Annotations for Philippians

1:1 Paul and Timothy. Writers sometimes named other mutual friends as coauthors even if they did not contribute much to the letter. servants. Those who served important figures sometimes wielded great influence (see note on Ro 1:1). holy people. “Holy people” had been applied to God’s people in earlier Scripture (see, e.g., Da 7:18, 21–27). overseers. See note on 1Ti 3:1. deacons. see note on 1Ti 3:8.

1:2 Grace and peace . . . Lord Jesus Christ. See note on Ro 1:7.

1:3 I thank my God. Affectionate ancient letters sometimes included thanks to a deity for the recipient.

1:4 I always pray with joy. Affectionate ancient letters often mentioned the author’s joy when receiving news about the recipient.

1:5 partnership. People often used the Greek term for financial sharing, relevant here (4:10–20).

1:6 being confident of this. Affectionate letters often expressed confidence in the receiver. the day of Christ Jesus. Recognizing Jesus’ deity, Paul looks toward the day of Christ Jesus as OT prophets spoke of the day of the Lord (see note on 1Co 1:8).

1:7 I have you in my heart. Letters between friends often emphasized that each shared the other’s sorrows. Paul’s defense and vindication for the gospel would also have relevance for their security (see note on v. 25). I am in chains. Most people were ashamed to be associated with anyone chained or in custody of the Roman government. This might be particularly the case in Philippi, which emphasized its close ties with Rome, and where Paul had already been publicly charged with undermining order and the Roman customs of which Philippi was particularly proud (Ac 16:20–22).

1:8 God can testify. Invoking a deity to testify constituted an oath, which invited the deity’s judgment if the person invoked the deity falsely (cf. Ex 20:7). I long for all of you. Letters to friends often expressed affection and yearning to see and/or hear from the recipient.

1:12–26 Letters often filled in readers on recent news. After a basic introduction, many works also traced the events that led to their writing. Many urban people knew the view, commonly articulated by philosophers, that only one’s outlook mattered, not secondary issues beyond one’s control such as imprisonment and death. People would thus respect Paul’s approach, though his reasons are specifically Christian: God uses our suffering for his honor (vv. 12–14; a view shared with the OT and ancient Jewish thinkers), and death brings believers a fuller experience of Christ (vv. 21, 23).

1:13 palace guard. Although Paul was often imprisoned (2Co 11:23) and the Greek term translated “palace guard” could refer to a governor’s palace (as in Ac 23:35), it probably does refer to the Praetorian Guard (cf. Ac 28:16; cf. also “Caesar’s household” in Php 4:22). To protect the emperor’s monopoly on power, policy prohibited armies in Italy. Instead, the emperor’s elite guard, commanded by a prefect who was legally barred from becoming emperor, served this function. This Praetorian Guard consisted of several thousand free Italian soldiers in 12 cohorts of as many as a thousand each; although members were deployed elsewhere in Rome, their camp lay in the city’s eastern suburbs. They received the best wages of all Roman soldiers and normally had the most secure conditions; moreover, they were treated as clients of the emperor (thus part of his extended household; cf. 4:22). Such factors helped ensure their loyalty.

1:15 out of envy and rivalry. Men in ancient Mediterranean urban culture often vied for honor. others out of goodwill. Ancient writers and speakers sometimes outlined alternatives before elaborating them (vv. 16–17).

1:18 what does it matter? Stoic philosophers regarded imprisonment and other matters beyond one’s control as peripheral issues; what really mattered was one’s attitude. The important thing is that . . . Christ is preached. Although men often competed for honor, Paul’s desire is Christ’s honor, not his own. rejoice . . . rejoice. Repeating a word or phrase could be used to emphasize it (cf. 4:4).

1:19 will turn out for my deliverance. Paul’s phrase here follows the common Greek translation of Job 13:16; Paul sees God as his defender here. deliverance. Here means survival and release from custody (vv. 24–26).

1:20–23 whether by life or by death . . . what shall I choose? . . . I am torn between the two. Ancient speakers sometimes contemplated their options in front of their audiences. Philosophers often argued that death was simply annihilation (after which one would not regret it) or the soul moving to a different place. One should thus use reason to decide whether it was best to welcome it or reject it. Paul knows that death remains an evil (1Co 15:26), but also recognizes that death allows an undistracted experience of Christ (2Co 5:4–10). Many Judeans believed that the souls of the righteous dead stayed in heaven until their future bodily resurrection. Gentile thinkers often claimed they wanted to die and so be free from sufferings; although Biblical prayers were normally for survival (Ps 30:9), the discouraged sometimes lamented living (1Ki 19:4; Job 3:1–26; Jer 15:10; 20:14–18). Paul, however, is not discouraged here; his concern is what is best for the church.

1:24 more necessary for you. Speakers commonly cited “necessity” as a reason for a choice; in ancient sources, a writer who affirmed that he clung to life for another’s sake thereby also demonstrated love for them.

1:25 for your progress and joy in the faith. Thinkers often spoke of progress in moral or intellectual growth. Paul’s primary incentive may be to continue teaching God’s people. The outcome of his trial, however, also could have legal implications for some members of his audience. Although the church would also include resident aliens (such as Lydia, Ac 16:14), the church’s most influential members would be citizens of Philippi. And because Philippi was a Roman colony, its citizens were automatically citizens of Rome (see note on 3:20), with special legal protections. Because Paul was also a Christian Roman citizen, the sentence in his case could set a legal precedent that could be followed for citizens in Philippi as well. Philippi imitated Rome in every way it could. In AD 62 Nero’s court freed Jewish hostages that the procurator Felix had earlier sent to Rome; Paul was probably also freed at this time (see note on Ac 28:30).

1:27 conduct yourselves. The Greek term often meant “as citizens” (see note on 3:20). striving together. May be an athletic image (see note on v. 30). as one. Speakers often summoned people to unity.

1:28 they will be destroyed . . . you will be saved. Both Scripture and Jewish tradition promised that God would someday deliver his people and destroy their oppressors (e.g., Isa 66:14–16).

1:29 On the privilege of suffering for Christ, see note on Ac 5:41; on suffering before the end (cf. v. 28), see note on 2Th 1:5.

1:30 struggle. The Greek term was often an athletic image; ancient thinkers often used such images to depict their own labors for truth. The earliest members of the Philippian church witnessed Paul’s struggle in Ac 16:19–39.

2:1–30 Teachers and writers often urged unity (as here and 1:27–30). For this and other issues they also offered examples to illustrate their points. Paul cites Jesus (vv. 5–11), himself (vv. 17–18), Timothy (vv. 19–24) and Epaphroditus (vv. 25–30).

2:1–4 Competition for honor was heavy in Roman society, a behavior if anything more pronounced in Philippi. Paul borrows language common in ancient exhortations to harmony.

2:1 if you have any . . . tenderness and compassion. Writers sometimes appealed to their readers’ affection to invite a particular course of action.

2:4 not looking to your own interests. Paul can appeal to a common value here. Despite the prominence of rivalry, ancient thinkers often urged their hearers to prefer the larger good to one’s own.

2:5 have the same mindset as Christ Jesus. Some thinkers emphasized embracing the truth, the divine perspective on reality. Jesus here submits to the Father’s will, humbling himself. Writers often put forward positive examples, as Paul does here; note also Paul himself (v. 17), Timothy (vv. 20–22), and Epaphroditus (vv. 29–30). Yet Paul may also mean something more than an example; ancient thinkers sometimes spoke of sharing the divine mind, or, as Paul means, being deeply influenced by it (cf. Ro 8:5–7; 1Co 2:16).

2:6–11 Most scholars believe that Paul here uses an earlier hymn; Greeks often quoted poetry. Nevertheless, the matter remains debated; ancient writers and speakers often used exalted prose, sometimes even with rhythm, to describe deities.

2:6 did not consider equality with God something to be used to his own advantage. Scholars often contrast the first Adam who, not content with being made in God’s image (Ge 1:26–27), wanted to become divine (Ge 3:5). (For background on Adam, see the article “Adam in Jewish Tradition,” see also notes on 1Co 15:45–49.) Likewise, Nero, the emperor before whose court Paul would soon be tried, wanted to be regarded as divine. Scholars also often compare Hellenistic Jewish emphasis on divine Wisdom as God’s image (see note on 2Co 4:4).

2:7 he made himself nothing. Since this phrase sometimes can also mean “emptied himself” (cf. the image in v. 17), some compare this action with the servant who poured out his life in death in Isa 53:12 (cf. Php 2:8), though Paul’s language is different and in this verse he refers to Christ becoming human. The behavior runs contrary to all behavior expected of persons of status in antiquity, who barely ever would eat with their servants, much less act like one of them (cf. Jn 13:5).

2:8 to death—even death on a cross! Repeating a word (in this case, “death”) could be used to emphasize it. Romans executed people of low status naked, by slow torture, on a cross; the cross epitomized shameful death.

2:10 bow. As one did before kings and deities; Paul takes the language here from Isa 45:23. in heaven and on earth and under the earth. Paul elaborates those who will bow. Greeks spoke of deities in these three realms (plus the sea). Whatever and wherever beings are, they must ultimately acknowledge the exalted Lord. in heaven. Those such as angels (including hostile rulers, see note on Eph 1:21). under the earth. Although some thinking had changed, Greek myths located the spirits of most of the dead “under the earth”; they lived only as shadows.

2:11 every tongue acknowledge. Paul slightly adjusts his quotation of Isa 45:23 in vv. 10–11, applying directly to Jesus a text about all peoples finally recognizing that Israel’s God alone is true. Lord. Like the title “God,” this was a divine title (cf. 1Co 8:6).

2:12 not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence. People often viewed letters as mediating the author’s presence (cf. 1Co 5:3–4). work out your salvation with fear and trembling. Jewish texts often paired fear and trembling (e.g., Ps 2:11; 55:5).

2:14 grumbling. May evoke Israel’s rebellious spirit in the wilderness (cf. 1Co 10:10).

2:15 warped and crooked generation. Paul cites Dt 32:5, which warns that the Israelites, who acted thus, were not God’s children—in contrast to “children of God” in the present verse. shine among them like stars in the sky. Jewish sources often compared the righteous with lights; the present passage evokes especially the comparison of the resurrected righteous with stars in Da 12:3. Believers experience a foretaste of the future (cf. 2Co 1:22; Heb 6:5).

2:16 the day of Christ. See note on 1:6. run. See note on 1:30. labor in vain. Others in antiquity also sometimes noted that they feared the possibility of laboring in vain.

2:17 drink offering. A familiar image, both in OT libations (e.g., Lev 23:18, 37) and those of Gentiles. Gentiles even poured them in memory of the deceased and, most often, at the beginning of banquets. One could pour water or other fluids but wine was most common.

2:19 send Timothy . . . receive news about you. Travelers regularly carried news and letters.

2:20 I have no one else like him. Although those who wrote letters of recommendation (see note on Ac 9:2) occasionally offered superlative recommendations for more than one person, they were still very rare and noteworthy.

2:22 as a son with his father he has served with me. The strongest letters of recommendation often said, “Receive this person as you would me”; envoys were to be received that way as well. Teachers often viewed close disciples as their sons, though even among Paul’s close associates, his relationship with Timothy was special.

2:23 I hope . . . to send him. Because news was sent with travelers and travel could be hazardous, Paul will not send his next report (after this letter, carried by Epaphroditus) until he has more decisive news.

2:24 I myself will come soon. Letters often included travel plans. Affectionate letters often expressed a desire to be together.

2:25 Epaphroditus. This may be Epaphras (a short form of the same name), who was also with Paul in Rome for a time (Col 4:12; Phm 23), but Epaphroditus was a very common name. fellow soldier. Military images were common (see note on Ro 13:12). whom you sent to take care of my needs. It was not safe to send money with people one did not trust; Epaphroditus therefore made the voyage on behalf of the Philippians, bringing their gift to Paul in Rome (4:18).

2:27 he was ill, and almost died. Both travelers and letters carried news about health. Travel conditions were hazardous, especially at sea in late fall and early spring, and these conditions decreased one’s resistance to antiquity’s many diseases. Typhoid fever and especially malaria were common. God had mercy on him. Gentiles prayed for healing to Asclepius and other deities; Jewish people regularly prayed to God for this, sometimes describing it as mercy. Scripture often reports healings, but recognizes that they did not always happen (2Ki 13:14; cf. 1Ki 1:1; 14:4).

2:29 welcome him in the Lord. A person of status would often write a letter of recommendation for a person who could carry it to another person of status from whom the recommended needed a favor. Although Epaphroditus may not need the recommendation, Paul recommends him anyway in this letter that he sends back with him.

2:30 risked. Some interpreters suggest a wordplay: gamblers often used this Greek term and called on the patron goddess of gambling with the term “epaphroditus.” “Risked” also appears widely, however, outside gambling contexts.

3:1–4:1 Noting that 3:1–4:1 changes the subject substantially, some earlier scholars supposed that ancient scribes mixed up two ancient letters of Paul, adding 3:1–4:1 inside the rest of Philippians. Even aside from clear literary connections between this section and the rest of Philippians, ancient letter-writing practices render this speculation extremely unlikely. First, the earliest scrolls did not have separate pages allowing such confusion; second, if such confusion occurred in a later codex (paged book), it should not have occurred in all surviving codices; third, if such an error did occur, one would not expect clean sentence breaks from 2:30 to 4:2, since pages were not coordinated with sentences; and finally, digressions are common throughout ancient literature and speeches.

3:1 to write the same things to you again. Speakers and writers would often remind hearers of a point and/or repeat it if they thought it needed to be reinforced.

3:2 Watch out for . . . those mutilators of the flesh. In Greek, Paul repeats here “Watch out for” three times; speakers used such repetition to reinforce a point. Philippi’s Jewish community was small (Ac 16:13), so those advocating circumcision here (cf. v. 3) are traveling teachers such as those in Gal 1:7; 4:17; 5:12; 6:12–13. Scholars debate whether Paul offers a warning before these false teachers arrive or he has heard of their arrival. those dogs. Some Romans posted warnings similar to modern “Beware of dog” signs. People often insulted others by calling them dogs, sometimes implying vulgar public sexual or excretory habits (the way that “Cynic” sages—i.e., “dogs”—got their title). Philosophers considered those ruled by passions “beasts,” and Jews could so depict oppressors (Ps 22:16; 59:6). More important in criticism of those promoting circumcision, as some Gentile homes used dogs as pets, Judeans viewed them more like scavenging rodents. Jewish people viewed dogs as unclean and sometimes sexually immoral (cf. male cult prostitutes in Dt 23:17–18). Paul thus depicts these conservative Jewish proponents of circumcision as unclean by Jewish standards. mutilators. A wordplay: mutilation (cutting something up) is katatomê, and in v. 3 circumcision is peritomê; for the idea, see note on Gal 5:12.

3:3 we who serve God by his Spirit. Scripture urged God’s people to circumcise their hearts (Dt 10:16), and promised that God would someday circumcise their hearts (Dt 30:6). For Paul, experiencing the new heart promised in the new covenant by the Spirit (Jer 31:33; Eze 36:26–27), counted more than the mere external sign of the older covenant. Paul’s term translated “serve” here normally means “worship” or serve as in a temple; the Spirit empowers the purest worship (cf. 1Ch 25:1–6; see note on Jn 4:24). Apart from Essenes, ancient Jewish teachers barely ever claimed to experience God’s Spirit.

3:4–6 Lists of virtues and/or advantages were common, including when praising someone. Speakers often reasoned by comparing figures, under appropriate circumstances, even comparing oneself with others. Praising oneself was deemed acceptable if the grounds were justifiable, such as refuting others’ grounds for boasting.

3:5 When Gentiles listed praiseworthy features of a person, they often began with the person’s background, upbringing, and education (cf. Ac 22:3). circumcised on the eighth day. Indicates Paul’s birth into the people of Israel. Jewish society ranked converts lower than those born Jewish (Ge 17:12; Lev 12:3). in regard to the law, a Pharisee. Pharisees were known for scrupulous interpretation of the law and following their traditions; they lived in the Holy Land, especially near Jerusalem.

3:6 as for zeal, persecuting the church. Some common models for Jewish zeal for the law, such as Phinehas and the Maccabees, used violence; one faction of the Judean revolt was known as Zealots (see note on Ac 22:3).

3:8 garbage. Somewhat crude, this Greek term refers most commonly to excrement or kitchen scraps—perhaps the sort that dogs might eat (v. 2).

3:9 righteousness that comes from God on the basis of faith. The OT sometimes spoke of God’s righteousness as including his mercy and faithfulness to his covenant (see note on Ro 1:17); given Paul’s arguments elsewhere, he may think here especially of God deeming righteous the one who trusts him (Ge 15:6).

3:10 I want to know Christ. In the OT, to know God involved both a covenant relationship (Ex 6:7) and, at its fullest, intimacy with God (e.g., Ex 33:13). The new covenant provides this for all God’s people (Jer 31:34; cf. Jer 24:7; Hos 2:20). This language reflects both the covenant relationship (on the corporate level) and intimate fellowship with God (on the personal level experienced by the prophets). But Paul also connects knowing Christ with sharing his sufferings and glory. On the imitation of God, see note on Eph 4:32–5:2.

3:12 arrived at my goal. Speakers commonly used athletic illustrations figuratively; Paul’s goal is the future resurrection in v. 11. Even aged philosophers normally confessed that they were merely making progress toward perfection, though they contrasted the mature (v. 15) with novices.

3:13 Forgetting what is behind. Greek runners often ran in a straight line and back, but to win, a runner must keep his eyes ahead, not glancing back to what is behind.

3:14 God has called me heavenward. Officials “called” the race’s winner (cf. vv. 12–13) up for the prize (for prizes in different games, see the article “Athletic Imagery in 1 Corinthians 9”). heavenward. Lit. “upward”; although winners went up to receive a prize, the literal prize here is indeed in heaven (cf. v. 20; cf. Col 3:1–2). Philosophers sometimes contrasted the earthly interests of beasts (cf. v. 2) and the heavenly interests of true thinkers (cf. v. 20).

3:15 mature. Philosophic teachers considered their advanced students mature, though not by this implying that any of them had achieved perfection (cf. vv. 12, 13).

3:16 already attained. See notes on vv. 12–13.

3:17 following my example. Teachers often used examples, sometimes their own, and disciples often imitated their teachers. Like Paul, the believers should depend on Christ’s righteousness alone (v. 9), unlike Paul’s adversaries (v. 2), whose destiny is destruction (v. 19).

3:18 tell you again . . . with tears. Good speakers’ or writers’ tears or (as in v. 2) indignation could move hearers to the same emotions. For love of enemies, see notes on Lk 6:27; Ro 12:14.

3:19 their god is their stomach. Ancient moral writers condemned gluttony, but they used “stomach” more broadly than this to include being ruled by one’s passions in any kind of way. Many Diaspora Jews emphasized that the law enabled them to master passions; true transformation, however, requires the Spirit (vv. 2–3). Philosophers sometimes condemned as “beasts” (cf. v. 2) people whose interests were earthly, focusing almost exclusively on meeting bodily desires.

3:20 our citizenship is in heaven. The Philippians understood what it meant to be citizens of a place they had never yet visited. Because Philippi was a Roman colony, its citizens were legally citizens of Rome, with all the privileges that came from that status. Although the Philippian church included resident aliens (cf. Lydia from Thyatira in Ac 16:14), many of its influential members were likely citizens (cf. perhaps Clement in Php 4:3). Philosophers sometimes declared themselves citizens of the world rather than any mere city-state. Savior. Like other Gentiles, most Philippians honored the emperor and many other deities as “saviors”; the believers, however, recognize that God is the only Savior (Isa 43:11; 45:21; Hos 13:4).

3:21 transform our lowly bodies. For Jewish people, resurrection by definition meant the restoration of the body—a concept foreign to Greeks and Romans. Nevertheless, some Jewish traditions recognized that the resurrected body was of a different, supernatural character (see Da 12:2–3). Jewish people also expected resurrection to occur at the time when God would subdue all his enemies (cf. 1Co 15:25–28). Paul echoes some of his earlier language in 2:6–11.

4:1 love and long for. Those who wrote letters to friends frequently emphasized their affection and their desire to see the recipients. my joy and crown. As Paul’s “crown” the believers in Philippi are part of Paul’s prize (see 3:14; 1Th 2:19); such a crown was most often a victor’s wreath (see note on 1Co 9:24). stand firm in the Lord. Only if they stand firm against the false teachers will Paul receive his reward—their salvation.

4:2 Euodia . . . Syntyche. Although Philippi was a Roman colony, both women’s names here are Greek, possibly suggesting that they were foreign merchants like Lydia; they could have even belonged to her original prayer group (Ac 16:13–14), although that can be no more than a guess. Some suggest that the women named here might lead separate house churches; whatever their role, Paul is clear here that they had worked with him (v. 3). This may have proved less controversial than in some other locations. Women in Rome and Macedonia had more freedoms than women in more traditionally Greek areas, and inscriptions show that women played a significant role in Philippi’s religious activities.

4:3 help these women. Mediators who could reconcile estranged parties played a valuable role in Roman culture. Clement. A common Roman name, but tradition suggests that late in the first century this same person wrote from Rome a letter to the Corinthian church called 1 Clement. whose names are in the book of life. Jewish tradition often emphasized the OT image of the book of life (e.g., Da 12:1; Mal 3:16).

4:4 Rejoice . . . I will say it again: Rejoice! Repeating a word could be used to reinforce the point. To rejoice is to express confidence in God, as does “thanksgiving” (v. 6; see note on Eph 5:20).

4:5 The Lord is near. May refer to his current presence to help his people (Dt 4:7; Ps 34:18; 119:151; 145:18) or perhaps to his coming (e.g., Joel 1:15; 3:14; Zep 1:7; cf. Php 3:20–21).

4:6 Do not be anxious about anything. Like philosophers, Paul could speak of an ideal of having no worry; yet love creates concern (2Co 7:5–6; 1Th 3:5), and even most philosophers recognized that they had not attained the ideal. (The Greek term translated “concern” in 2Co 11:28 can also mean “worry,” as in 1Pe 5:7.) The dominant philosophic school at this time, Stoics, recognized that anxiety was counterproductive; Fate, they thought, could not be resisted. Paul instead emphasizes an active dependence on the benevolent God who hears our cries and takes care of us, if not always the way we expect, always in love.

4:7 the peace of God. Philosophers could speak of peace as tranquility in contrast with anxiety (cf. v. 6), but peace could also carry its more common sense of harmony with one another (cf. v. 2; see note on 2:1–4). guard your hearts. If “guard” carries any of its frequent military sense, it reinforces by means of irony the latter sense of peace. Prayers for peace (e.g., Nu 6:26; Ps 122:8) covered one’s full well-being. minds. See note on v. 8.

4:8 whatever is. The Greek term is repeated seven times (including in the instance translated “if anything is”); hearers appreciated repetition. Philosophers sought to cultivate what they considered realistic and good thinking, working from what they hoped would be a divine (cf. 2:5) or heavenly (cf. Col 3:1–2) perspective. Ancient writers often listed virtues. excellent. Translates a Greek term for exceptional virtue.

4:9 Whatever you have learned . . . or seen in me. Disciples were expected to imitate their teachers.

4:10–20 Expressing gratitude to benefactors was an essential virtue in antiquity. At the same time, Paul does not wish to become a client dependent on the church’s benefaction; such a position could compromise his ability to speak frankly when needed (see notes on 1Co 9:6, 12). Paul must express gratitude without implying that he seeks further gifts; asking for money placed one in a subordinate position. Although Philippi in general was prosperous and some members had significant work (Ac 16:14–15; cf. 16:33–34), at least some of the Macedonian churches were relatively poor (2Co 8:1–3).

4:10 I rejoiced greatly in the Lord. A friend responding to another friend’s letter often started with a statement of joy about the letter. A writer also often assured the letter’s recipients that the writer trusted the readers’ intentions.

4:11–13 Many Biblical prophets and others had sacrificed for God. Paul borrows language from the Diaspora. Greco-Roman thinkers emphasized the value of being content and thus needing nothing more than oneself. Paul’s dependence, however, is on Christ (v. 13) rather than on himself.

4:12 whether living in plenty or in want. For an artisan (cf. Ac 18:3), having “plenty” meant having more than enough to eat and wear, not the sort of wealth displayed by ancient elites. (By way of comparison, middle class Westerners who own their own homes and yards have far more resources than some 95 percent of ancients.)

4:14 share. Often carried an economic sense; thus Paul might refer to their gift during his troubles.

4:15–16 Paul’s experiences in Philippi and the rest of Macedonia appear in Ac 16:12–17:14. Probably one of the occasions that this church sent help to Paul occurred in Ac 18:5.

4:17 credited to your account. Commonly used in financial language.

4:18 I have received full payment. Paul figuratively employs this phrase, which was common language in ancient receipts. fragrant offering, an acceptable sacrifice, pleasing to God. Writers often used sacrifice language figuratively (see note on Ro 12:1; cf., e.g., Ge 8:21; Lev 1:3, 13).

4:19 God will meet all your needs. Unable to repay them himself, Paul trusts his God to do so (cf. Dt 15:10; Pr 19:17). needs. The Greek term refers to what is necessary, not implying all wants. riches of his glory. May be idiomatic for “glorious riches.”

4:21 Letter writers sometimes sent greetings to the recipients’ location and included greetings from people in the senders’ location.

4:22 especially those who belong to Caesar’s household. Philippi respected and imitated Rome. After an initial hint about his imprisonment advancing the gospel (1:12–13), Paul has reserved for the Philippian church a climactic encouragement for his letter’s end. Caesar’s household could include any of Caesar’s dependents, including all his slaves and freedmen. It could also include, and here it very probably refers to, the Praetorian Guard, the elite force of the Roman military (see note on 1:13). Those who guarded Paul would regularly hear his teaching (Ac 28:16, 30).

4:23 Blessings invoked a deity; here Paul invokes the Lord Jesus as divine.