Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables.
abundance, false sense of, 41
“Achieve greater victories on the road to continuous revolution!,” 158
Agrarian Reform Law (1950), 33
agricultural horsepower, tractors and, 100
agricultural machinery: capital depreciation, 98–101; mechanized cultivation, 99; tractors and agricultural horsepower, 100
Agricultural Machinery Stations (AMS), 47, 57–58
agricultural mechanization: controversy over, 127; expansion of, 103, 119, 222–23, 233; with falling labor demand, 137; in media, 59; opposition to, 64; with reformers versus loyalists (1977–1978), 228
agricultural modernization: literacy and, 249; without support, 259; surpluses with, 248–49
Agricultural Producer Cooperatives (APCs), 32, 33–36, 182
Agricultural Science Institute, 70
agriculture, 62; All-China Conference on Professional Work in Agriculture, 217; ASAE, 16; CSAM, 16; data assessment, 19–24; food production and, 15–17; Henan Agricultural Statistics, 1949–1979, 195; Henan counties, distribution of total output, 183; investment in, 30, 66, 105, 126; Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 216; NDAC, 6, 31, 62–66, 66, 178, 214, 251; “Production Team’s Agricultural Research Small Group, The,” 69; products, 135; reforms, 6–7, 59; research and extension system in, 66–72, 254. See also Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes
All-China Conference on Professional Work in Agriculture, 217
Amana commune (1843–1933), 185
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), 16
Anti-Rightist Campaign, 5, 96
Antonioni, Michelangelo, 75, 135
blight, arable land and, 93–94
body, fusion of mind and, 147
brigade hydropower, commune and, 103
Canton Evening News (newspaper), 55
capital depreciation: agricultural machinery, 98–101; electricity generation, 102–3; increased rate of, 95–104; physical investment and, 97–101; policy responses, 97–104; transportation, 104; water management, 97–98
capitalism, eradication of, 9
“Carry out rural economic policy” (luoshi nongcun jingji zhenge), 232
Central Discipline Inspection Commission (CDIC), 243
Central Document No. 1, 244
“Chairman Mao Teaches Us: We Should Not Only Keep a Strong Formal Army, But Also Organize Contingents of People’s Militia on a Big Scale,” 168
Chen Yonggui, 52, 215, 227, 232–33; with Dazhai Conference (1975), 216, 222–24; with Dazhai Conference (1976), 231; with grain inspection, 219; religiosity of Maoism and, 152
China Tractor and Internal Combustion Engine Industrial Company, 48
China Tractor and Internal Combustion Engine Spare Parts Company, 48
China Youth Daily (newspaper), 81
Chinese Society for Agricultural Mechanization (CSAM), 16
Chung Kuo (documentary film), 75
Cina (documentary film), 135
“Circular on Separating Government Administration and Commune Management and Setting Up Township Government,” 244–45
cities, population size and number of, 75
collective remuneration, 174–79
collectivization, 34, 238; before, 97; Gold on, 146; large-scale, 184; Mao Zedong and, 29, 42, 227; opposition to, 224; support for, 59, 223
commune: children and collapse of, 151–52; New Harmony, 143–44, 150, 155, 185; religious views of, 143, 144, 149–52; with resilience, 149–52; typologies, 143–47; values, 147, 151. See also People’s Commune
Communist Party of China (CPC), 6, 33; disagreements, 229; factions and, 214; Liberation Daily, 215; Ten-Year Plan of, 222, 233–34, 247, 257
“Counterattack the Right-Deviationist Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend” Campaign, 224
credit cooperatives, rural, 132–40
“Criticize Deng Campaign,” 225
cultivation: mechanized, 99; vegetable, 69–70
Cultural Revolution: with communes or trusts, 49; Gang of Four and, 225, 226, 230, 240, 241, 243; Leftist Commune (1965–1969) and, 57–59; rural economy and, 9
dances, religiosity of Maoism and, 162, 163, 255
Dazhai Conference (1975), 212; grain inspection, 219; with loyalists versus radicals, 216–24; meeting hall, 218
Dazhai Conference (1976), 227, 231
Dazhai workpoint system (remuneration methodology), 51–52, 60, 249; collective remuneration and, 174–79; super-optimal investment, 128–31, 252–53
decollectivization, 11, 29; agricultural output increased after, 193; commune and, 257–59; defined, 25–26; Democracy Wall Movement and, 212, 234–36, 246; Document No. 75, 213, 236–40; industrialization and urbanization with, 1; Mao Zedong, burying of, 240–45; with power consolidation (1979–1983), 234–45; problems with, 126–27; Solow–Swan model, 120; support for, 119, 210–11. See also collectivization
Deng Xiaoping, 11, 13, 30, 42, 53, 210; criticism of, 225, 226–27; Dazhai Conference (1975) and, 218, 220–22; decollectivization and, 258; Democracy Wall Movement and, 235–36, 246; Document No. 75 and, 213, 240; on economy, 237; Gang of Four and, 243; Mao Zedong and, 220–22, 224–26, 240–44, 246; with People’s Commune, abandonment of, 25, 211, 260; in People’s Daily, 224; purge of, 224–26, 225; remuneration methodology and, 60; return of, 228–34; Rightist Commune and, 116; rise of, 217; support for, 64
“Destroy the Old World; Forge a New World,” 156
East Is Red, The (national anthem), 155
economy: “Carry out rural economic policy,” 232; commune productivity and, 8–17; commune size and structure with, 184–88; Deng Xiaoping on, 237; grain prices, 242; Green Revolution and, 72–104; money and, 33, 48, 64, 138, 144, 175; politics and, 36; rural, 9–12, 132, 146, 232, 242. See also Solow–Swan neoclassical economic growth model; super-optimal investment; taxes
education: basic and vocational, 82–85; literacy and, 82, 249; primary, middle, and high school student enrollment., 83; SEM, 20, 51, 54; Socialist Education Campaign, 164, 179, 251; social pressure in, 173, 174; students in secondary vocational, 84; technical and teacher training, 83
electricity generation: capital depreciation, 102–3; commune and brigade hydropower, 103; commune production and usage, 102
Eleventh Party Congress, 119
farmers: APCs and, 34; Dazhai Brigade and, 52–53; famine and, 9, 10–11; income of, 126, 140; land contracts and, 45–46; rural economy and, 9–12; work days, 32
fertilizer, chemical: production, 89; use, 14, 39, 70, 76–77, 81, 88–91, 119, 214
floods: control, 14, 69; damage, 85; drainage, 93; land recovery after, 87; zones, 94
food: famine, 9, 10–11, 30, 110, 116, 182, 196, 205; production, 15–17; security and life expectancy, 14; seed varieties, high-yield, 90–93
Four Cardinal Principles, 229, 235
fusion, of mind and body, 147
governance structure: rural, 186; Shakers, 185
grain: grinder, 100; inspection, 219; lapel pin, 159; as payment, 135; prices, 242
Great Leap Forward (GLF; 1958–1961), 2, 60; cooperatives and, 182; data assessment, 20–21; evolution of, 30; famine, 30, 116, 182, 196, 205; HAPCs and, 36–37; as phase 1, 36–41; red-over-expert policies and, 5, 65–66, 96; Solow–Swan model and, 114, 115
Green Revolution (1970–1979), 2, 61, 62; with capital depreciation, increased rate of, 95–104; commune productivity and, 13–17, 248; economic challenges and policy responses, 72–104; land, decreasing arable, 85–95; NDAC, 63–66 and; origins of, 30, 31, 251; population growth, 72–85; productivity of, 252; research and extension, 66–72; Solow–Swan model, 118
growth-regulating hormones, 90
Guangdong, 6, 15, 16, 19, 43, 46, 50; Chen Village, 43, 44, 45–46
Henan Agricultural Statistics, 1949–1979, 195
Henan counties: agricultural output, 183; commune and team size in (1958–1979), 187; communes and brigades in (1958–1979), 187; location, 196; reasons for studying, 195–97
Henan Province, 4, 18, 97
Higher-Level Producer Cooperatives (HAPCs), 34–37, 40
Hongweibing (newspaper), 155, 157
hormones, growth-regulating, 90
Household Responsibility System (HRS, baochan daohu, RHLC), 1, 8, 11–12, 193
household savings: extraction of, 4, 25, 60, 110–11, 128, 131, 133, 141; increased, 65, 97, 109, 118, 152, 249
household sideline farming, 133–38
Hua Guofeng, 25–26, 212, 258; criticism of, 236–37; Dazhai Conference (1975) and, 216, 218, 222–24; Deng Xiaoping and, 229–30; on Gang of Four, 241; with grain inspection, 219; loyalists versus reformers (1977–1978) and, 226–28; religiosity of Maoism and, 152; resignation of, 243; support for, 240, 241; Ten-Year Plan and, 233–34, 247
Huarong County, Hunan, 68
incentives, 1, 13; lack of, 8; weakness of, 9, 193
income: of brigade enterprise workers, 78; commune collective distribution of, 127; of farmers, 126, 140; households, 5; of laborers, 76, 95
industrialization, with decollectivization, 1
investment: in agriculture, 30, 66, 105, 126; capital depreciation and physical, 97–101; collective, 63, 180, 189; under commune, 125–40; rural, 71, 259. See also super-optimal investment
irrigation: canals, 40; infrastructure, 92; systems, 98, 103
isolation, communes with collective, 150–52
Jesus (biblical figure), 143, 157
Kung, James Kai-sing, 193
labor: agricultural mechanization and falling demand for, 137; collective, 128, 137, 258; elderly and, 135; land and, 124–25; mobilization, 39–40; population and commune, 73; power and mechanization, 50; supervision, 193. See also Dazhai workpoint system
laborers, income of, 76, 95
land, 11; contracts with farmers, 45–46; floods and recovery of, 87; household land contracts, 210, 239, 240, 246; household private plots, 5, 17, 30, 40, 44, 60, 250; labor and, 124–25; reform, 33; seizures, 33
land, arable: agricultural inputs, 87–90; blight and, 93–94; decreasing, 85–95; fertilizer production, 89; per commune worker, 86; per commune worker in select provinces, 87; pesticide production, 89; policy responses, 87–93; reclamation, 93–95; seed varieties, high-yield, 90–93
lapel pins, Mao Zedong on, 159
Leftist Commune (1965–1969), 2, 60; creation of, 251; Cultural Revolution and, 57–59; with Hubei and proposal, 54–56; as phase 3, 54–59; Solow–Swan model, 117
Liberation Daily (CPC publication), 215
life expectancy: at birth, national comparison of, 24; food security and, 14
literacy: agricultural modernization and, 249; rate, 82
Liu Shaoqi, 30, 42, 53, 224, 236; criticism of, 220, 226; Hubei and, 54–55; religiosity of Maoism and, 152; remuneration methodology and, 60; Rightist Commune and, 116; trusts and, 47–48, 55
loyalists, versus radicals (1975–1976): with commune, abandonment of, 216–26; Dazhai Conference, 216–24; Deng, purge of, 224–26, 225
loyalists, versus reformers (1977–1978): with commune, abandonment of, 214–15, 226–34; Deng Xioping, return of, 228–34; Hua and, 226–28
lunsheng (time rate system), 130
luoshi nongcun jingji zhenge (“Carry out rural economic policy”), 232
Maoism: collective remuneration and, 174–79; commune collective action problems, 147–49; as commune ideology, 64–65, 149–50; commune productivity, political sources of, 152–79; commune resilience, attributes of, 149–52; communes and, 13, 14, 25, 31; commune typologies, 143–47; in context, 142, 179–80; elimination of, 257; People’s Militia and, 166–69; politics and, 254–55; religiosity of, 142, 152–66; repudiation of, 258; self-reliance and, 169–71, 180; social pressure and, 171–74; trusts and, 56. See also religiosity, of Maoism
Mao Zedong, 7; APCs and, 34; assessment of, 244; collectivization and, 29, 42, 227; decollectivization and burying of, 240–45; Deng Xiaoping and, 220–22, 224–26, 240–44, 246; GLF Commune and, 38–40; lapel pin, 159; mechanization and, 29, 37–40, 222; in People’s Daily, 216; on political power, seizure of, 248; SEM and, 54. See also Little Red Book, The
“Mao Zedong Thought is the peak of contemporary Marxism and Leninism,” 158
markets: brigade, 170–71, 171; free, 6, 13, 30, 44–45, 250–51; rural, 1, 31, 35, 44, 70, 110, 133–34, 137, 138, 139, 140
mechanization, 14, 17, 42, 46, 54, 77, 227; conference, 55; CSAM, 16; farm, 216; labor power and, 50; Mao Zedong and, 29, 37–40, 222; semimechanization, 58. See also agricultural mechanization
mechanized cultivation, 99
mind, fusion of body and, 147
Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 216
mobilization, labor, 39–40
modernization: agricultural, 248–49, 259; Four Modernizations, 221
moral hazard, 152, 180, 254; counteracting, 173, 176; indications, 148; problem of, 3, 8, 149, 178
“Movement to Lighten the Peasants Burden,” 234
Movement to Study Xiangxiang Experience, 234
National Academy of Sciences, U.S., 15–16, 67
National and Provincial Agricultural Production, 4, 20, 248
National Conferences on Learning from Dazhai in Agriculture, 62
National Industrial and Communication Work Conference, 55
New Republic (magazine), 146
Northern Districts Agricultural Conference (NDAC), 6, 31, 62, 178, 214, 251; Green Revolution and, 63–66; with investments in agriculture, 66
One Guarantee (sa nzi yibao), 43–46, 220
On-Site Conference on Agricultural Mechanization, 55
Party Secretariat Work Conference, 213
Peking Institute of Genetics, 70
Peking Review (newspaper), 168
Peking University, 85, 90
People’s Commune: with action problems, collective, 147–49; brigade enterprises and, 76–80; as coercive institutions, 5; with collective income distribution, 127; collective isolation and shared rituals, 150–52; in context, 1, 248–49, 259–60; decollectivization and, 257–59; evolution of, 29–31, 250; historical overview, 5–8; ideology, 149–50; institutional change and, 249–51; institutions, antecedent, 32–36; investment under, 125–40; Maoism and, 13, 14, 25, 31; organization, size and structure, 256–57; phases, first three, 36–46; population, 5, 7, 21, 74; productivity growth, dynamics of, 111–25; subunits, 184, 191–95; trusts, 49–51. See also commune; Great Leap Forward; Green Revolution; Leftist Commune; Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes; Rightist Commune
People’s Commune, abandonment of, 25–26, 63, 260; in context, 210–13; loyalists versus radicals (1975–1976), 216–26; with politics, factional, 214–16; power consolidation and decollectivization (1979–1983), 234–45; reformers versus loyalists (1977–1978), 226–234, 214–15
People’s Commune, agricultural productivity hypotheses: brigade size, 192, 195; commune size, 191–92; econometric method, 199–200; interaction effects, 194–95; team size, 182, 187, 193–94, 200–201, 203
People’s Commune, productivity of: case selection, 18–19; data assessment, 19–24; Green Revolution and, 248; life expectancy at birth, national comparison of, 24; pig inventory, 2, 24; politics and Maoism, 254–55; with poor performance, 8–13, 248; sources of, 252–55; super-optimal investment and, 252–54; theory testing, 18–24
People’s Commune, size and structure: agricultural production, (dis)advantage for, 208, 209; in context, 181–84; discussion and conclusion, 207–9; dynamics and agricultural output, 202; economic performance and, 184–88; findings, empirical, 200–204; organization, 256–57; robustness and falsification analysis, 204–6; strategy, empirical, 195–200; team size and, 182, 187, 193–94, 200–201, 203, 208; theory testing, 188–91
People’s Daily (newspaper), 10, 39, 54, 222, 228, 231; Deng Xiaoping in, 224; Mao Zedong in, 216; Three Small Freedoms in, 217; on trusts, 55–56
People’s Militia, Maoism and, 166–69
pesticide production, 89, 90
policy responses: capital depreciation, 97–104; controlling for high-level changes, 204; Green Revolution and, 72–104; land, arable, 87–93; population, 73–85
politics: commune abandonment with factional, 214–16; commune productivity and sources of, 152–79; economy and, 36; Maoism and, 254–55; with power seized, 248. See also Maoism
Politics of Agricultural Mechanization in China, The (Stavis), 17
population: commune, 5, 7, 21, 74; commune and brigade enterprises, 76–80; commune labor and, 73; control, 7, 73–76; education, basic and vocational, 82–85; growth, 72–85, 112–13, 259; number of cities by size of, 75; policy responses, 73–85; Sent-Down Campaign and, 80–81
power: decollectivization (1979–1983) with consolidation of, 234–45; Mao Zedong on seizure of political, 248; mechanization and labor, 50
production quotas, 43, 135
“Production Team’s Agricultural Research Small Group, The,” 69
profitability, 52, 79; agricultural investments based on, 30; as essential, 42, 45, 47
“Provincial Party Committee Six-Point Proposal,” 230–31
redistributive policies, super-optimal investment and, 131–32
Reform and Opening Up, 13, 258
Regulations on the Rural People’s Communes (Sixty Articles on Agriculture), 6, 30, 42, 60, 137, 185, 213
religiosity, of Maoism: “Achieve greater victories on the road to continuous revolution!,” 158; in context, 142; dances and, 162, 163, 255; “Destroy the Old World; Forge a New World,” 156; lapel pins, 159; leaders of, 152–53; The Little Red Book and, 160–61, 160–61, 163–64, 169, 258; Loyalty Campaign, 155; Mao Zedong Thought and, 154, 158, 162; media and, 155–57; political sources of commune productivity and, 152–66; as religious revival, 160–61, 160–61; rituals with, 157, 160, 162; songs and, 162, 163, 255; yikusitian meetings, 164–66, 165
research and extension system: in agriculture, 66–72, 254; reformed, 65
Revolutionary Committees, 57, 59
Rightist Commune (1962–1964), 2; Dazhai and, 51–54; as phase 2, 41–54; Solow–Swan model, 116; Three Small Freedoms and One Guarantee, 43–46; trust or, 49–51; trusts, rise of, 46–48
rituals: commune with shared, 150–52; with religiosity of Maoism, 157, 160, 162
robustness and falsification analysis: controlling for high-level policy changes, 204; falsification test, 205–6; GLF famine, exclusion of, 205; size variables, lagged effect of, 204–5
Rural Capital Construction Conference, 228, 234
rural credit cooperatives (RCCs), 132–40
rural economy: “Carry out rural economic policy,” 232; farmers and, 9–12; reforms, 11–12; taxes and, 132, 146, 242
rural governance, structure of, 186
rural investments, 71, 259
rural markets, 1, 31, 44; famine and, 110; HAPCs and, 35; RCCs and, 133–34, 137, 138, 139, 140; vegetables at, 70
Sala-i-Martin, Xavier, 113
Schmalzer, Sigrid, 14, 68
science: Agricultural Science Institute, 70; National Academy of Sciences, U.S., 15–16, 67
scientific small groups, 67
Second Taiwan Strait crisis, 166
seeds: corn, 91, 93; high-yield varieties, 90–93
Selected Works (Mao Zedong), 226–27
Shanxi Province, 6, 52, 95
Socialist Education Movement (SEM), 20, 51, 54
socialist view, of communes, 143
social pressure, Maoism and, 171–74
Solow–Swan neoclassical economic growth model: decollectivization (1980–1983), 120; GLF commune goal (1958–1961), 114; GLF commune reality (1958–1961), 115; Green Revolution (1970–1979), 118; Leftist Commune (1965–1969), 117; Rightist Commune (1962–1964), 116; role of, 110–11; super-optimal investment, 112–21
songs, religiosity of Maoism and, 162, 163, 255
Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPC), 47
state-owned enterprises (SOEs), 30–31, 47, 49
State Technical Commission, 38
strategy, commune size and structure: econometric method, 199–200; Henan counties, reasons for studying, 195–97; variables, dependent, 197; variables, independent, 198–99
students: against Deng Xiaoping, 225; enrollment for primary, middle, and high school, 83; in secondary vocational training, 84
super-optimal investment: under commune, 125–40; commune productivity and, 252–54; in context, 109–11, 141; Dazhai workpoint system and, 128–31, 252–53; Lewis modified classical model, 111–12, 121–25, 122; with productivity growth of commune, dynamics, 111–25; RCCs and, 132–40; redistributive policies and, 131–32; savings rates, 119, 125–28, 252; Solow–Swan neoclassical economic growth model, 110–21
surpluses, with agricultural modernization, 248–49
Synanon (1913–1997) commune, 185
Taiping Qiao Brigade, 78–79
teacher training, technical and, 83
teams, 10, 69; Four Cleanups work, 52–54, 177; MATs, 32–33, 181–82, 232; size, 182, 187, 193–94, 200–201, 203, 208
technical training, teaching and, 83
theory testing, commune size and structure, 188–91
time rate system (lunsheng), 130
training: students in secondary vocational, 84; teacher and technical, 83
transportation capital, 104
United Nations Population Commission, 74
Urgent Directive Concerning Present Policy Problems in Rural People’s Communes, 137
variables, agricultural production: dependent, 197; independent, 198–99; lagged effect of size, 204–5
vegetables, cultivation of, 69–70
vocational education, 82–85
Water Margin, The (novel), 220
Xiaogang Production Team, 10
Zhou Enlai, 6, 30, 46, 224, 229; Dazhai and, 54; decline of, 217; NDAC and, 251; population growth and, 73; with reforms, 59; religiosity of Maoism and, 152; on reservoirs, 40–41
Zweig, David, 152–53, 155, 217; decollectivization and, 236; reformers versus loyalists and, 225, 230, 232, 234; on reforms, 242