1. Memphis. See note on 2:16. Tahpanhes. See note on 43:7.

46:18 Tabor. This important mountain is located in the northeast corner of the Jezreel Valley, which is the southern limit of lower Galilee. Mount Tabor’s importance lay mainly in its location. Placed on the edge of the Jezreel Valley, it was a constant witness to north-south commercial and military movements. When the Egyptians fled south after being defeated by the Babylonians, they most likely passed through the Jezreel Valley and therefore were in full view of Mount Tabor. Carmel. This mountain is located on the Mediterranean Sea just to the west of the present port of Haifa. See note on 1Ki 18:19.

46:19 Memphis. See note on 2:16.

46:20 gadfly. The Hebrew term is used only here in the Hebrew Bible. It is generally understood to designate a horsefly or gadfly (Tabanus bovinus). A Ugaritic cognate verb means “to gnaw, bite, rip off.” Thus, this insect seems to be one that stings cattle, since Egypt is described as a “heifer” in the previous line. Babylon is compared to a gadfly that will come from the north to bite, sting and inflict injury on Egypt.

46:22 like men who cut down trees. The image conveyed here is one of destruction. The enemy from the north comes with axes to destroy not only a forest but also the nation. Assyrian bas-reliefs show chariots that carried up to four soldiers armed with bows, arrows and sometimes axes. The evidence suggests that particularly Neo-Assyrian kings customarily destroyed the orchards of their enemies. This seems to have been part of their military strategy. One must admit, however, that Egypt is not known for its forests.

46:25 Amon god of Thebes. Thebes is the Greek name that refers to a city the Egyptians called Waset. It was the most important city in Egypt after Memphis and was located on the Nile River 438 miles (705 kilometers) south of the Mediterranean and 140 miles (225 kilometers) north of Elephantine (see note on 43:7). It served as the capital city of Egypt from the Middle Kingdom (c. 2100 BC) up until the Assyrian invasion led by Ashurbanipal (c. 663/661 BC). In Egyptian texts Thebes is referred to as “the city of Amun.” This is evidence that in the early stages, the most important god of Thebes and, by extension, of Egypt was Amun. This god was known as the “Hidden One.” He was manifested in the wind, whose origin and destination cannot be known. Amun was also the mysterious source of life in human beings and animals. As time progressed and as the Egyptians acknowledged more and more the power in the sun, a fusion took place between the sun-god Ra and the god of life and breath, Amun. It was conveniently argued that they were one and the same; the result was the god Amun-Ra. The famous temple of Karnak at Thebes was dedicated to Amun-Ra, who became the head of the Egyptian pantheon at the beginning of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BC).

47:1 Pharaoh attacked Gaza. Nebuchadnezzar began his move toward invading Egypt in early 601 BC. However, the investing of Palestine, including the acceptance of Jehoiakim’s pledge of loyalty to Babylonian rule, required some delays that prevented any direct move against Egyptian territory until November of that year. Perhaps the king hoped to make as easy a conquest of Egypt as had Ashurbanipal in 663. Since that time, however, the Saite pharaohs of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty had concentrated much of their efforts and wealth on building several lines of defense along the Gaza road as well as farther south. This was designed to prevent an army from making either a direct march along the Sinai’s Mediterranean coast or inland across the desert. When, according to Herodotus, Nebuchadnezzar’s army is defeated at the Egyptian fortress of Migdol on the eastern branch of the Nile delta, Necho II’s forces pursued him north and captured Gaza. They held it for two years until Nebuchadnezzar once again campaigned in Palestine.

47:2 waters are rising in the north. This is reminiscent of the image Jeremiah saw when he was called to be a prophet. At that time he saw a boiling pot “tilting toward us from the north” (see 1:13 and note). It is obvious from these images that danger looms in the north; in this case the threat is against the Philistines. It is also clear that the reference is to Babylon. Jeremiah is using a common image in the ancient Near East. When treaties were drawn up, they included a series of curses that promised punishment for any violation of that treaty. One of those punishments was the flooding of the land. In the Vassal Treaties of Esarhaddon, the king of Assyria (681–669 BC) threatens the vassal with the curse that a flood would rise and bring devastation. In light of this curse, we can better understand Jeremiah’s oracle that speaks of waters rising in the north.

47:4 Tyre and Sidon. These are two Phoenician seaports that lie to the north of the Philistine cities in what is Lebanon today. Tyre was the principal seaport on the Phoenician coast (see note on Ne 13:16). It was built partly on the mainland and partly on an island and was a thriving commercial and cultural center. Sidon was located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north of Tyre. Sidon served at times as the capital city of Phoenicia and was fortified by a strong wall; it had two harbors protected by a few small islands and a breakwater (see note on Isa 23:1–18). We cannot be sure about the connection between Philistia and Phoenicia. Most scholars speculate that there was both a political and a commercial relationship between them. In the city of Ashkelon there is archaeological evidence from the destruction level caused by Nebuchadnezzar that includes numerous artifacts from Phoenicia. coasts of Caphtor. Am 9:7 refers to Caphtor as the place of origin of the Philistines. Documents from Mari and Ugarit also mention Caphtor, as do certain Egyptian and Greek texts. On this basis scholars favor identifying Caphtor with Crete. A few still consider that Caphtor should be identified with Cappadocia, which is an inland area in Asia Minor.

47:5 shave her head . . . cut yourselves. These practices pertain to mourning rites observed in the ancient Near East (see the article “Mourning”). Ashkelon. It is one of the largest archaeological sites in Israel, covering approximately 150 acres (60.75 hectares). It was occupied from about 2000 BC to AD 1500 by many different cultures—Canaanite, Philistine, Phoenician, Roman, Byzantine, Islamic, and Crusader. It is located about 12 miles (19 kilometers) north of Gaza and ten miles (16 kilometers) south of Ashdod on the coastal highway. During most of the Iron Age (1200–586 BC) this beautiful coastal city was under the control of the Philistines. The document known as the Babylonian Chronicle states clearly that Ashkelon was destroyed by King Nebuchadnezzar (605–562 BC) in 604. For the destruction of Ashkelon, see note on 36:1.

48:1 Moab. See note on Isa 15:1–4; see also the article “Moab.” Nebo. Generally associated with the mountain where Moses stood to view the promised land. In this context, however, the reference is to a nearby city associated with the mountain. It is most commonly identified with Khirbet Muhaiyat, a town about three miles (4.8 kilometers) northwest of Medeba and five miles (8 kilometers) southwest of Heshbon. The town may have been settled originally by a group of Babylonian origin since “Nebo” is the name of an important Babylonian deity (Nabu). The Moabite Stone of King Mesha, dated to about the mid-ninth century BC, speaks of the town of Nebo coming under Moabite domination and having some kind of cultic worship of Yahweh at the time Mesha captured it for Moab. Kiriathaim. The exact location of this town that King Mesha of Moab claims to have built is unknown. One of the sites proposed is Khirbet el-Qureiya. This site is located about six miles (9.7 kilometers) west of Medeba. If this identification is correct, then Kiriathaim is close to Nebo.

48:2 Heshbon. Its identification is still uncertain, but it is usually identified with modern Hesban located in northern Moab. This site is located about 5 miles (8 kilometers) northeast of Mount Nebo and 34 miles (55 kilometers) east of Jerusalem. Though settled by the Israelite tribe of Reuben, by the seventh century BC it was under Moabite control. This town is not mentioned in the Moabite Stone. Pottery and ostraca dated to the time of Jeremiah suggest that during his time Heshbon was under Ammonite rule.

48:7 Chemosh. See notes on Nu 21:29; Jdg 11:24; Ru 1:16; 2Ki 23:13.

48:9 Put salt on Moab. The translation of this verse is difficult and remains a matter of debate. The term translated “salt” is based on a Ugaritic parallel. If this translation is correct, we can appeal to ancient Near Eastern texts that illustrate this practice, as well as some examples from the OT—e.g., Abimelek scattered salt over the ground of the city of Shechem after he destroyed it (Jdg 9:45). Tiglath-Pileser I (1115–1076 BC) of Assyria is also known for scattering salt over the ruins of a conquered city.

48:11 wine left on its dregs. After the grapes have been trod, the resulting juice was poured into large storage jars (about 10 gallons or 37 liters) and they were sealed with clay, leaving only a small vent hole to bleed off the fermentation gases. The fermentation process was allowed to continue for 40 days, as the wine lay with its dregs or lees. poured from one jar to another. For the process of wine-making to be completed, the wine must be poured out from the original jars into fresh ones. When this process is carried out, the dregs are strained out. This is done so that the fermentation process can be completed and the wine can then age over time. The transferring of the wine from a state where it is resting on the dregs implies movement and separation.

48:13 trusted in Bethel. Whereas in most places in the Hebrew Bible Bethel is a place name, here in all probability it refers to a West Semitic deity. The parallelism with Chemosh in the previous line seems to require a deity. “Bethel” appears in many personal names and as the name of a deity in other ancient Near Eastern texts. Beginning as early as the Assyrian period, we find that the deity Bethel is mentioned in a seventh-century BC treaty between Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) and Baal of Tyre, in which we read of Bethel and of Anath-Bethel.

48:16 fall of Moab. There is little evidence available for a Babylonian invasion of Moab. Josephus writes that Babylon invaded both Moab and Ammon about five years after the destruction of Jerusalem. This would place the Babylonian oppression over Moab at about 582/581 BC. We have no other inscriptional evidence to support this claim.

48:18 Dibon. Located about two miles (3.2 kilometers) north of the Arnon River. It served as the capital city of Moab while Mesha was king in the ninth century BC.

48:19 Aroer. Located about 1.25 miles (2 kilometers) southeast of Dibon. It is one of several Aroers in Palestine; this one is on the Arnon River and is a fortress that guards the King’s Highway.

48:20 Arnon. The Arnon River was the traditional northern boundary of Moab (see note on 48:1). This river flows through the central Moabite mountains and empties into the Dead Sea south of Aroer. During short periods of time the Moabites extended the boundary as far as Heshbon.

48:25 horn. In the ancient Near East it is often used as a metaphor of strength and power. Along with the image of “arm” (Ps 44:3) or “outstretched arm” (Ps 136:12, with reference to Yahweh’s arm), “horn” occurs in Psalms as that which symbolizes strength (see note on Ps 18:2). Based on Egyptian, Greek and Latin literature, some scholars suggest that horn here should be understood as “bow.” They suggest that it has to do with one of the materials used to construct the composite bow. If this is considered along with the statements in 49:35 (“I will break the bow of Elam”) and Hos 1:5 (“I will break Israel’s bow”), one can support the idea of understanding “bow” in this context.

48:28 like a dove. The Moabites are compared to doves that build their nests in places difficult to reach. The Moabites are to flee the comforts of settled living in the city and become fugitives who flee from danger and have to live in rock clefts and crevices. The Arnon Gorge, with its caves, crevices and high cliffs, most likely provides the background to this statement.

48:31 Kir Hareseth. This city perhaps served as a capital city of ancient Moab. It is identified with modern-day Kerak, which sits atop a mountain about 3,000 feet (915 meters) above sea level. It is 16 miles (25.7 kilometers) south of the Arnon River and 11 miles (17.7 kilometers) east of the Dead Sea.

48:37 Each of the actions described here are common mourning practices in the ancient Near East. See the article “Mourning.”

48:41 Kerioth. The Hebrew term can also be translated “the cities” (see the NIV text note). Despite this possibility, it is also possible to understand a place-name here that refers to a fortified town in Moab. The prophet Amos speaks of the “fortresses of Kerioth” (Am 2:2). Though Kerioth has not been identified with certainty, a possible candidate is el-Qereiyat, located northwest of Dibon.

48:45 Sihon. Probably the name of the king of the Amorites, whose capital city was Heshbon. This would be the same Sihon who was defeated by Moses and the Israelites prior to their entry into the promised land (Nu 21:21–31). Most of the towns mentioned previously in ch. 48 would have been under this king’s control at one time or another. Perhaps the name Sihon is being applied to the territory that King Sihon once ruled.

49:1 Ammonites. A tribal group that lived just to the north of Moab in the Transjordan region (see note on Dt 2:19). The capital city was Rabbah (see note on v. 2). The kingdom of Ammon came under the control of the Babylonians during the sixth century BC. This situation was perhaps precipitated because of Ammonite complicity in the murder of Gedaliah, who was appointed by the Babylonians as governor of Judah (see note on 40:14). The Babylonians conquered Ammon, but retained the Ammonite king. Though some have argued that after the Babylonian destruction the Ammonites continued to inhabit the area, more recent studies indicate that only a few remained after this defeat. Molek. See notes on 7:31; 1Ki 11:5.

49:2 Rabbah. The capital city of the Ammonite tribal group. It is also known as “Rabbah of the children of Ammon.” Rabbah has been identified as Jebel Qalʿah (modern Citadel Hill), which sits in the middle of the modern city of Amman, Jordan, 25 miles (40 kilometers) east of the Jordan River. This city was also strategically located on commercial crossroads that went north-south and east-west.

49:3 Heshbon. Jeremiah obviously considers Heshbon as being important for both Moab and Ammon. Since both countries will suffer destruction, Heshbon is mentioned in both messages (see note on 48:2). Ai. This Ai must be distinguished from the more well-known Ai located east of Bethel, across the Jordan River from Ammon. The location of the Ai mentioned here is still uncertain. The name in Hebrew means “heap of ruins.” There is a modern town named Ai in the Kerak region that is about 1.25 miles (2 kilometers) southeast of Kathrabba, Jordan. It is possible that Jeremiah has this town in mind, or he may have used the name to conjure up the image of a heap or ruins. Rabbah. See note on v. 2. sackcloth. See note on 4:8; see also the article “Mourning.”

49:7 Edom. Located on a high plateau that sits about 6,600 feet (2,012 meters) above sea level. It is a rugged mountainous region that extended approximately from the River Zered in the north to the Gulf of Aqaba in the south. It extends from the Arabah Valley in the west to the Syrian-Arabian Desert in the east. See notes on Ge 36:9; Ps 137:7; Isa 21:11 (“Dumah”). Teman. It can mean “south” or “southland” in Hebrew; it is also a proper name, as attested in Ob 9. It seems to refer both to a city and to a region. In this context we suggest that it designates the northeast region of Edom, whose capital city was Bozrah (see note on v. 13).

49:8 Dedan. Dedan has been identified with a site called al-Khuraybah, next to modern al-’Ula, which is located about 50 miles (80 kilometers) southwest of modern Teima. It is an important northwestern Arabian oasis. Dedan was primarily known for its involvement in caravan trade. It was the merchants and caravan traders that drew the anger of the Hebrew prophets (Isa 21:13 and Eze 38:13).

49:13 Bozrah. A capital city of Edom, it is identified with a mountain site near Buseira in modern Jordan. Located about 20 miles (32 kilometers) southeast of the Dead Sea, Bozrah was strategically located at the crossroads of the King’s Highway, which goes north-south, and another major east-west commercial road. It was a fortified town that covered about 19 acres (7.7 hectares). The town was fortified with a wall and had a significant administrative center. All evidence uncovered dates Bozrah to the Late Iron Age. There is also evidence of destruction of public buildings by fire. Presumably Nebuchadnezzar was responsible for this, though some suggest that there is no concluding proof for such a supposition. The evidence also suggests that after this destructive fire, Bozrah was abandoned.

49:23 Damascus. The capital city of Aram (Syria) from about the tenth to the eighth centuries BC. In this context the name represents the entire nation. Damascus was a constant threat to the northern kingdom of Israel until it was defeated by Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria in 732 BC. This Assyrian king declares in a building inscription from this time period that he destroyed 592 towns of the 16 districts of the country of Damascus. Damascus remained under Assyrian control until the middle of the seventh century BC. With the collapse of the Assyrian Empire in the late seventh century BC, Damascus seems to have gained a degree of independence that was short-lived. After the Babylonians defeated the Egyptians in the battle of Carchemish in 605 BC, effectively sealing Assyria’s fate, Damascus came under Babylonian control. By 599–598 BC the Syrian army joined the Babylonian army to begin a series of attacks on Judah (2Ki 24:2). Hamath. An ancient city in Syria identified with modern Hama, located 209 miles (336 kilometers) north of Damascus on the east bank of the Orontes River. This city in antiquity was the center of an independent kingdom. As with Judah and the other states in the Syro-Palestinian area, Hamath fell under the oppression of the Assyrians. Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Hamath in 740 BC. Later on, Sargon II (721–705 BC) destroyed the city completely; this same king had destroyed Samaria a year earlier. Years later Pharaoh Necho occupied the “land of Hamath,” before the battle of Carchemish (see note on 46:2; see also the article “Historical Setting of Jeremiah”). The Babylonian Chronicle reports that Nebuchadnezzar intercepted the Egyptians at Hamath as they fled from Carchemish in 605 BC. Arpad. This city is identified with modern Tell Rif’at, which is located about 22 miles (35 kilometers) north of Aleppo. It is an Aramean city in northwestern Syria. Archaeological excavations show Assyrian presence in Arpad during the seventh century BC and Neo-Babylonian presence during the sixth century BC. Both in the Hebrew Bible and in Assyrian documents Arpad and Hamath are mentioned together.

49:27 Ben-Hadad. The name of at least two rulers of Damascus. However, during Jeremiah’s time no king by that name ruled in Damascus. The expression “fortresses of Ben-Hadad” must be understood in the same way as one understands the “house of Omri” to refer to the northern kingdom of Israel, or the “house of David” to refer to the united kingdom of Israel. Ben-Hadad here is synonymous with the Syrian royal house.

49:28 Kedar. Designates a group of nomadic Arabian tribes (see note on 2:10). This tribal group is mentioned often in Mesopotamian texts from different periods, such as Assyrian annals that come from the times of Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC), Sargon II (721–705 BC), Sennacherib (704–681 BC) and Esarhaddon (681–669 BC). This group of tribes suffered the military incursions of both Assyrian and Babylonian armies. In fact, they caused trouble for Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon, which in turn provoked a Babylonian attack on the Arabian tribes. Hazor. Here does not refer to the well-known city that lies just north of the Sea of Galilee but most likely refers to a region inhabited by the hazerim, a group of desert tribesmen who lived east and southeast of Palestine.

49:33 haunt of jackals. Jeremiah uses this expression to portray a context of absolute desolation and devastation (see note on 9:11). The irony is that the king of Babylon will transform a desert region into an even more desolate place. This language of devastation is common throughout the ancient Near East. In a Sumerian text that had its origins in the third millennium BC known as the “Lament Over the Destruction of Sumer and Ur,” vocabulary such as abandoned, haunted, destroyed, piled corpses, melted away and ravaged is used over and over again.

49:34 Elam. Located in the fertile hill country east of the Tigris River. It lay opposite southern Babylonia and occupied what is known as Iran today. Susa was its capital and most important city. The Elamites and the ancient Medes occupied this territory during the seventh century BC. They were known as skilled archers. From the seventh century BC on they were in constant conflict with the Assyrians. In 645 BC Ashurbanipal decisively defeated the Elamites, but by 612 BC Assyria had collapsed and Elam came under the control of the Medes. We have no extra-Biblical evidence of Elam’s existence as a nation during the Neo-Babylonian period. Jeremiah is the only Hebrew prophet to pronounce a prophecy against this faraway country.

49:36 the four winds. The metaphor of strong winds sent by the deity is one of total judgment and destruction. There are similar expressions in the “Lament Over the Destruction of Ur,” a text probably composed in the late third or early second millennium BC. In that text we read of the god Enlil unleashing the burning, evil winds that will devastate the land.

50:1 Babylon. The capital city of Babylonia. The city of Babylon was located in antiquity on the Euphrates River, about 55 miles (88 kilometers) south of modern-day Baghdad, Iraq, close to the modern town of Hilla. The ancient city straddled this river and was connected by a stone bridge. It covered about three square miles (7.8 square kilometers).

Babylon was also the name given to the entire southern region of Mesopotamia that lies between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and goes to the Persian Gulf. During Jeremiah’s time, this area was also known as Chaldea. The Chaldeans are primarily associated with the Babylonians who lived during what is known as the Neo-Babylonian Empire (625–539 BC). Though Babylon already existed during the third millennium BC, it did not gain importance until the time of King Hammurapi (1792–1750 BC) during the First Dynasty of Babylon.

Babylon’s time of greatest power and achievement took place during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar (605–562 BC). During his reign Jerusalem was destroyed and many of its inhabitants were exiled to Babylonia. Nebuchadnezzar is famous for his building projects. He built a special temple to the god Marduk, as well as a large outer wall with a moat in front of the wall to protect the city. Nebuchadnezzar is also famous for the Ishtar Gate that he erected and decorated lavishly, which stood at the entrance of the city. He speaks of himself as a great builder and leader of the country.

Babylon’s glory days came to an end when it was defeated by Cyrus, king of Persia, in 539 BC. This defeat was accomplished with relatively little killing, destruction or looting. Records tell us that Cyrus was aided by a group of unhappy priests of the chief god Marduk and by Babylonians who opposed the way King Nabonidus (556–539 BC) was leading the country.

50:2 Bel . . . Marduk. The Hebrew term bel is a cognate of the Akkadian belu, which essentially means “lord.” It is also related to the Canaanite baal, which also means “lord.” At some point during the second millennium BC, the title Bel was transferred to the Babylonian chief deity, Marduk (see note on Isa 46:1). Until that time it had been reserved for the Sumerian storm-god Enlil, who was the chief god of the Akkadian pantheon. However, with the rise of the city of Babylon to prominence in Mesopotamia, particularly during the Neo-Babylonian period (625–539 BC), the Babylonian patron deity Marduk became known as Bel Marduk. In this context it is clear that Bel and Marduk are one and the same deity. Jeremiah’s comments regarding Marduk’s shame may have been fulfilled in the time of King Nabonidus (556–539 BC), who was not loyal to Marduk to the point of leaving Marduk out of the New Year’s procession. This process of loss of power and status was completed with the Persian defeat of the city of Babylon.

50:3 nation from the north. This is reminiscent of the vision that was part of Jeremiah’s call (see note on 1:13), where a foe from the north (Babylon) would come to destroy Jerusalem. The matter now is turned around 180 degrees. Babylon itself will be attacked from the north. As it turns out, Babylon too seems to have been most vulnerable from the north. Her defeat came at the hands of a coalition of Persians and Medes, who came from the north.

50:19 Carmel and Bashan . . . Ephraim and Gilead. Jeremiah speaks here of the restoration of Israel by mentioning four non-Babylonian sites known for possessing not only the richest pastureland in all of Israel but also the best vineyards and agricultural fields. Carmel. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, it designates a region of hills covered with dense vegetation (see note on 46:18). Bashan. The northeastern region in the Transjordan area known for its fertile soil and impressive oak trees (see note on 22:20). Ephraim. Also known as the northern kingdom of Israel, it is known for its fertile soil and for possessing ideal conditions for the cultivation of grapes and various other products such as wheat, fruit and vegetables (see note on 4:15). Gilead. It is known for its medicinal plants (see notes on 8:22; 22:6).

50:21 Merathaim. This term is a derogatory name that Jeremiah uses for Babylon. This Hebrew word means “double rebellion.” However, the use of this term here is most likely intended as a wordplay on the Akkadian term marratum, which literally means “bitter,” as in salt water, and which designates the region in southern Babylonia where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers converge at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. This is a marshy area where the river waters mix in with the salt water of the Persian Gulf. This certainly is an appropriate meaning and image for this prophecy of doom for the Babylonians. They too will suffer in bitterness—the same kind of bitterness they inflicted on so many other peoples. Pekod. The name of an important Aramean tribe that settled along the east bank of the lower Tigris River. The name also denotes this region where the tribe lived, which is centered between the sealand in the south and the Diyala River in the north. In Babylonian sources this tribe is known by the name of Pukudu, who are mentioned along with their governor in “The Court of Nebuchadnezzar” document. Pekod and Merathaim together represent the entire nation of Babylonia. The Hebrew term for Pekod can mean “to punish,” which means that Jeremiah is once again using a play on words. The entire nation of Babylonia will be punished for its atrocities and will suffer in bitterness.

50:43 The king of Babylon has heard reports. This description seems to fits the situation that surrounded King Nabonidus (556–539 BC), the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He was a dedicated worshiper of the moon-god Sin. This created a number of problems for the Babylonian priests of the sun-god Marduk, who became unhappy with Nabonidus.

The Babylonian king neglected Babylon, to the point of restoring a sanctuary to the god Sin at Harran. He then spent ten years in his Arabian capital at Teima, leaving his son Belshazzar as regent in Babylon. By the time Nabonidus returned, he was close to 70 years old. He made a weak attempt at restoring worship and loyalty to the god Marduk, the patron deity of Babylonia. He also sought to fortify the city of Babylon, along with outlying areas, for he knew by then that the Persians were on the move.

All of this proved to be too little too late. He no longer had the support of the political or religious leadership of Babylon, who by this time welcomed the invasion of the Persians. Cyrus king of Persia (539–530 BC) advanced against Babylon in 539 BC. Cyrus defeated resistance forces at Opis and Sippar, and then entered Babylon, apparently without doing battle (see note on v. 1), on Oct. 13, 539 BC. It is possible, however, to view the defeat of Babylon as the end of a long period of violent border battles, including bloody battles at Opis and Sippar. Nabonidus may have been taken away to Persia, where he would have lived his last days.

51:1 Leb Kamai. Means lit. “the heart of those who rise against me.” But though this may be part of what Jeremiah wants to communicate, there is something else behind this name. This is a cryptogram known as atbash (see note on 25:26). In this case Leb Kamai is used to disguise the name Caldea. The equivalent transliterated Hebrew letters work as follows: lbqmy (Leb Kamai) is equal to ksdym (Caldea). Jeremiah writes this perhaps in order to provoke Babylon.

51:8 Get balm for her pain. This metaphor describes somebody who is deathly ill. Babylon is personified as a patient near death (cf. the parallel with Judah’s situation described in 30:12–15). The request for balm as medicine is understandable in this context. The Mesopotamian prescription texts inform us that most of the medical treatment practiced in Babylon consisted of herbal remedies. balm. See note on 8:22.

51:11 kings of the Medes. The Medes were originally a federation of Indo-European tribes that migrated into the highlands east of Babylonia, in present-day northwestern Iran (see note on Isa 13:17). They came to this area in the early Iron Age (c. 1200 BC) and became a kingdom in the eighth century BC with the capital in the ancient city of Ecbatana. In 614 BC, they attacked Ashur. Two years later, the Medes, led by their king Cyaxares, joined the Babylonians and defeated the Neo-Assyrian capital of Nineveh. This enabled them to expand their territory westward to the Halys River. By the end of the seventh century BC, Media had positioned itself as one of the four principal powers of the ancient Near East, along with Babylonia, Lydia and Egypt. By the middle of the sixth century BC, Cyrus the Great, by defeating Astyages, king of Media, with one stroke brought the Medes under the control of the Persian Empire. As far as the documentation that is available, both written and otherwise, we do not know of an independent Median attack on Babylon.

51:27 Ararat. One of three northern nations, along with Minni and Ashkenaz, mentioned by Jeremiah that wielded significant military power. The territory denoted by Ararat is found in Assyrian cuneiform texts, where it is called Urartu. It encompasses a large territory in east Anatolia (eastern Asia Minor, i.e., Turkey) near Lake Van (see note on Isa 37:38). It rose to power in the ninth century BC, when Assyria was weak, and it was able to hold its own until the sixth century BC. Urartu suffered a significant defeat at the hands of the Assyrian king Sargon II in 714 BC. After this defeat, Urartian royal inscriptions became much less abundant. Early in the sixth century BC, Urartu was first defeated by a coalition of Medes and Scythians (585 BC) and then was passed over to the Persians when they defeated the Medes. The Urartian kings, particularly in the early period (mid-ninth century BC), were constantly involved in building projects. They are known for their outstanding stone-working abilities. Minni. A second military power (in addition to Ararat) summoned by Yahweh to punish the Babylonians. They are to be identified with the Manneans, who lived north of Assyria and just south of Lake Urmia in present-day northwest Iran. This is the only mention of them in the OT. Just as Judah was caught between the Mesopotamian and Egyptian powers, Minni was caught between the conquering wishes of Assyria and Urartu (Ararat). The attested history of the Manneans begins with the reign of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC) and ends with the fall of the Assyrian Empire. At that time they were brought under Median control and were eventually absorbed by the Persian Empire. Ashkenaz. A territory north of Ararat and Minni between the Black and Caspian Seas. Its people are referred to as the Ishkuzas in Assyrian texts but are known as Scythians in classical sources. These ancient nomads were fierce warriors who were also good horse breeders. They spoke an Indo-European language, and by the sixth century BC first came under the power of the Median Empire and later, like the Urartians and the Manneans, were absorbed by the Persians. Ashkenaz was perhaps the only real threat to Babylon of the three nations mentioned.

51:28 kings of the Medes. See note on v. 11.

51:32 river crossings seized. Military objectives always include control of the fords of streams and rivers (see Jdg 3:28; 12:5). In this way, communication lines are cut, armies can no longer take the most direct route and are prevented from flanking an enemy force. One of the major fords across the Tigris River came under the control of the Persians when they took the city of Opis a few weeks before Babylon fell. They took Sippar on the Euphrates River just a few days later. By the possession of these two cities, the Persians could effectively cut off any supplies coming down either the Tigris or Euphrates. It would have been extremely demoralizing to the Babylonians to hear that they were becoming increasingly isolated from their allies as well as the towns and villages that supplied their food and raw materials. This report might well be compared to the progressively negative reports chronicled in the Lachish letters during Nebuchadnezzar’s 598 BC campaign in Judah. marshes set on fire. In addition to the wall systems, towers and other typical defensive installations, Babylon was also protected by a number of ditches and pools, designed to slow or stop enemy advance to the city. Within these pools or bordering them were canebrakes. If these were set on fire, they would have added to the sense of peril for the city’s inhabitants, and the smoke would have masked enemy movements and intensified the breathing difficulties for the people downwind. The fires would also have flushed out any sentries or advance troops that the Babylonians might have stationed along these water obstructions.

51:37 haunt of jackals. See note on 49:33.

51:41 Sheshak. This is a cryptogram for Babylon (see note on 25:26).

51:44 Bel. A Babylonian deity (see note on 50:2).

51:58 Babylon’s thick wall will be leveled. The city of Babylon was surrounded by two large, thick walls. This kind of construction is referred to as a casemate wall. The inner wall of the city of Babylon was about 21 feet (6.4 meters) thick, while the outer wall measured about 12 feet (3.7 meters) thick. These walls were not made of stone, as in Israel, but were built with bricks. Clay is a natural and common commodity in the region. The older inner wall was made of sunbaked brick. Nebuchadnezzar built a new system of walls farther to the south and east out of baked bricks. He also had a protective moat dug around the wall and filled it with water, and he enhanced the security with a system of artificial lakes and flooded areas. There were a number of gates along the wall. The most famous gate is the Ishtar Gate, enameled in brilliant blue and decorated with lions and dragons. The walls were fortified with 250 towers. Jeremiah declares that even this impressive defensive structure and system would not be enough to stop the enemy. We know from historical sources that the Persians invaded Babylon without engaging in battle (see notes on 50:1, 43).

52:1 Zedekiah . . . reigned in Jerusalem eleven years. See note on 21:1; see also the article “Historical Setting of Jeremiah.”

52:7 Then the city wall was broken through. See “Historical Setting of Jeremiah.” The Babylonian army had systematically defeated all the surrounding fortified towns of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar now advanced against Jerusalem. During its final siege, the king and his army seem to have built a siege wall rather than a siege ramp. A text from Esarhaddon king of Assyria (681–669 BC) uses a cognate Assyrian term to speak of a siege wall. In this historical record Esarhaddon claims that his soldiers climbed over the siege wall to do battle. As the Babylonian army was finishing the siege wall, famine weakened and demoralized the inhabitants of Jerusalem (see the article “Siege Warfare”). When the Babylonians were able to pass through or over the protective wall of Jerusalem, the Judahite army fled along with King Zedekiah and his bodyguard. They fled south and east, hoping to cross the Jordan River into Moab or Ammon to seek protection (see note on 39:4).

52:12 Nebuzaradan commander of the imperial guard. The title of this commander means lit. “chief of the cooks.” This person is also known to us from a text called “The Court of Nebuchadnezzar,” in which he is also listed as the chief cook. He seems to have been responsible for food distribution, for organizing the exile and for destroying Jerusalem. The common practice among Babylonian and Assyrian armies was to burn down the major public buildings, which included the temple and the protective walls surrounding the city. There is evidence of this burning during 586 BC. The “Burnt House” in the so-called house of Ahiel is one example of the destruction by fire led by Nebuzaradan.

52:18 We have no extra-Biblical sources that list the number of items plundered from Jerusalem by the Babylonians. The list here no doubt reflects the one found in 1Ki 7:13–51. It would be impossible for the writer to have access to a formal list of plundered items, assuming that one was written up at all.

52:28 This is the number of the people . . . carried into exile. The exile of the Judahites to Babylon took place in three stages. The numbers listed here would seem to include only adult men, to the exclusion of women and children (who no doubt were carried off to Babylon as well). A total of 4,600 adult men were carried away to Babylon. These represented the most qualified and skilled people of the land of Palestine, but not a large percentage of the total population.

52:31 Jehoiachin. He had been in exile for 37 years. At this time he is released from prison and given a place of honor beside Awel-Marduk, the king of Babylon (562–560 BC). Jehoiachin’s release occurs about 561/560 BC. See notes on 13:18; 24:1. The Biblical text also implies there were other exiled kings in Babylonia. The document known as “The Court of Nebuchadnezzar” mentions the kings of Tyre, Gaza, Sidon, Arvad, Ashdod and others. Awel-Marduk. In Hebrew the name can mean “Foolish Marduk.” This may be a pejorative way of referring to the Babylonian king. His Babylonian name is Amel-Marduk, which means “man of Marduk.” He was the son and successor of Nebuchadnezzar. He only ruled for two years and was assassinated by Neriglissar, who took over the throne and ruled from 560–556 BC.