NOTES

Chapter One: “THE ADVENTUROUS PURSUITS OF COMMERCE”

  1.  Philip Chadwick Foster Smith, The Empress of China (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Maritime Museum, 1984), 3–6, 74, 78; Samuel Shaw, The Journals, The First Consul at Canton, with a Life of the Author by Josiah Quincy (Boston: WM. Crosby and H. P. Nichols, 1847), 133–34, 137; and David M. Ludlum, Early American Winters, 1604–1820 (Boston: American Meteorological Society, 1966), 64–67.

  2.  “New-York, February 26,” Salem Gazette (March 4, 1784); and Smith, The Empress, 6.

  3.  “Charlestown (South-Carolina) July 5,” in Continental Journal (August 21, 1783).

  4.  John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The Economy of British America: 1607–1789 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1991), 108, 130, 174.

  5.  Charles Rappleye, Robert Morris: Financier of the Revolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010), 7–10, 12; and Theodore Thayer, “Town into City, 1746–1765,” in Philadelphia: A 300-Year History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1982), 79.

  6.  Rappleye, Robert Morris, 13–14, 21–26.

  7.  Marla R. Miller, Betsy Ross and the Making of America (New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2010), 170; and Rappleye, Robert Morris, 71–74.

  8.  Rappleye, Robert Morris, 93–94, 227–77; Clarence L. Ver Steeg, Robert Morris, Revolutionary Financier (New York: Octagon Books, 1972), 58–59, 65–77, 198–99; and Thomas M. Doerflinger, A Vigorous Spirit of Enterprise: Merchants and Economic Development in Revolutionary Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 236–40.

  9.  Ellis Paxson Oberholzer, Robert Morris: Patriot and Financier (New York: Macmillan Company, 1903), 91.

  10.  Ver Steeg, Robert Morris, 13–14, 29.

  11.  Ibid., 186–88; and Mary A. Y. Gallagher, “Charting a New Course for the China Trade: The Late Eighteenth-Century American Model,” American Neptune (Summer 1997), 204.

  12.  Jared Sparks, Memoirs of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard, from his Journals and Correspondence (London: Henry Colburn, 1828), 1, 8, 12, 21–24, 30, 38–39, 46–47; James Zug, American Traveler: The Life and Adventures of John Ledyard, the Man Who Dreamed of Walking the World (New York: Basic Books, 2005), 1–34; Bill Gifford, Ledyard: In Search of the First American Explorer (Orlando, FL: Harcourt, 2007), 3–55.

  13.  James Cook and James King, The Voyages of Captain James Cook, vol. 2 (London: William Smith, 1842), 263.

  14.  Ibid., 232, 258–64; and John Ledyard, A Journal of Captain Cook’s Last Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, and In Quest of a North-West Passage Between Asia and America, Performed in the Years 1776, 1777, 1778, and 1779 (Hartford, CT: Nathaniel Batten, 1783), 70.

  15.  William Sturgis, “The Northwest Fur Trade,” Merchant’s Magazine (June 1846), 534; and James L. Bodkin, “Sea Otter (Enhydra lutris),” in Wild Mammals of North America: Biology, Management, and Conservation, edited by George A. Feldhamer, Bruce Carlyle Thompson, Joseph A. Chapman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 736.

  16.  Cook and King, The Voyages of Captain James Cook, vol. 2, 532.

  17.  Ledyard, A Journal, 70.

  18.  Zug, American Traveler, 129. See also Tyler Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia: A Critical Study of United States’ Policy in the Far East in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Macmillan Company, 1922), 3.

  19.  Sparks, Memoirs, 173–74. See also Gifford, Ledyard, 129–33; Zug, American Traveler, 132–33; Smith, The Empress, 14–18.

  20.  Smith, The Empress, 26–27; Howard I. Chapelle, The History of American Sailing Ships (New York: Bonanza Books, 1949), 134, 138; and “A New York Item,” Maryland Journal and Baltimore Advertiser (March 5, 1784).

  21.  “Salem, August 21,” Salem Gazette (August 21, 1783); “Salem, August 21,” Providence Gazette (August 30, 1783); Smith, The Empress, 23–26.

  22.  Robert Morris to John Jay, November 27, 1783, in William Jay, The Life of John Jay, vol. 2 (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), 139. See also Smith, The Empress, 20–30, 43–50; and “Appendix I, Early Records of Robert Morris’s Involvement in American Trade with China,” in The Papers of Robert Morris, 1781–1784: May 5–December 31, 1783, edited by Elizabeth M. Nuxoll and Mary A. Gallagher, vol. 8 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995), 857–64.

  23.  Sparks, The Life of John Ledyard, 197.

  24.  Smith, The Empress, 63, 87, 154–55, 239.

  25.  Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World (New York: Penguin Press, 2008), 25–26. See also James R. Fichter, So Great a Proffit: How the East Indies Trade Transformed Anglo-American Capitalism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010), 31–32.

  26.  C. Toogood Downing, The Fan-Qui in China, in 1836–1837, vol. 2 (London: Henry Colburn, 1838), 146. See also Pierre Jartoux, “Of a Tartarian Plant called Ginseng, etc.,” in The Philosophical Transactions (From the Year 1700, to the Year 1720), abridged and compiled by Henry Jones, vol. 4, part 2 (London: W. Innys et. al., 1749), 314; and Kristin Johannsen, Ginseng Dreams: The Secret World of America’s Most Valuable Plant (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 2006), 16–17, 29–30.

  27.  Jonathan Edwards to Mr. McCulloch, November 24, 1752, in The Works of Jonathan Edwards, A. M., With an Essay on His Genius and Writings, by Henry Rogers, revised by Edward Hickman, vol. 1 (London: William Ball, 1839), 195. See also Johannsen, Ginseng Dreams, 6; Smith, The Empress, 34–35; and “Philadelphia, July 27,” New-York Weekly Journal (August 21, 1738).

  28.  Smith, The Empress, 31–42.

  29.  Oscar V. Armstrong, “Opening China,” American Heritage (February/March 1982), 42.

  30.  Smith, The Empress, 53. See also ibid., 151–55; and Sheldon S. Cohen, Yankee Sailors in British Gaols: Prisoners of War at Forton and Mill, 1777–1783 (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995), 51, 173, 200–202.

  31.  Shaw, The Journals, 110–11. See also Smith, The Empress, 60.

  32.  John Fiske, The Critical Period of American History, 1783-1789, 7th ed. (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1891), 114–15; Smith, The Empress, 6; Mandell Creighton, History of Rome (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1875), 23; and Society of the Cincinnati Web site, http://www.societyofthecincinnati.org/history.htm, accessed by author on December 1, 2010.

  33.  “New-York, July 5,” Virginia Journal (July 29, 1784). See also Smith, The Empress, 23–25; William Weeden, Economic and Social History of New England, 1620–1789, vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1894), 820–21; and Gallagher, “Charting a New Course for the China Trade,” 211.

  34.  “Friday, January 30, 1784,” Journals of the American Congress, from 1774 to 1788, vol. 4 (Washington, DC: Way and Gideon, 1823), 333–34.

  35.  John Green, “A Journal of an Intended Voyage on Board the Ship Empress of China, Bound from New York to Canton in India,” entry for February 22, 1784, quoted in Smith, The Empress, 78; ibid., 6–7; Shaw, The Journals, 133–34. James Riker, “ ‘Evacuation Day,’ 1783, Its Many Stirring Events: With Recollections of Capt. John Van Arsdale (New York: Printed for the author, 1883), 14–18; and “Extract from a Letter from New York, dated November 26,” New-Jersey Gazette (December 9, 1783).

  36.  “New-York, Feb. 23,” New-York Packet and the American Advertiser (February 23, 1784).

  37.  Samuel W. Woodhouse, “The Voyage of the Empress of China,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, vol. 63, no. 1 (January 1939), 24.

  38.  Philip Freneau, The Poems of Philip Freneau, Poet of the American Revolution, edited by Fred Lewis Pattee, vol. 2 (Princeton: University Library, 1903), 262–63.

  39.  Woodhouse, “The Voyage of the Empress of China,” 25–27. See also Smith, The Empress, 103; and “Journal of the Ship Empress of China,” edited by William Bell Clark, American Neptune (April 1950), 83–84, 89–90.

  40.  Quote from Shaw, The Journals, 153. See also ibid., 155; and Green’s journal in Smith, The Empress, 137–38.

Chapter Two: THE MIDDLE KINGDOM

  1.  Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, vol. 1, 5th ed. (London: A. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1789), 20. See also William J. Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World (New York: Grove, 2008), 8.

  2.  James Yates, Textrinum Antiquorum: An Account of the Art of Weaving Among the Ancients, part 1 (London: Taylor and Walton, 1843), 183. See also E. Jane Burns, Sea of Silk: A Textile Geography of Women’s Work in Medieval French Literature (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 9; “A Silk Dress,” in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (July 1885), 240; Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, edited by William Smith, vol. 5 (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1854), 57a; and Frances Wood, The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 29.

  3.  The Natural History of Pliny, translated by John Bostock and H. T. Riley, vol. 2 (London: George Bell & Sons, 1890), 36. See also Wood, The Silk Road, 29; and Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, edited by Edward Balfour, 2d ed., vol. 5 (Madras: Lawrence and Adelphi Press, 1873), 330–31.

  4.  Silvio Farago, “Sericulture,” in Mary Schoeser, Silk (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 60, 65; Premamoy Gosh, Fibre Science and Technology (New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 2004), 97.

  5.  Colin Thubron, Shadow of the Silk Road (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006), 4; Harry G. Gelber, The Dragon and the Foreign Devils (New York: Walker and Company, 2007), 36; Summary of the Principal Chinese Treatises upon the Culture of the Mulberry and the Rearing of Silk Worms, translated by Stanislaus Julien (Washington, DC: Peter Force, 1838), 77–78; and Schoeser, Silk, 17.

  6.  Summary of the Principal Chinese Treatises, 86–87, 99–102, 105, 113–14, 122. See also The British Cyclopaedia of Natural History, edited by Charles F. Partington, s.v. “silkworm” (London: W. S. Orr & Co., 1837), vol. 3, 685.

  7.  James Mease, “Letter from James Mease, Transmitting a Treatise on the Rearing of Silk-Worms by Joseph De Hazzi,” Doc. 226, 20th Cong., 1st Sess., H.R., February 2, 1828 (Washington, DC: Gales & Seaton, 1828), 10–14; Linus Pierpoint Brockett, The Silk Industry in America (New York: Privately published for the Silk Association of America, 1876), 18–23; Schoeser, Silk, 20, 24; and Robert Browning, Justinian and Theodora (Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2003), 154–56. For the view that the story about Justinian and silk might be apocryphal, see Schoeser, Silk, 26.

  8.  Robert Temple, The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 91–94; Wood, The Silk Road, 14, 26–27, 80; and Jean McClure Mudge, Chinese Export Porcelain for the American Trade, 1785–1835 (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1962), 47–48.

  9.  A. C. Moule and Paul Pelliot, Marco Polo: The Description of the World (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1938), 40, 192, 326. See also Laurence Bergreen, Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 3–8, 92–97, 123, 141, 144–49, 157, 163–64, 168–69, 206–7, 224–28.

  10.  Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way Thither, Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China, vol. 1 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1866), cxxiv. See also Bergreen, Marco Polo, 132, 326–32; Jacques Gernet, A History of Chinese Civilization, translated by J. R. Foster and Charles Hartman, 2d ed. (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 331–38, 347–48; S. Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Education, Social Life, Arts, Religion, &c. of the Chinese Empire and its Inhabitants, vol. 2 (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1848), 217; and Robert Temple, The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986), 16–23, 42–44, 58–62, 81–86, 89–94, 98, 103–19, 139, 149–51, 224–29.

  11.  Gelber, The Dragon, 12–13, 33, 123–24; and John King Fairbank, China: A New History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), 69.

  12.  Quote from John King Fairbank, The United States and China, 4th ed. (1948; reprint, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1979), 159–60. See also Gelber, The Dragon, 24, 33–34, 36.

  13.  First quote from Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers (New York: Random House, 1983), 192; second quote from Gelber, The Dragon, 89. See also Boorstin, The Discoverers, 186–201; Gelber, The Dragon, 88–90; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 99–103; and Fairbank, The United States and China, 149–51.

  14.  Boorstin, The Discoverers, 139–78; and Hosea Ballou Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company trading to China, 1635–1834, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926), 1–2.

  15.  Boorstin, The Discoverers, 156–78, 259–66; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 1, 3–7, 9–11; William H. Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1 (New York: Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company, 1935), 23–29, 67–69; Caroline Frank, Objectifying China, Imagining America: Chinese Commodities in Early America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 5, 38–42; John King Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy on the China Coast: The Opening of the Treaty Ports, 1842–1854 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1953), 35–36; and Jack Turner, Spice: The History of a Temptation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), 108–10.

  16.  Charles Patrick Fitzgerald, China: A Short Cultural History (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1950), 474–87; Gelber, The Dragon, 94–98; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 1, 14–30; and Giles Milton, Nathaniel’s Nutmeg, or, The True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1999), 318–42.

  17.  William C. Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton Before Treaty Days, 1825–1844, by An Old Resident (London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1882), 63–64. See also Gelber, The Dragon, 87–98; John Barrow, Travels in China (Philadelphia: W. F. McLaughlin, 1805), 402; and Henry Ellis, Journal of the Proceedings of the Late Embassy to China (London: John Murray, 1817), 405.

  18.  Robert Burts, Around the World: A Narrative of a Voyage in the East India Squadron, under Commodore George C. Read, by an Officer of the U.S. Navy, vol. 2 (New York: Charles S. Francis, 1840), 288–90. See also Fitzgerald, China, 478, 552–53; and Amasa Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres: Comprising Three Voyages Around the World (Boston: E. G. House, 1817), 530–31; and Paul A. Van Dyke, The Canton Trade: Life and Enterprise on the China Coast, 1700–1845 (Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2007), 9, 16.

  19.  Quotes from Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae,’ 53–54, 65, 99. See also Jacques M. Downs, The Golden Ghetto: The American Commercial Community at Canton and the Shaping of American China Policy, 1784–1844 (Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 1997), 19–25, 74; Van Dyke, The Canton Trade, 19–33; Samuel Wells Williams, The Chinese Commercial Guide (Hong Kong: A. Shortrede & Co., 1863), 158; “Ship Anchorage at Whampoa,” American Penny Magazine, and Family Newspaper (May 3, 1845), 202; and letter from Robert Morrison to Dr. Staughton, October 12, 1809, in Panopolist, and Missionary Magazine United (October 1810), 227.

  20.  Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae,’ 28–30; and Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: W. W. Norton, 1990), 121.

  21.  John Ayto, Dictionary of Word Origins (New York: Arcade Publishing, 1990), 374; Peter Ward Fay, The Opium War: 1840–1842 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 3–5; and Martin Booth, Opium: A History (New York: St. Martin’s Press/Thomas Dunne Books, 1996), 4–7.

  22.  John Scarborough, “The Opium Poppy in Hellenistic and Roman Medicine,” in Drugs and Narcotics in History, edited by Roy Porter and Mikuláš Teich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 4. See also Booth, Opium, 11, 15–19; Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 3–4; and Carl A. Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy: A Study of the Asian Opium Trade 1750–1950 (London: Routledge, 1999), 14–17.

  23.  Xu Boling, quoted in Zheng Yangwen, The Social Life of Opium in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 11. See also ibid., 12; Booth, Opium, 103–5; and Chouvy, Opium, 4–5.

  24.  Hunt Janin, The India-China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century (Jefferson, NC: MacFarland & Company, 1999), 41. See also Yangwen, The Social Life of Opium in China, 25–40, 46; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 287–88; Fay, The Opium War, 7–9; and Charles C. Mann, 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), 164.

  25.  Duncan McPherson, Two Years in China: Narrative of the Chinese Expedition from Its Formation in April, 1840, to the Treaty of Peace in August, 1842 (London: Saunders and Otley, 1843), 245–46. See also Fay, The Opium War, 8–9; and Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., s.v. “opium.”

  26.  “The Opium Trade,” Museum of Foreign Literature, Science and Art (December 1839), 529. See also Nathan Allen, The Opium Trade: Including a Sketch of Its History, Extent, Effects, Etc., as Carried on in India and China (Lowell, MA: James P. Walker, 1853), 34.

  27.  McPherson, Two Years in China, 248–49.

  28.  Frank Dikötter, Lars Laaman, and Zhou Xun, Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China (London: C. Hurst & Co., 2004), 33–34. See also Yangwen, The Social Life of Opium in China, 41–55; and Jack Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), 23–24.

  29.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 1–7; Beatrice Hohenegger, Liquid Jade: The Story of Tea from East to West (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2006), 4–8; and Alan Macfarlane and Iris Macfarlane, The Empire of Tea: The Remarkable History of the Plant That Took Over the World (New York: Overlook Press, 2004), 41–42.

  30.  Lu Yü, The Classic of Tea, translated by Francis Ross Carpenter (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1974), 60, 77–111. See also Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 4–5, 11–20; and Hohenegger, Liquid Jade, 12–13.

  31.  William H. Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 2 (New York: Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Company, 1935), 484; and Kakuzō Okakura, The Book of Tea (London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1906), 34–35.

  32.  Joseph M. Walsh, Tea: Its History and Mystery (Philadelphia: Published by the author, 1892), 10. See also Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 5.

  33.  Carole Manchester, Tea in the East (New York: William Morrow, 1996), 54–55; Mary Lou Heiss and Robert J. Heiss, The Story of Tea: A Cultural History and Drinking Guide (Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press, 2007), 187–89; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 81–83; Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 23–29; and Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 2, 108.

  34.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 38–39; and Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 2, 294.

  35.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 29, 41–46; and John Phipps, A Practical Treatise on the China and Eastern Trade (London: William H. Allen, and Co., 1836), 98.

  36.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 29–32; Hohenegger, Liquid Jade, 69; and Robert Finlay, The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 129.

  37.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 41–46; Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 2, 389–96; Macfarlane and Macfarlane, The Empire of Tea, 80–82; John Keay, China: A History (New York: Basic Books, 2009), 456; and Reginald Hanson, A Short Account of Tea and the Tea Trade (London: Whitehead, Morris & Lowe, 1876), 51–52.

  38.  Samuel Johnson, “Review of a Journal of Eight Days Journey from Portsmouth to Kingston Upon Thames,” in The Works of Samuel Johnson, vol. 2 (London: Luke Hansard & Sons, 1806), 390; and Benjamin Woods Labaree, The Boston Tea Party (London: Oxford University Press, 1964), 3, 5–6.

  39.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 269–96; Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 2, 123–24; Hohenegger, Liquid Jade, 94–95; Robert Fortune, Three Years’ Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China (London: John Murray, 1847), 186–208; and Luke Hebert, The Engineer’s and Mechanic’s Encyclopedia, vol. 2 (London: Thomas Kelly, 1836), 763–64.

  40.  Keay, China, 456. See also Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 32, 77; Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 2, 397, 436–48; Henry Hobhouse, Seeds of Change: Six Plants That Transformed Mankind (Berkeley, CA: Shoemaker & Hoard, 2005), 112, 134–38; Heiss and Heiss, The Story of Tea, 338; Jane Pettigrew, The Tea Companion: A Connoisseur’s Guide (Philadelphia: Running Press Books, 2004), 47–53; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 266–71; Eighteenth-Century English Porcelain in the Collection of the Indianapolis Museum of Art, edited by Jean Kane (Indianapolis: Indianapolis Museum of Art, 1987), 191; and Rodris Roth, “Tea Drinking in 18th-Century America: Its Etiquette and Equipage,” United States National Museum Bulletin 225 (1961), 84.

Chapter Three: CHINA DREAMS

  1.  Washington Irving, The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent., vol. 2 (London: John Murray, 1822), 360–61. See also Washington Irving, A History of New York From the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty (London: John Murray, 1820), 179–82; Elisabeth Paling Funk, “Netherlands’ Popular Culture in the Knickerbocker Works of Washington Irving,” in New World Dutch Studies: Dutch Arts and Culture in Colonial America, 1609–1776, edited by Roderic H. Blackburn and Nancy A. Kelley (Albany, NY: Albany Institute of History and Art, 1987), 88; Jane Pettigrew and Bruce Richardson, The New Tea Companion: A Guide to Teas Throughout the World (London: National Trust Enterprise, Ltd., 2005), 22–23; Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 49; Esther Singleton, Dutch New York (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1909), 115, 132–33; and David Sanctuary Howard, New York and the China Trade (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1984), 20–21.

  2.  Israel Acrelius, A History of New Sweden: or, The Settlements on the River Delaware, translated by William M. Reynolds (Philadelphia: Publication Fund of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 1874), 158. See also T. H. Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2004), 304–5; Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 49–51; and Frank, Objectifying China, 97–98.

  3.  Justin Winsor, The Memorial History of Boston, Including Suffolk County, Massachusetts, 1630–1880, vol. 2 (Boston: James R. Osgood and Company, 1881), 454.

  4.  Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 50–51; Edward Hagaman Hall, The Catskill Aqueduct and Earlier Water Supplies of the City of New York (New York: Mayor’s Catskill Aqueduct Celebration Committee, 1917), 32; Gilbert Barkly, “The Memorial of Gilbert Barkly, merchant, in Philadelphia, in North America, who resided there upwards of sixteen years, and who is well acquainted with the consumption of that country, particularly in the article of Teas, &c.,” in Francis S. Drake, Tea Leaves: Being a Collection of Letters and Documents Relating to the Shipment of Tea to the American Colonies in the Year 1773, by the East India Tea Company (Boston: A. O. Crane, 1884), 200; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 241; Hohenegger, Liquid Jade, 229; and U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1960), 756.

  5.  Frank, Objectifying China, 1–4, 55–59, 116–26, 133–42. See also Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 35, 40, 52–53, 185, 304.

  6.  John Trusly, letter to the editor, New-York Weekly Journal (April 22, 1734). See also Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 171; John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776–1882 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 6; and The Grove Encyclopedia of Decorative Arts, edited by Gordon Campbell (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006), s.v. “chinoiserie,” vol. 1, 237–39.

  7.  Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 4–8; and Susan Gray Detweiler, George Washington’s Chinaware (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1982), 30.

  8.  Frank, Objectifying China, 27–55; Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 88; Kenneth Scott Latourette, The History of Early Relations Between the United States and China, 1784–1844 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1917), 11; and Donald Johnson, The United States in the Pacific: Private Interests and Public Policies, 1784–1899 (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1995), 3.

  9.  Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 88; Jonathan Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 1682–1846: Commercial, Cultural, and Attitudinal Effects (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978), 17–19; Labaree, The Boston Tea Party, 7; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 241; Benjamin Labaree, America’s Nation-Time, 1607–1789 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976), 98; John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), 77–78.

  10.  Quotes, respectively, from Andrew Coe, Chop Suey: A Cultural History of Chinese Food in the United States (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009), 23; Jean Baptiste Du Halde, The General History of China, 3d ed., vols. 1 (London: J. Watts, 1741), preface (unnumbered) and 2; and M. de Voltaire, A Philosophical Dictionary, vol. 2, 2d ed. (London: John and H. L. Hunt, 1824), 151. See also Fairbank, The United States and China, 156–7.

  11.  George Anson, A Voyage Round the World, in the Years 1740, 41, 42, 43, 44, compiled by Richard Walter under Anson’s direction, vol. 2 (1748; reprint, Edinburgh: Campbell Denovan, 1781), 231–32, 255. See also ibid., 118–38; Gelber, The Dragon, 158–59; and Spence, The Search for Modern China, 120–21.

  12.  Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, The Spirit of Laws, vol. 1 (Dublin: G. and A. Ewing, 1751), 156. See also ibid., 153–55; and Gunn, First Globalization, 146–48.

  13.  Charles Thomson, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Held at Philadelphia, for Promoting Useful Knowledge, vol. 1, 2d ed. (Philadelphia: Aitken & Son, 1789), xvii, xix. See also Ellis Paxson Oberholzer, “Franklin’s Philosophical Society,” Popular Science Monthly (March 1902), 432.

  14.  Alexander Hamilton, The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 1, edited by Harold C. Syrett and Jacob E. Cooke (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), 384; and Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 17–18.

  15.  “Colonist’s Advocate: X,” Public Advertiser, Feb. 19, 1770, in Benjamin Franklin’s Letters to the Press, 1758–1775, edited by Verner W. Crane (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1950), 206; and Frank, Objectifying China, 109.

  16.  Much of the following discussion, encapsulated in the question “Why tea?” is based on Fichter, So Great a Proffit; Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution; Frank, Objectifying China; and Labaree, The Boston Tea Party.

  17.  “To Our Ladies,” Boston News-Letter, in Songs and Ballads of the American Revolution, by Frank Moore (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1856), 48–50; Thomas O’Connor, The Hub, Boston Past and Present (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2001), 55; Labaree, The Boston Tea Party, 50, 73, 80; Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 300; Roth, Tea Drinking in 18th-Century America, 66–67; and Fichter, So Great a Proffit, 18.

  18.  Sydney Greenbie and Marjorie Barstow Greenbie, Gold of Ophir: The China Trade in the Making of America (New York: Wilson-Erickson, 1937), 18.

  19.  Edmund Burke, “Speeches in the Trial of Warren Hastings,” in Speeches of the Managers and Counsel in the Trial of Warren Hastings, vol. 1, edited By E. A. Bond (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1859), 15.

  20.  Labaree, The Boston Tea Party, 90–103; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 242; Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 298–301; and Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 52–53, 78.

  21.  A Mechanic, “To the Tradesmen, Mechanics, &c. of the Province of Pennsylvania,” broadside, December 4, 1773, viewed by author at Library of Congress American Memory Web site, on January 19, 2011: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html. See also Frank, Objectifying China, 188; Labaree, The Boston Tea Party, 58–79, 89–91; and Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 242.

  22.  Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 306.

  23.  Fichter, So Great a Proffit, 17. See also ibid., 18–30.

  24.  Breen, The Marketplace of Revolution, 300, 304. See also ibid., 305–31; and Ukers, All About Tea, vol. 1, 57–65.

Chapter Four: THE “NEW PEOPLE”

  1.  Green, quoted in Smith, The Empress, 159. See also Shaw, The Journals, 162, 211–12.

  2.  Anson, A Voyage Round the World, vol. 2, 186. See also The Modern Part of An Universal History From the Earliest Accounts to the Present Time, vol. 8 (London: C. Bathurst, 1781), 120; Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, 160–61; and Christopher Kelly, A New and Complete System of Universal Geography (London: Weed and Riden, 1819), 39.

  3.  Shaw, The Journals, 163–64.

  4.  Pierre le Poivre, Travels of a Philosopher: Or, Observations on the Manners and Arts of Various Nations in Africa and Asia (Glasgow: Robert Urie, 1770), 139–42.

  5.  Quotes from Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae,’ 108–9; and Shaw, The Journals, 178–79. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 26–33; The Chinese Traveller, Containing A Geographical, Commercial, and Political History of China, vol. 1 (London: E. And C. Dilly, 1772), 37–38; Charles Tyng, Before the Wind: The Memoir of an American Sea Captain, 1808–1833 (New York: Viking, 1999), 33–34; Clarke Abel, Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China, and of a Voyage to and from that Country, in the Years 1816 and 1817 (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1818), 281; Samuel Shaw, “The Drone,” New-York Magazine or Literary Repository (January 1796), 3, 5; Charles Toogood Downing, The Fan-Qui in China, in 1836–7, vol. 1 (London: Henry Colburn, 1838), 211–12, 307–8; and Richard J. Cleveland, A Narrative of Voyages and Commercial Enterprises, vol. 1 (Cambridge, UK: John Owen, 1843), 46.

  6.  Shaw, The Journals, 179–80, 183, 199–200.

  7.  Swift, quoted in Smith, The Empress, 154. See also ibid., 155; and “Extract of a letter from a Swedish Supra Cargo, at Canton, to his friend in London, dated 25th Feb. 1785, per True Briton,” Independent Ledger and the American Advertiser (February 13, 1786).

  8.  Shaw, The Journals, 176–77, 185.

  9.  All the quotes are from Hosea Ballou Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926), 99–105. See also Shaw, The Journals, 186–95, 339; Letter from Thomas Randall to Alexander Hamilton, August 14, 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 9, edited by Harold C. Syrett (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 50; “East India Intelligence,” Gentleman’s Magazine (August 1785), 655–56; and “Riot At China,” The Times (July 8, 1785).

  10.  Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2, 99–105.

  11.  Shaw, The Journals, 195.

  12.  Li Chen, “Law, Empire, and Historiography of Modern Sino-Western Relations: A Case Study of the Lady Hughes Controversy in 1784,” Law and History Review (Spring 2009), accessed by the author at the following Web site on February 1, 2011: www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/27.1/chen.html.

  13.  Smith, The Empress, 172–73; Shaw, The Journals, 200–213; and “New-York, May 12,” Connecticut Courant (May 16, 1785).

  14.  Shaw, The Journals, 337, 341.

  15.  Dennet, Americans in Eastern Asia, 7–8.

  16.  Thomas Jefferson to Count de Vergennes, October 11, 1785, in Memoir, Correspondence, and Miscellanies from the Papers of Thomas Jefferson, edited by Thomas Jefferson Randolph, vol. 1 (Charlottesville, VA: F. Carr, and Co., 1829), 337–38.

  17.  Although the very complicated backstory to the Empress of China’s return—which includes financial and legal battles among the backers, threats and recriminations, and years of litigation—is interesting, it is not relevant to this book’s narrative or to the ultimate impact the voyage had on American history. To learn more about this story, see Smith, The Empress of China, 84–88, 115–26, and 220–50.

  18.  “Elizabeth Town, May 18,” Political Intelligencer and New-Jersey Advertiser (May 18, 1785). See also “New-York, May 14,” Independent Journal (May 14, 1785); “Philadelphia, May 13,” Pennsylvania Evening Herald (May 14, 1785); Shaw, The Journals, 218; and Robert Morris to John Jay, May 19, 1785, in William Jay, The Life of John Jay, vol. 1 (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1833), 191; “India Goods,” Political Intelligencer (May 25, 1785); “Hyson Tea,” Columbian Herald (July 6, 1785); and “Theodosius Fowler,” Connecticut Courant (July 11, 1785).

  19.  “Extract of a letter from an English gentleman in New-York to his friend in England, Jun 2,” London’s New-York Packet (January 16, 1786).

Chapter Five: CHINA RUSH

  1.  James Fenimore Cooper, Notions of the Americans: Picked up by a Traveling Bachelor, vol. 1 (London: Henry Colburn, 1828), 16; and Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, translated by Henry Reeve (New York: George Adlard, 1838), 402.

  2.  “From the New-York Gazetteer Reflections on a Trade to India,” The United States Chronicle, Political, Commercial and Historical (August 25, 1785); and John Adams to John Jay, November 11, 1785, in The Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States of America, From the Signing of the Definitive Treaty of Peace, 10th September 1783, to the Adoption of the Constitution, March 4, 1789, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: Blair & Rives, 1837), 533–34.

  3.  Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, 34.

  4.  Rhys Richards, “United States Trade with China, 1784–1814,” special supplement to American Neptune 54 (1994), 9–66; and Rhys Richards, “Re-Viewing Early American Trade with China, 1784–1833,” in Mains’l Haul: A Journal of Pacific Maritime History (Spring 2003), 18–19.

  5.  Henry Carter Adams, “Taxation in the United States, 1789–1816, vols. V–VI,” in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science, edited by Herbert B. Adams (Baltimore: N. Murray, 1884), 70.

  6.  Independent Chronicle, quoted in Hamilton Andrews Hill, The Trade and Commerce of Boston, 1630–1890 (Boston: Damrell & Upton, 1895), 89–90.

  7.  Thomas Randall to Alexander Hamilton, August 14, 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, edited by Harold C. Syrett, vol. 10 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 54.

  8.  Fichter, So Great a Proffit, 22–27, 39–45; Dennet, Americans in Eastern Asia, 7–8; Nancy Ellen Davis, The American China Trade, 1784–1844: Products for the Middle Class (Washington DC: Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, February 15, 1987), 10–11; Alexander Hamilton, “Trade with India and China,” February 10, 1791, in Alexander Hamilton, The Works of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 3, edited by John C. Hamilton (New York: John F. Trow, 1850), 188–89; John Steele Gordon, An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power (New York: HarperCollins, 2004), 66; and John K. Fairbank, Chinese-American Interactions: A Historical Summary (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1975), 11–12.

  9.  Kenneth Wiggins Porter, John Jacob Astor, Business Man, vol. 1 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1966), 129–63; Washington Irving, Astoria; or, Enterprise Beyond the Rocky Mountains (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1836); Eric Jay Dolin, Fur, Fortune, and Empire: The Epic History of the Fur Trade in America (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 189–222; and Nathaniel Philbrick, Sea of Glory: America’s Voyage of Discovery, The U.S. Exploring Expedition (New York: Penguin, 2004), 4.

  10.  John Bach McMaster, The Life and Times of Stephen Girard, Mariner and Merchant, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1918), 1–48; Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, 144–48; Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 35; Jonathan Goldstein, Stephen Girard’s Trade with China 1787–1824: The Norms Versus Profits of Trade (Portland, ME: MerwinAsia, 2011), 40; and Jean Gordon Lee, Philadelphians and the China Trade, 1784–1844 (Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 1984), 104.

  11.  Robert E. Peabody, The Logs of the Grand Turks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1926), 1–104; Freeman Hunt, “Elias Hasket Derby,” in Lives of American Merchants, vol. 2 (New York: Derby & Jackson, 1858), 17–56; Shaw, The Journals, 204, 208–9; Joseph B. Felt, Annals of Salem, vol. 2 (Salem, MA: W. & S. B. Ives, 1849), 292; Maritime Salem in the Age of Sail (Washington, DC: National Park Service in cooperation with the Peabody Museum of Salem, 2009), 17; Doug Stewart, “Salem Sets Sail,” Smithsonian Magazine (June 2004), accessed by the author on February 15, 2011, at http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/salem.html; Samuel Eliot Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1961), 45–46, 85, 175; “New-York, January 28,” Independent Journal (January 28, 1786); and “New-York, February 17,” Gazette of the United States (February 17, 1790).

  12.  Malcolm Gladwell, Outliers: The Story of Success (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 2008), 56–61. See also Robert E. Peabody, “The Derbys of Salem: A Study of 18th Century Commerce Carried on by a Family of Typical New England Merchants,” Historical Collections of the Essex Institute 44 (July 1908), 217–18; and Axel Madsen, John Jacob Astor: America’s First Multimillionaire (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2001), 1.

  13.  Quotes from Rappleye, Robert Morris, 507, 512. See also ibid., 490–515; Oberholzer, Robert Morris, Patriot and Financier, 224; and Walter Lefferts, Noted Pennsylvanians (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1913), 54.

  14.  Fichter, So Great a Proffit, 27, 112–13; Edwin J. Perkins, “Financing the War of 1812,” in Encyclopedia of the War of 1812, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1997), 182–84; Jerry Markham, A Financial History of the United States, vol. 1 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2002), 122; and Edward S. Kaplan, The Bank of the United States and the American Economy (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 44.

  15.  “New-York, April 24,” Worcester Magazine (May 1787), 64; Paul E. Fontenoy, “An ‘Experimental’ Voyage to China, 1785–1787,” American Neptune 55 (1995), 289, 294–95; “New-York, December 26,” Pennsylvania Mercury and Universal Advertiser (December 30, 1785); and Richards, “United States Trade with China, 1784–1814,” 6.

  16.  All quotes from Amasa Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, 23, 25. See also ibid., 21–40; William Hackett, Papers Relating to the Building of the Ship Massachusetts, at Braintree, 1787 (Salem, MA: Reprinted from the Essex Institute Historical Collections, 1938); “For Canton, in China,” Independent Chronicle (January 7, 1790); and “Ship News,” Massachusetts Centinel (March 31, 1790).

  17.  Quote from Goldstein, Stephen Girard’s Trade with China, 13. See also Timothy Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America (New York: James Eastburn & Co., 1817), 247–48; John Macgregor, Commercial Statistics, vol. 3 (London: Whitaker and Co., 1847), 816–17; and Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 2.

  18.  Carl L. Crossman, The Decorative Arts of the China Trade (Suffolk, NY: Antique Collector’s Club, 1991), 215–16; and Milton Esterow, “The Many Faces of George Washington,” ARTNews (October 2009), accessed by the author on June 8, 2011 at the following Web site: http://www.artnews.com/issues/article.asp?art_id=2760.

  19.  Fichter, So Great a Proffit, 1, 26, 56–81; and Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 620.

  20.  William Milburn, Oriental Commerce; Containing a Geographical Description of the Principal Places in The East Indies, China, and Japan, vol. 2 (London: Black, Parry, and Co., 1813), 485.

  21.  Wood, Empire of Liberty, 202. See also Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America, 248; Macgregor, Commercial Statistics, 816; and Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 65–67.

  22.  Nathaniel Portlock, Voyage Round the World; But More Particularly to the Northwest Coast of America: Performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788, in the King George and Queen Charlotte, Captains Portlock and Dixon (London: John Stockdale and George Goulding, 1789), 37, 42. See also Michael A. Jehle, From Brant Point to the Boca Tigris: Nantucket and the China Trade (Nantucket: Nantucket Historical Association, 1994), 52–54; Edouard A. Stackpole, The Sea Hunters: The New England Whalemen During Two Centuries, 1635–1835 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1953), 183–88; James Kirker, Adventures to China: Americans in the Southern Oceans, 1792–1812 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 9–11.

  23.  James Fenimore Cooper, The Sea Lions; or, The Lost Sealers, vol. 1 (New York: Stringer & Townsend, 1849), 46. See also R. Henry, “Seals as Navigators,” Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, 1900, 33 (1901), 439.

  24.  Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, 306; and Ebenezer Townsend, “The Diary of Mr. Ebenezer Townsend, Jr., the Supercargo of the Sealing Ship ‘Neptune,’ on Her Voyage to the South Pacific and Canton,” in Papers of the New Haven Colony Historical Society, vol. 4 (New Haven: Printed for the Society, 1888), 35–36.

  25.  Kirker, Adventures in China, 74–75. See also ibid., 52–91; and Townsend, “The Diary of Mr. Ebenezer Townsend, Jr.,” 47–48.

  26.  Kirker, Adventures in China, 8–9, 71–72, 167. See also Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, 306–07; Edmund Fanning, Voyages to the South Seas, Indian and Pacific Oceans, China Sea, North-West Coast, Fiji Island, South Shetlands, &c & c. (New York: William H. Vermilye, 1838), 341; Briton Cooper Busch, The War Against the Seals: A History of the North American Seal Fishery (Kingston, ON: McGill-Queens University Press, 1985), 8, 20–36; James R. Gibson, Otter Skins, Boston Ships, and China Goods: The Maritime Fur Trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785–1841 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 252–53; Benjamin Morrell, A Narrative of Four Voyages, to the South Sea, North and South Pacific Ocean, Chinese Sea, Ethiopic and Southern Atlantic Ocean, Indian and Antarctic Ocean (New York: J. & J. Harper, 1832), 130, 393–404; and Richard Ellis, The Empty Ocean (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2003), 155.

  27.  Sparks, Memoirs, 193, 196–97, 201–5; and Gifford, Ledyard, 153.

  28.  David Lavender, Land of Giants, The Drive to the Pacific Northwest, 1750–1950 (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1958), 23.

  29.  Mary Malloy, “Boston Men” in the Northwest Coast: The American Maritime Fur Trade 1788–1844 (Kingston, ON: Limestone Press, 1998), 26; and William Sturgis, “The Northwest Fur Trade,” 536. See also Gibson, Otter Skins, 36–61, 299–318; Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 53; Dolin, Fur, Fortune, and Empire, 139–43; and Adele Ogden, The California Sea Otter Trade, 1784–1848 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1941), 2.

  30.  McCracken, Hunters of the Stormy Sea (New York: Doubleday, 1957), 38–39, 55–58; and Agnes C. Laut, Pioneers of the Pacific Coast, A Chronicle of Sea Rovers and Fur Hunters (Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Company, 1915), 36–37.

  31.  “The Fur Trade Between the N.W. Coast of America and China,” Niles’ National Register (March 18, 1843), 40. See also William Sturgis, “The Northwest Fur Trade,” 536; Gibson, Otter Skins, 57–58, 199–203, 317; Ogden, The California Sea Otter Trade, 32–65; Glenn Farris, “Otter Hunting by Alaskan Natives Along the California Coast in the Early Nineteenth Century,” Mains’l Haul (Summer/Fall 2007), 20–33; Rodney J. Taylor, “The Log of the Brig Betsy, 1799–1801,” in Mains’l Haul (Summer/Fall 2007), 70–87; and John Boit, Jr., Log of the Union, John Boit’s Remarkable Voyage to the Northwest Coast and Around the World, 1794–1796, edited by Edmund Hayes (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1981), xviii–xxiv, 88.

  32.  The following sources, in addition to those cited in the text, were used as background for the section on sandalwood: Fanning, Voyages to the South Seas, 54, 57–63, 121–23; Kirker, Adventures in China, 111–43; Ernest S. Dodge, Islands and Empires: Western Impact on the Pacific and East Asia (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1976), 60–65; Gibson, Otter Skins, 253–58; Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 43–44; Hosea Ballou Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company trading to China, 1635–1834, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926), 3–4, 174–75, 219; Ernest Dodge, New England and the South Seas (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965), 53–54, 86; Ronald Albert Derrick, A History of Fiji, vol. 1 (Suva: Government Press, 1957), 39–46; and Gavan Daws, Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968), 49–50.

  33.  Quotes, respectively, from Fanning, Voyages to the South Seas, 61–62; and Alan Gurney, The Race to the White Continent: Voyages to the Antarctic (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 29.

  34.  Garrett Hardin, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” Science (December 13, 1968), 1243–48; Dodge, Islands and Empires, 59–64; Malloy, “Boston Men” in the Northwest Coast, 37–39; Ann Fabian, The Skull Collectors: Race, Science, and America’s Unburied Dead (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 134; Gibson, Otter Skins, 315; and Sturgis, “The Northwest Fur Trade,” 536.

  35.  Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–1842 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), 6–9; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 1, 67–68, 291; Trocki, Opium, 42–43; Immanuel Chung Yueh Hsü, The Rise of Modern China (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 156; and George Staunton, An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: Robert Campbell, 1799), 23.

  36.  Edmund Backhouse and John O. P. Bland, Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking, from the 16th to the 20th Century (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914), 325–26.

  37.  Joanna Waley-Cohen, The Sextants of Beijing: Global Currents in Chinese History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 92–97.

  38.  Teemu Ruskola, “Canton Is Not Boston: The Invention of American Imperial Sovereignty,” in American Quarterly (September 2005), 868.

  39.  Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 104–10.

  40.  Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 1, 215–16; Hosea Ballou Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926), 77; Hosea Ballou Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire: The Period of Conflict, 1834–1860 (New York: Longman’s, Green and Co., 1910), 209; Charles Clarkson Stelle, Americans and the China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Arno Press, 1981), 3, 5; Trocki, Opium, 44–45, 48–52, 81; Shaw, The Journals, 238; Van Dyke, The Canton Trade, 125–27; Booth, Opium, 113; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 108–9, 116; Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars, 26; and R. M. Dane, “Historical Memorandum,” Appendix B in Final Report of the Royal Commission on Opium, Proceedings, vol. 7 (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1895), 61.

  41.  Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2, 326–27, 344–46. See also Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 3, 127–29.

  42.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 108–9, 114–17, 121–25; Dane, “Historical Memorandum,” 61; James B. Lyall, “Note on the History of Opium in India and of the Trade in it with China,” Appendix A, in Final Report of the Royal Commission on Opium, Proceedings, vol. 7, 18; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 288–90; Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 10, 110–12; and Van Dyke, The Canton Trade, 120–34.

  43.  Fairbank, Chinese American Interactions, 15. See also, Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 1, 215; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2, 77–78, 326–27; Hsin-pao Chang, Commissioner Lin and the Opium War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964), 219; and Henry Moses, Sketches of India: With Notes on the Seasons, Scenery, and Society of Bombay, Elephanta, and Salesette (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1750), 67–69.

  44.  Paul E. Fontenoy, “The Opium Trade in China: An Early American Connection,” part 1, Mains’l Haul (Winter 1996), 23.

  45.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 115. See also Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 54; Stelle, Americans and the China Opium, 19–20; and Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 3, 72–73.

  46.  Timothy Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America (New Haven: Durrie & Peck, 1835), 303; Richards, “Re-Viewing Early American Trade with China,” 15–18; Shü-Lun Pan, The Trade of the United States with China (New York: China Trade Bureau, 1924), 9; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 105–7; and Lawrence H. Officer, Between the Dollar-Sterling Gold Points: Exchange Rates, Parity, and Market Behavior (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 19–20, 147.

  47.  Edward Sanderson, “Rhode Island Merchants in the China Trade,” in Federal Rhode Island: The Age of the China Trade, 1790–1820 (Providence: Rhode Island Historical Society, 1978), 44; and Gertrude Selwyn Kimball, “The East-India Trade of Providence, from 1787 to 1807,” in Papers from the Historical Seminary of Brown University, vol. 6, edited by J. Franklin Jameson (Providence: Preston and Rounds, 1896), 5–6.

  48.  Gabriel Franchère, “Narrative of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America in the Years 1811, 1812, and 1813, or the First Settlement on the Pacific,” in Early Western Travels 1748–1846, vol. 6, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites (1854; reprint, Cleveland: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1904), 289–92; Washington Irving, Astoria; or, Enterprise Beyond the Rocky Mountains (Paris: Baudry’s European Library, 1836), 64–70; and James P. Ronda, Astoria & Empire (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990), 235–37.

  49.  Quote from James Jackson Jarvis, History of the Hawaiian Islands (Honolulu: Charles Edwin Hithcock, 1847), 76–77. See also Hiram Bingham, A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands; or the Civil, Religious, and Political History of Those Islands (Hartford, CT: Hezekiah Huntington, 1847), 39–40; Townsend, “The Diary of Mr. Ebenezer Townsend, Jr., 59–60; Daws, Shoal of Time, 33–34; and Kirker, Adventures in China, 148–50.

  50.  Gibson, Otter Skins, 156.

  51.  John R. Jewitt, in collaboration with Richard Alsop, Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt (Middletown, CT: Seth Richards, 1815), 114. See also Gibson, Otter Skins, 159–75; Malloy, “Boston Men” in the Northwest Coast, 35; and Dolin, Fur, Fortune, and Empire, 156–61.

  52.  Sturgis quoted, respectively, in Charles G. Loring, Memoir of the Hon. William Sturgis (Boston: John Wilson and Son, 1864), 24; and Gibson, Otter Skins, 158. See also William Sturgis, “A Most Remarkable Enterprise,” Lectures on the Northwest Coast Trade and Northwest Coast Indian Life by Captain William Sturgis, edited by Mary Malloy (Marston’s Mills, MA: Parnassus Imprints, 1997), 77.

  53.  Quotes, respectively, from Robert Bennet Forbes, Personal Reminiscenses (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1882), 392–93; and William Elliot Griffis, “Our Navy in Asiatic Waters,” in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (October 1898), 739. See also Other Merchants and Sea Captains of Old Boston (Boston: State Street Trust Company, 1919), 51–53; Edmond S. Meany, “Book Review, The Northwest Fur Trade and the Indians of the Oregon Country, by William Sturgis,” Washington Historical Quarterly (October 1920), 304–5; and Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 61.

  54.  Dodge, Islands and Empires, 60–65.

  55.  Fanning, Voyages to the South Seas, 59.

  56.  Dodge, Island and Empires, 64; Derrick, A History of Fiji, 43–46; Peter Dillon, Narrative and Successful Result of a Voyage in the South Seas, Performed by Order of the Government of British India, to Ascertain the Actual Fate of La Pérouse’s Expedition, vol. 1 (London: Hurst, Chance, and Co., 1829), 1–19, 27; and Kirker, Adventures in China, 132–37.

  57.  Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, 139. See also Stackpole, The Sea-Hunters, 240–44; and Thomas Boyles Murray, Pitcairn: The Island, the People, and the Pastor (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1859), 104–6.

  58.  Phineas Bond to Lord Carmarthen, May 17, 1787, in Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1896, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1897), 535; and Phineas Bond to Lord Carmarthen, July 2, 1787, in ibid., 540–42. See also Phineas Bond to Lord Carmarthen, December 29, 1787, in ibid., 555–56; Phineas Bond to Lord Carmarthen, October 2, 1788, in ibid., 578; Phineas Bond to Lord Carmarthen, December 2, 1788, in ibid., 590; and Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, 83–86.

  59.  Edmund Burke, Burke’s Speech on Conciliation with America, edited by Charles R. Morris (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1945), 14, 21–23, 103. See also Stanley Ayling, Edmund Burke, His Life and Opinions (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1988), 80.

  60.  Quotes, respectively, from Samuel Shaw to John Jay, December 21, 1787, in The Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States of America, from the Signing of the Definitive Treaty of Peace, 10th September, 1783, to the Adoption of the Constitution, March 4, 1789, vol. 7 (Washington, DC: Francis Preston Blair, 1834), 469; and A. Owen Aldridge, The Dragon and the Eagle: The Presence of China in the American Enlightenment (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993), 127.

  61.  Townsend, “The Diary of Mr. Ebenezer Townsend, Jr.,” 87–88.

  62.  Richard Henry Lee to Samuel Adams, May 20, 1785, in The Letters of Richard Henry Lee, vol. 2, edited by James Curtis Ballagh (New York: Macmillan Company, 1914), 360; “Dublin, May 31,” Providence Gazette and Country Journal (August 4, 1787); William Bentley, The Diary of William Bentley D.D., Pastor of the East Church Salem, Massachusetts, vol. 2, edited by Joseph Gilbert Waters, Marguerite Dalrymple, and Alice G. Waters (Salem, MA: The Essex Institute, 1907), 192; and “Extract of a letter from an American gentleman in London, to his friend in Philadelphia,” Public Advertiser (September 18, 1807).

  63.  Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 45, 56; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2, 184, 193, 205, 256, 266, 278, 294, 311, 322, 348, 358, 389, 401; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 3, 2, 27, 55, 77, 101, 131, 158, 175, 206; Tench Coxe to Alexander Hamilton, August 1791, in The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, vol. 10, edited by Harold C. Syrett (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 143; Milburn, Oriental Commerce, 486; Foster Rhea Dulles, The Old China Trade (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1930), 209–11; and Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America (1817), 247–49.

  64.  Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, xiii. The number for the value of the China trade relative to overall United States trade is based on my calculations, using the following sources: Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America (1835), 302–6; and Historical Statistics of the United States: Earliest Times to the Present, Millennial Edition, vol. 5, edited by Susan B. Carter, Scott Sigmund Gartner, Michael R. Haines, Alan L. Olmstead, Richard Sutch, and Gavin Wright (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 534–44. See also Fichter, So Great a Proffit, 207; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 3, 27, 77, 131; and Documents Relating to the Finances of the United States, Doc. no. 31, U.S. Senate, 19th Cong., 1st sess. (February 6, 1826), 9.

  65.  Adam Johann von Krusenstern, Voyage Round the World in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, & 1806, vol. 1, translated from the German by Richard Belgrave Hoppner (London: John Murray, 1813), 332–33; Gibson, Otter Skins, 28–35; Latourette, Early Relations Between the United States and China, 46–47.

  66.  Benjamin W. Labaree, William M. Fowler, Jr., Edward W. Sloan, John B. Hattendorf, Jeffrey J. Safford, and Andrew W. German, America and the Sea: A Maritime History (Mystic, CT: Mystic Seaport, 1998), 198; and Robert Leckie, The Wars of America (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), 230–31.

  67.  The background for this section on Pinqua Wingchong (whose name is also spelled “Winchung” in some places) comes from the following sources, unless otherwise noted: Porter, John Jacob Astor, vol. 1, 142–50; and Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, 103–8.

  68.  “Washington City,” National Intelligencer (July 25, 1808).

  69.  Thomas Jefferson to Albert Gallatin, July 25, 1808, in Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, edited by Albert Ellery Bergh, vol. 11 (Washington, DC: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1907), 106–7.

  70.  Quotes, respectively, from, Porter, John Jacob Astor, vol. 1, 147; and Madsen, John Jacob Astor, 70. See also untitled article, The North American and Mercantile Daily Advertiser (July 28, 1808).

  71.  “The Ship Beaver and the Mandarin,” New-York Commercial Advertiser (August 13, 1808).

  72.  “Notice to Mandarins,” New-York Gazette & General Advertiser (August 13, 1808). See also untitled article, The North American, and Mercantile Daily Advertiser (August 13, 1808).

  73.  Walter Barrett, The Old Merchants of New York City (New York: Carleton, 1866), 9–10.

  74.  Thomas Jefferson to Albert Gallatin, August 15, 1808, in Thomas Jefferson, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, edited by Albert Ellery Bergh, vol. 11 (Washington, DC: Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association, 1907), 133–34. See also Albert Gallatin to Thomas Jefferson, August 5, 1808, in The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Adams, vol. 1 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1879), 400.

  75.  Untitled article, Portland Gazette and Maine Advertiser (August 19, 1808).

  76.  Frances Ruley Karttunen, The Other Islanders: People Who Pulled Nantucket’s Oars (New Bedford: Spinner Publications, 2005), 146.

  77.  For another take on this episode—that Wingchong might have been a low-level merchant seeking to secure payment for debts owed him by Shaw and Randall—see Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 41–42.

  78.  Labaree et al., America and the Sea, 207.

  79.  Milburn, Oriental Commerce, vol. 2, 486; Richards, United States Trade with China, 9, 49–58, and Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 52.

  80.  Peter Auber, China: An Outline of the Government, Laws, and Policy: And of the British and Foreign Embassies to, and Intercourse with, That Empire (London: Parbury, Allen, and Co., 1834), 241–42. See also Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 3, 214–19.

  81.  The quotes are Girard speaking, and they come from McMaster, The Life and Times of Stephen Girard, 216–17. See also ibid., 214–15, 218–20; and Stephen Simpson, Biography of Stephen Girard, with his Will Affixed (Philadelphia: Thomas L. Bonsal, 1832), 122.

Chapter Six: THE GOLDEN GHETTO

  1.  Robert Waln, Jr., from Mudge, Chinese Export Porcelain, 123; “A Review of Charles Gutzlaff’s, A Sketch of Chinese History, Ancient and Modern: comprising a retrospect of the Foreign Intercourse and Trade with China,” in American Quarterly Review (March 1835), 140. Figures for the value of America’s China trade calculated by me, based on the following sources: J. Smith Homans, An Historical and Statistical Account of the Foreign Commerce of the United States (New York: G. P. Putnam & Co., 1857), 181; Historical Statistics of the United States, vol. 5, 534–44; and Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America (1835), 299–301. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 348–57; John Tyler, “Sandwich Islands and China: Message from the President of the United States,” H. doc. 35, 27th Cong., 3d sess. (December 31, 1842), 3; and Yen-P’ing Hao, “Chinese Teas to America—A Synopsis,” in America’s China Trade in Historical Perspective: The Chinese and American Performance, edited by Ernest R. May and John K. Fairbank (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986), 22–23.

  2.  S. doc. 31, Committee on Finance, 19th Cong., 1st sess. (February 6, 1826); Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 143–220, 364–66; Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 61; Goldstein, Stephen Girard’s Trade with China, 85–91; and John Denis Haeger, John Jacob Astor: Business and Finance in the Early Republic (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 230–31; and Howard, New York and the China Trade, 27–28.

  3.  “The Discovery,” The American (September 22, 1820).

  4.  Busch, The War Against Seals, 22–25; Dulles, The Old China Trade, 92–93; Stackpole, The Sea Hunters, 355–60; J. A. Allen, “Fur-Seal Hunting in the Southern Hemisphere,” Proceedings of the Tribunal of Arbitration, Convened at Paris Under the Treaty Between the United States of America and Great Britain, Concluded at Washington February 29, 1892, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1892), 398; and “The Discovery,” The American (September 22, 1820).

  5.  Quotes from John Randolph Sears, Captain Nathaniel Brown Palmer: An Old-Time Sailor of the Sea (New York: Macmillan Company, 1922), 42–75. See also Philbrick, Sea of Glory, 14–16; William H. Goetzmann, New Lands, New Men: America and the Second Great Age of Discovery (New York: Viking, 1986), 253–56; Busch, The War Against the Seals, 23–24; Stackpole, The Sea Hunters, 355–68.

  6.  David Starr Jordan, The Fur Seals and Fur-Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean, pt. 3 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1899), 313.

  7.  Gibson, Otter Skins, 315.

  8.  David Porter, Journal of a Cruise Made to the Pacific Ocean by Captain David Porter in the United States Frigate Essex in the Years 1812, 1813, and 1814, 2d ed., vol. 2 (New York: Wiley & Halsted, 1822). See also I. C. Campbell, A History of the Pacific Islands (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 61–62.

  9.  In addition to the sources cited in the text, this section on sandalwood in Hawaii is based on the following: Dodge, New England and the South Seas, 81–83; Dodge, Islands and Empires, 61–62; Walter Muir Whitehall, George Crowninshield’s Yacht, Cleopatra’s Barge (Salem, MA: Peabody Museum, 1959), 3, 5, 7, 11–13; Ralph Simpson Kuykendall, The Hawaiian Kingdom, 1778–1854, vol. 1 (Honolulu: University of Hawaii, 1938), 88–89; Norris W. Potter, Lawrence M. Kasdon, and Ann Rayson, History of the Hawaiian Kingdom (Honolulu: Bess Press, 2003), 26–28; William Ellis, Narrative of a Tour Through Hawaii, or, Owhyhee (London: H. Fisher, Son, and P. Jackson, 1826), 375–76; Ralph S. Kuykendall and A. Grove Day, Hawaii: A History from Polynesian Kingdom to American State (Englewood: Prentice-Hall, 1961), 41–43; and Morison, The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 262.

  10.  Yunte Huang, Charlie Chan: The Untold Story of the Honorable Detective and his Rendezvous with American History (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 13.

  11.  Paul Forsythe Johnston, “A Million Pounds of Sandalwood: The History of Cleopatra’s Barge in Hawaii,” American Neptune (Winter 2002), 5–10.

  12.  Walter A. McDougall, Let the Sea Make a Noise: A History of the North Pacific From Magellan to MacArthur (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 181.

  13.  Quoted in Gibson, Otter Skins, 61. See also William Sturgis, “The Northwest Fur Trade,” Hunt’s Merchant Magazine (June 1846), 536; and Latourette, The History of Early Relations Between the United States and China, 54–55.

  14.  Dodge, Islands and Empires, 290; Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 50–51; Phipps, A Practical Treatise, 313; Stelle, Americans and the China Opium, 32; Robert Bennett Forbes, Remarks on China and the China Trade (Boston: Samuel N. Dickinson, 1844), 27; and Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 124–28.

  15.  Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 120. See also “China, Cohong Address,” Literary Panorama, and National Register, vol. 8 (London: Stimpkin and Marshall, 1819), 463–64; “On Further Interferences with the East-India Company’s Privileges of Exclusive Trade,” Asiatic Journal (December 1821), 526; and “Murder & Piracy,” Boston Palladium (December 18, 1817).

  16.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 119.

  17.  In addition to the sources cited in the text, this account of the Terranova affair is based on the following: Jacques M. Downs, “The Fateful Case of Francis Terranova: An Incident of the China Trade,” Mains’l Haul (Spring 2003), 4–13; “Account of the trial and fate of the sailor belonging to the American ship Emily, executed by the Chinese of Canton,” Republican Chronicle (April 3, 1822); and “Execution of an Italian at Canton,” North American Review (January 1835), 58–68.

  18.  “Account of the trial and fate of the sailor belonging to the American ship Emily.”

  19.  Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 87.

  20.  “Opium Trade with China,” Providence Patriot (December 21, 1822); and Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 121.

  21.  Morse, The Chronicles of the East India Company Trading to China, 1635–1834, vol. 4 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1926), 26.

  22.  Phyllis Forbes Kerr, Letters from China: The Canton-Boston Correspondence of Robert Bennet Forbes, 1838–1840 (Mystic, CT: Mystic Seaport Museum, Inc., 1996), 14–15; Maurice Collis, Foreign Mud: The Opium Imbroglio at Canton in the 1830’s and the Anglo-Chinese War (1946; reprint, New York: W. W. Norton, 1968), 22; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 120–21; and Robert Bennet Forbes, et al., “Memorial of R. B. Forbes and Others” (January 9, 1840), House Doc. 40, 26th Cong., 1st sess., 2.

  23.  John Tyler, “Sandwich Islands and China: Message from the President of the United States,” House doc. 35, 27th Cong., 3rd sess. (December 31, 1842), 8–10; S. doc. 31, Committee on Finance, 19th Cong., 1st sess. (February 6, 1826); and Forbes, Remarks on China, 27–28.

  24.  “Sea Cucumber,” International Wildlife Encyclopedia, edited by Maurice Burton (Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2002), 2271–72; and Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: P. F. Collier & Son Company, 1909), 468. Unless otherwise noted, the background for this section on the bêche-de-mer trade comes from the following sources: Dodge, New England and the South Seas, 86–100; William S. Cary, Wrecked on the Feejees (Nantucket: 1887; reprint, Inquirer and Mirror Press, 1949), 46–53; and Mary Wallis, The Fiji and New Caledonia Journals of Mary Wallis, 1851–1853, edited by David Routledge (Salem, MA: Institute of Pacific Studies, 1994), xviii–xx.

  25.  Frederick J. Simons, Food in China: A Cultural Historical Inquiry (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1991), 435.

  26.  James Oliver and William Giles Dix, Wreck of the Glide with Recollections of the Fijis (New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1848), 34–36.

  27.  Almost all the background information, and the quotes for the following section on the Glide, come from Oliver and Dix, Wreck of the Glide, 13, 27–38, 45–46, 67–71, 75–79, 84–90, 202–3. See also Dodge, New England and the South Seas, 96–98.

  28.  Homans, An Historical and Statistical Account of the Foreign Commerce of the United States, 181; Pitkin, A Statistical View of the Commerce of the United States of America (1835), 303; Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 73; Hao, “Chinese Teas to America,” 24–25; Freeman Hunt, “Commerce of China,” Hunt’s Merchant Magazine (December 1840), 476; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 108–12; and “Exchange in China,” Farmer’s Register (March 1834), 618.

  29.  Quote from Robert B. Marks, The Origins of the Modern World: Fate and Fortune in the Rise of the West (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007), 144. See also Paul E. Fontenoy, “Ginseng, Otter Skins, and Sandalwood: The Conundrum of the China Trade,” Northern Mariner 7, no. 1 (1997), 1–4; letter to the editor, The Patron of History (July 19, 1820); and “Trade Beyond the Cape of Good Hope,” New-York Columbian (February 6, 1819).

  30.  Hunt, “Commerce of China” (December 1840), 477–79; and Tyng, Before the Wind, 75.

  31.  Walter Barrett, The Old Merchants of New York City, vol. 1 (New York: Thomas R. Knox & Co., 1885), 39–45.

  32.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 85.

  33.  Fairbank, Chinese-American Interactions, 14.

  34.  All the quotes, and much of the information for this section on Forbes, come from the following source, except where otherwise noted in the text: Robert Bennet Forbes, Personal Reminiscences (Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1878), 1–5, 14–27, 30–31, 81, 124, 131–41.

  35.  Margaret C. S. Christman, Adventurous Pursuits: Americans and the China Trade, 1784–1844 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1984), 113.

  36.  All quotes from Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 43–44. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 41–43, 76; and Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 61.

  37.  Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 48; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 80–82; Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, 85.

  38.  Abeel, Journal of a Residence in China, 88–89.

  39.  Quote from George B. Stevens, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, M.D. (Boston: Congregational Sunday-School and Publishing Society, 1896), 106–7. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 44–45; and Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 81–82.

  40.  Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 25–26; and Aldridge, The Dragon and the Eagle, 106–7.

  41.  “China and the Chinese,” Southern Quarterly Review (July 1847), 17. See also Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, 95.

  42.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 49–50.

  43.  All the quotes in this section attributed to Harriet Low come from the following: Harriet Low, My Mother’s Journal: A Young Lady’s Diary of Five Years Spent in Manila, Macao, and the Cape of Good Hope, edited by Katherine Hillard (Boston: George H. Ellis, 1900), 28, 32–33, 44, 38, 64–65, 77–85, 119–20, 236. See also Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, 96–105.

  44.  Wang Ping, Aching for Beauty: Footbinding in China (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 3–12; and Tiffany Marie Smith, “Footbinding,” in Encyclopedia of Gender and Society, edited by Jodi O’Brien, vol. 2 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2009), 331–32.

  45.  Wang Ping, Aching for Beauty, 3–12, 55; Spence, Search for Modern China, 39; Eileen H. Tamura, Linda K. Menton, Noreen W. Lush, and Francis K. C. Tsui, China: Understanding Its Past (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997), 14–15; and Smith, “Footbinding.”

  46.  Robert Bennet Forbes to Rose Forbes, November 22, 1838, in Kerr, Letters from China, 70; and Stevens, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, 88, 118–32. See also Christman, Adventurous Pursuits, 127–40; and Chi-Chao Chan, Melissa M. Liu, and James C. Tsai, “The First Western-Style Hospital in China,” Archives of Ophthalmology (June 2011), 791–97.

  47.  “China and the Chinese,” Southern Quarterly Review (July 1847), 15. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 29.

  48.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 48; and Hunter, The ‘Fan-Kwae’ at Canton, 47–48.

  49.  The background for this section on the fire comes from the following: “China: Chinese Proclamation Respecting the Late Fire in Canton in 1822,” Asiatic Journal (July 1823), 99; “An Account of the Fire of Canton, in 1822,” in Memoirs of the Life and Labours of Robert Morrison, Compiled by His Widow, vol. 2 (London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1839), Appendix, 33–39; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 4, 64–66; John Francis Davis, The Chinese: A General Description of the Empire of China and its Inhabitants, vol. 1 (London: Charles Knight, 1836), 110–11; and “Great Fire in Canton,” New England Farmer (March 22, 1823).

  50.  “An Account of the Fire of Canton, in 1822,” appendix, 34–35.

  51.  “China: Chinese Proclamation Respecting the Late Fire in Canton,” 99.

  52.  W. W. Wood, Sketches of China (Philadelphia: Carey & Lea, 1830), 65.

  53.  George Nugent Temple Grenville, Considerations Upon the Trade with India; and the Policy of Continuing the Company’s Monopoly (London: T. Cadell, 1807), 115; and John Crawford, History of the Indian Archipelago: Containing an Account of the Manners, Arts, Languages, Religions, Institutions, and Commerce of its Inhabitants, vol. 3 (London: Hurst, Robinson, and co., 1820), 252.

  54.  “East-India Trade,” Columbian Centinel (October 2, 1813).

  55.  Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 55, 175, 185–86; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 2, 344–45; Morse, The Chronicles, vol. 4, 20–22, 67–68, 84–86, 99–100, 118–19, 139–40, 158–59, 181–82, 195–96, 248–49, 271–72, 339–40, 369–70; “British and India Trade,” Louisiana Advertiser (May 27, 1820); “East India Trade,” New-York Daily Advertiser (March 29, 1820); “Opening of the China Trade—Government of India,” Salem Gazette (May 7, 1833); and “China Trade,” St. Louis Inquirer (December 18, 1819).

  56.  Letter from Meriwether Lewis to Thomas Jefferson (September 23, 1806), in The Original Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, Edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites as Published in 1905, vol. 7, part 2, app. 61 (Scituate, MA: Digital Scanning Inc., 2001), 335–36. See also Dolin, Fur, Fortune, and Empire, 152–54, 284–85, 292–93; and Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 55–57.

  57.  John Floyd, “Occupation of the Columbia River,” in Abridgment of the Debates of Congress, from 1789 to 1856, vol. 7, ed. by Thomas Hart Benton (New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1858), 392, 394. See also ibid., 78; and Hubert Howe Bancroft, The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, vol. 27 (San Francisco: A. L. Bancroft & Company, 1884), 419–20.

  58.  Fred Wilbur Powell, “Hall Jackson Kelley—Prophet of Oregon,” Quarterly of the Oregon Historical Society (June 1917), 174, n15.

  59.  Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 57; Foster Rhea Dulles, China & America: The Story of Their Relations Since 1784 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1946), 32–34; Newman, Empire of the Bay, 510–11; Robert H. Ferrell, “Oregon Controversy,” in The New Encyclopedia of the American West, 833–34; Constance L. Skinner, Adventures of Oregon: A Chronicle of the Fur Trade (New Haven; Yale University Press, 1921), 262–64.

Chapter Seven: CHINA THROUGH AMERICAN EYES

  1.  Ezra Stiles, “Dr. Stiles’ Election Sermon, 1783: The United States Exalted to Glory and Honor,” in The Pulpit of the American Revolution: or, the Political Sermons of the Period of 1776, edited by John Wingate Thornton (Boston: Gould and Lincoln, 1860), 463–64.

  2.  John Rogers Haddad, The Romance of China: Excursions to China in U.S. Culture: 1776–1876, chap. 2 (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), accessed April 12, 2011, through Gutenberg e-book, posted at the following Web site: http://www.gutenberg-e.org/haj01/index.html. See also Ping Chia Kuo, “Canton and Salem: The Impact of Chinese Culture upon New England Life during the Post-Revolutionary Era,” New England Quarterly (January 1930), 435–41.

  3.  Wood, Sketches of China, viii. See also Shaw, The Journals, 167–68. For another take on the limited perspective that foreigners had of China, see Robert Waln, Jr., China: Comprehending a View of the Origin, Antiquity, History, Religion, Morals, Government, Law, Population, Literature, Drama, etc. (Philadelphia: Published by the author, 1823), 133.

  4.  Delano, A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, 542. See also Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 124; Greenbie and Greenbie, Gold of Ophir, 178–79; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 76–83; and Frederick W. Drake, “Bridgman in China in the Early Nineteenth Century,” American Neptune (Winter 1986), 34–42.

  5.  Wood, Sketches of China, x–xi; Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 2; and Thomson et al, Sentimental Imperialists, 25.

  6.  Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 25. See also James C. Thomson, Jr., Peter W. Stanley, and John Curtis Perry, Sentimental Imperialists: The American Experience in East Asia (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1981), 13–15.

  7.  Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 25–26. See also Jacques M. Downs, “Fair Game: Exploitive Role-Myths and the American Opium Trade,” Pacific Historical Review (May 1972), 143.

  8.  Shaw, The Journals, 183–84.

  9.  Wood, Sketches of China, 232. See also “Article III: Negotiations with China,” Chinese Repository (January 1835), 417–28; and “Glimpses of Society and Manners, by a Cosmopolitan,” New-England Magazine (April 1835), 275.

  10.  “For the Port Folio—On China,” The Port Folio (February 1819), 111; and Goldstein, Philadelphia and the China Trade, 72–73. See also “Military skill and power of the Chinese; actual state of the soldiery, forts, and arms; description of the forts on the river of Canton; army and navy of China; modes of warfare; offensive and defensive arms,” Chinese Repository (August 1836), 177–78; and Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant, 33–34.

  11.  Edmund Roberts, Embassy to the Eastern Courts of Cochin-China, Siam, and Muscat; in the U.S. Sloop-of-War Peacock, David Geisenger, Commander, During the Years 1832–3–4 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1837), 159.

  12.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 33, 36; William Samuel Waithman Ruschenberger, A Voyage Round the World: Including An Embassy to Muscat and Siam, in 1835, 1836, and 1837 (Philadelphia: Carey, Lea & Blanchard, 1838), 430; Tyng, Before the Wind, 32; and Roberts, Embassy to the Eastern Courts, 151.

  13.  Jessica Lanier, “The Post-Revolutionary Ceramics Trade in Salem, Massachusetts, 1783–1812” (M.A. thesis, Bard College, 2004), 114.

  14.  Abeel, Journal of a Residence in China, 85–86, 133–36; “The Food of Various Nations,” American Masonick Record and Albany Saturday Magazine (October 10, 1829), 291; Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 3; John N. Reynolds, Voyage of the United States Frigate Potomac (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1835), 340–41; and Stuart Creighton Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant: The American Image of the Chinese: 1785–1882 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 27–28, 67–68.

  15.  Stevens, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, 107; Abeel, Journal of a Residence in China, 86–88; Fitch W. Taylor, The Flag Ship: Or A Voyage Around the World, in the United States Frigate Columbia, vol. 2 (New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1840), 175–76; and Howard Malcolm, Travels in South-Eastern Asia, Embracing Hindustan, Malaya, Siam, and China, vol. 2 (Boston: Gould, Kendall, and Lincoln, 1839), 150–51.

  16.  “China,” in Twenty-Second Annual Report of the American Tract Society (Boston: Perkins & Marvin, 1836), 73; Thomson, Stanley, and Perry, Sentimental Imperialists, 15–16; Downs, “Fair Game,” 142; Murray A. Rubinstein, “American Board Missionaries and the Formation of American Opinion Toward China, 1830–1860,” in America Views China: American Images of China Then and Now, edited by Jonathan Goldstein, Jerry Israel, and Hilary Conroy (Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 1991), 77; and Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant, 57–82.

  17.  Downs, “Fair Game,” 141n21, 142. See also Collis, Foreign Mud, 178.

  18.  Untitled article, Independent Chronicle & Boston Patriot (June 4, 1823). See also Iris Chang, The Chinese in America: A Narrative History (New York: Penguin, 2003), 103. According to some sources, the first known Chinese to come to the United States were three men—Ashing, Achun, and Accun—who were part of the crew of the Pallas, a Baltimore ship that came back from China in 1785. What happened to these men after landing is not clear. See Him Mark Lai, Joe Huang, and Don Wong, The Chinese of America, 1785–1980 (San Francisco: Chinese Culture Foundation, 1980), 12.

  19.  Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 97–99.

  20.  Ibid., 106.

  21.  Untitled article from the Boston Patriot, reprinted in the Baltimore Patriot & Mercantile Advertiser (August 21, 1829).

  22.  Irving Wallace and Amy Wallace, The Two: The Story of the Original Siamese Twins (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), 59.

  23.  “The Siamese Boys,” Boston Galaxy, reprinted in the Newburyport Herald (September 15, 1829).

  24.  Wallace and Wallace, The Two, 15, 127–29.

  25.  Ibid., 301–2; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 106–13; and J. N. Moreheid, Lives, Adventures, Anecdotes, Amusements, and Domestic Habits of the Siamese Twins (Raleigh, NC: E. E. Barclay, 1850), 9–15.

  26.  Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 3; Krystyn R. Moon, Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s–1920s (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005), 59–62; “The Chinese Lady,” New Hampshire Patriot and State Gazette (November 11, 1834); and Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 101–6.

  27.  Untitled reprint from the New York Gazette, New Hampshire Patriot and State Gazette (November 24, 1834).

  28.  Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 3.

  29.  Moon, Yellowface, 60–62.

  30.  M. L. E. Moreau de Saint-Méry, An Authentic Account of the Embassy of the Dutch East-India Company, to the Court of the Emperor of China in the Years 1794 and 1795; (Subsequent to that of the Earl of Macartney) Containing a Description of Several Parts of the Chinese Empire, Unknown to Europeans; Taken from the Journal of André Everard Van Braam, vol. 1 (London: Lee and Hurst, 1798), 238–39. See also Lee, Philadelphians and the China Trade, 81–82; and Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 1.

  31.  Saint-Méry, An Authentic Account of the Embassy, xiii, 298–324.

  32.  Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 1; William W. H. Davis, History of Bucks County, Pennsylvania, vol. 1 (New York: Lewis Publishing Company, 1905), 97; and Lee, Philadelphians and the China Trade, 82.

  33.  Caroline Howard King, quoted in Walter Muir Whitehill, The East India Marine Society and the Peabody Museum of Salem: A Sesquicentennial History (Salem, MA: Peabody Museum, 1949), 44–46. See also ibid., 3; and Mary Malloy, Souvenirs of the Fur Trade: Northwest Coast Indian Art and Artifacts Collected by American Mariners, 1788–1844 (Cambridge: Harvard Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, 2000), 61–63.

  34.  Charles Coleman Sellers, Mr. Peale’s Museum: Charles Willson Peale and the First Popular Museum of Natural Science and Art (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980), 273.

  35.  Brantz Mayer, “A Nation in a Nut Shell,” Baltimore Literary Monument (October 1839), 275.

  36.  Haddad, The Romance of China, chap. 4.

  37.  Nathan Dunn, “Ten Thousand Chinese Things:” A Descriptive Catalogue of the Chinese Collection in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Printed by Nathan Dunn, 1839), 3.

  38.  Mayer, “A Nation in a Nut Shell,” 273.

  39.  Dunn, “Ten Thousand Chinese Things,” 13, 75–76.

  40.  Enoch Cobb Wines, A Peep at China, in Mr. Dunn’s Chinese Collection (Philadelphia: Printed for Nathan Dunn, 1839), vii–viii.

  41.  “China and the Chinese,” Southern Quarterly Review (July 1847), 7–8. See also Spence, The Search for Modern China, 132–36; and Paul A. Cohen, China Unbound: Evolving Perspectives on the Chinese Past (London: Routledge Curzon, 2003), 49–50.

  42.  Dunn, “Ten Thousand Chinese Things”, 119.

Chapter Eight: THE OPIUM WAR

  1.  Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 136–37. See also Arthur Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes (New York: Macmillan Company, 1958), 12–20; Fay, The Opium War, 128–29, 138–39, 142; “Crisis in Opium Traffic,” Chinese Repository (April 1839), 610; and W. Travis Hanes III and Frank Sanello, The Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2002), 37.

  2.  Hosea Ballou Morse, who probably knew as much about the history of the China trade as anyone else, offered the following less than satisfying statement on the opium trade in China. “Every statement regarding the quantities of opium consumed in China appears to differ from every other statement.” Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 211. I have relied on the following sources for these numbers: ibid., 209–10; and Chang, Commisioner Lin and the Opium War, 223. See also Spence, The Search for Modern China, 129, 149.

  3.  Fay, The Opium War, 58–60; Greenberg, The British Trade and the Opening of China, 124–31; Charles William King, A Letter Addressed to Charles Elliot, Esq. (London: Edward Suter, 1839), 53–54; and Samuel Warren, The Opium Question (London: James Ridgway, 1840), 52.

  4.  “War with China, and the Opium Question,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine (March 1840), 381. See also Robert Bennet Forbes, Remarks on China and the China Trade (Boston: Samuel N. Dickinson, 1844), 50–51; Samuel Warren, The Opium Question (London: James Ridgway, 1840), 125; Phipps, A Practical Treatise on the China and Eastern Trade, viii; Hanes and Sanello, The Opium Wars, 157; Collis, Foreign Mud, 262; and H. B. Morse, “The History and Economics of the Trade of China,” Journal of the American Asiatic Association (April 1910), 83.

  5.  R. K. Newman, “Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China: A Reconsideration,” Modern Asian Studies (October 1995), 765–94; Bernstein, A Splendid Exchange, 289; Chang, Commissioner Lin, 34–36; Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, 171–72; Fay, The Opium War, 129; Trocki, Opium, 90–91; “Remarks on the Opium Trade, being a rejoinder to the second letter of a Reader, published in the Repository for March, 1837,” Chinese Repository (April 1837), 565; Allen, An Essay on the Opium Trade, 22; and Wood, Sketches of China, 206–7.

  6.  Spence, The Search for Modern China, 149; Chang, Commissioner Lin, 41; Trocki, Opium, 98; “Commerce and Finances,” De Bow’s Review (August 1853), 206–7; and Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes, 25.

  7.  “Memorial recommending that tea, rhubarb, and silk, be sold to foreigners at fixed prices: imperial reply to the same,” Chinese Repository (October 1838), 313.

  8.  Wood, Sketches of China, 206.

  9.  “Memorial from Hwang Tseotsze, soliciting increased severity in the punishments of the consumers of opium; and the imperial reply,” Chinese Repository (September 1838), 271–80.

  10.  Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 72–73.

  11.  Forbes, Personal Reminiscences, 144–45. See also “Art. II. American influence on the destinies of Ultra-Malayan Asia, From a Correspondent. (Conclusion of Article ii. No. 1, vol. vii.),” Chinese Repository (June 1838), 80–81.

  12.  Robert Bennet Forbes to Rose Greene Smith Forbes, March 10, 1839, in Kerr, Letters from China, 101.

  13.  Jan Pottker, Sara and Eleanor: The Story of Sara Delano Roosevelt and her Daughter-in-Law, Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: St. Martin’s, 2005), 15; and Geoffrey C. Ward and Frederic Delano Grant, Jr., “A Fair, Honorable, and Legitimate Trade,” American Heritage (August/September 1986), 49–64.

  14.  Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy, 133; Booth, Opium, 35–46; and A New Family Encyclopedia, edited by Charles A. Goodrich (Philadelphia: T. Belknap, 1831), 146–47.

  15.  Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 335.

  16.  King, A Letter Addressed to Charles Elliot, 60–61; Collis, Foreign Mud, 255–56; and “The Opium Trade with China,” The Times (August 7, 1839).

  17.  William C. Hunter, Bits of Old China (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, & Co., 1885), 1–3.

  18.  Fay, The Opium War, 129. See also ibid., 119–27.

  19.  The following discussion of the December 12 riot is based on these sources: Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 73–77 (all quotes come from this source); Collis, Foreign Mud, 186–90; Fay, The Opium War, 133–34; “China: The Opium Traffic,” in Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register (May 1839), 40–41; “Captain Elliot to Viscount Palmerston (December 13, 1838),” in Correspondence Relating to China, Presented to Both Houses of Parliament, by Command of Her Majesty (London: T. R. Harrison, 1840), 324; and Kerr, Letters from China, 76–77.

  20.  “Crisis in Opium Traffic,” Chinese Repository (April 1839), 610.

  21.  Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes, 23–25.

  22.  Ibid., 28–31, 93. See also Fay, The Opium War, 143, 206; “Letter to the Queen of England from the Imperial commissioner and the provincial authorities requiring interdiction of opium,” Chinese Repository (May 1839), 9–12; “Letter to the queen of England, from the high imperial commissioner Lin, and his colleagues,” Chinese Repository (February 1840), 497–503; and “The High Commissioner’s Second Letter to the Queen of England,” The Times (June 11, 1840).

  23.  “Crisis in Opium Traffic,” 610–19.

  24.  The background for the following section on the conflict between Lin and the foreigners up until the opium is destroyed is from these sources, in addition to those cited in the text: Fay, The Opium War, 142–61; Spence, The Search for Modern China, 150–52; Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes, 35–49; Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 136–45; Forbes, Personal Reminiscences, 145–49; and Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 135–37; Henry Charles Sirr, China and the Chinese: Their Religion, Character, Customs, and Manufactures, vol. 2 (London: William S. Orr, 1849), 332–33; and King, A Letter Addressed to Charles Elliot, 17–25.

  25.  Collis, Foreign Mud, 205–7. See also “Chinese Affairs,” London Quarterly Review (March 1840), 301.

  26.  Fay, The Opium War, 140; Forbes, Letters from China, 98; and Samuel Warren, The Opium Question (London: James Ridgway, 1840), 5.

  27.  Forbes, Personal Reminiscences, 148.

  28.  Hunter, The ‘Fan Kwae’ at Canton, 143–44.

  29.  Forbes, Remarks on China and the China Trade, 49.

  30.  Waley, The Opium War Through Chinese Eyes, 44–46, 49.

  31.  Letter from Russell & Co., quoted in Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 136.

  32.  Robert Bennet Forbes et al., “Memorial of R. B. Forbes and Others,” 2. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 261–62.

  33.  Forbes, Personal Reminiscences, 149–50.

  34.  The background for the following section on increasing tensions between the British and the Chinese, up through the Battle of Chuanbi, is based on these sources, in addition to those cited in the text: Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 230–57; Captain Elliot to Viscount Palmerston, November 5, 1839, in A Digest of the Despatches [sic] on China (London: James Ridgway, 1840), 168–71; 9–10; Fay, The Opium War, 165–79; Collis, Foreign Mud, 229–50; and Chang, Commissioner Lin, 189–208.

  35.  “Journal of Occurrences,” Chinese Repository (August 1839), 223.

  36.  “Proclamation calling on the people to arm themselves, to resist parties of English landing on their Coasts,” British and Foreign State Papers, 1840–1841, vol. 29 (London: James Ridgway and Sons, 1857), 1067.

  37.  “Captain Elliot to the Officers at Kowloon,” British and Foreign State Papers, 1840–1841, vol. 29, 1057.

  38.  Chang, Commissioner Lin, 203.

  39.  Captain Elliot to Viscount Palmerston, November 5, 1839, in A Digest of the Despatches, 169.

  40.  Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 257.

  41.  Kerr, Letters from China, 162, 168.

  42.  Forbes, Personal Reminiscences, 155.

  43.  Fay, The Opium War, 176.

  44.  Spence, The Search for Modern China, 151.

  45.  Fay, The Opium War, 168–69; and Charles Clarkson Stelle, Americans and the China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Arno Press, 1981), 83.

  46.  Fay, The Opium War, 192–93.

  47.  Spence, The Search for Modern China, 154; Harry G. Gelber, “China as ‘Victim’? The Opium War that Wasn’t,” Center for European Studies, Harvard University, Working Paper Series #136, accessed at the following Web site on June 29, 2011: http://www.ces.fas.harvard.edu/publications/docs/pdfs/Gelber136.pdf.

  48.  The quotes from, respectively, “Private Correspondence,” The Times (November 1, 1839); and “The Opium Trade With China,” The Times (September 27, 1839). See also Julia Lovell, The Opium War: Drugs, Dreams, and the Making of China (London: Picador, 2011), 103–5; “Iniquities of the Opium Trade with China,” The Times (August 15, 1839); “Opium Trade With China,” The Times (August 7, 1839); and “London, Wednesday, October 23, 1839,” The Times (October 23, 1839).

  49.  Algernon S. Thelwall, The Iniquities of the Opium Trade with China (London: William H. Allen and Co., 1839), 173, 177.

  50.  Brief Observations Respecting the Pending Disputes with the Chinese, and a Proposal for Bringing Them to a Satisfactory Conclusion (London: James Ridgway, 1840), 1–15; “London, Wednesday, December 25, 1839,” The Times (December 25, 1839); and “Chinese Affairs, Art. VIII,” in London Quarterly Review (March 1840), 294–319.

  51.  Quotes from, respectively: Alain Le Pichon, China Trade and Empire: Jardine Matheson & Co., and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827–1843 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 387; and Collis, Foreign Mud, 256–57. See also Fay, The Opium War, 190–93; Collis, Foreign Mud, 250–56; Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars, 41, 107; Chang, Commissioner Lin, 192–93; and “The Opium Trade with China,” The Times (August 7, 1839).

  52.  For all the quotes from Palmerston’s letters, see Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 621–30.

  53.  H. G. Gordon to different East India Associations in Great Britain, June 3, 1839, in John Slade, Narrative of the Late Proceedings and Events in China (Canton: Canton Register Press, 1839), 142.

  54.  Collis, Foreign Mud, 259. See also ibid., 256–57; and “Express from India, Declaration of War Against China,” The Times (March 12, 1840).

  55.  The Mirror of Parliament, Session of 1840, vol. 3, edited by John Henry Barrow (London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green & Longmans, 1840), 2385–424, 2431–70, 2485–545.

  56.  Collis, Foreign Mud, 260–61; Lovell, The Opium War, 107.

  57.  The Mirror of Parliament, Session of 1840, vol. 3, 2460–61. See also ibid., 2485–543; “The Opium War,” Tait’s Edinburgh Magazine (July 1840), 474–75; “The Opium War with China,” The Times (April 25, 1840); and Hanes and Sanello, The Opium Wars, 78.

  58.  The Mirror of Parliament, Session of 1840, vol. 3, 2407.

  59.  Ibid., 2401–8, 2494, 2527–43; Collis, Foreign Mud, 274; “War with China, and the Opium Question,” Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine (March 1840), 372; Gelber, “China as ‘Victim’?”; “The Opium Trade,” Museum of Foreign Literature, Science and Art, 533–34; and “House of Commons, Thursday, April 9,” The Times (April 10, 1840).

  60.  The background for this section on the first phase of the Opium War comes from the following sources, unless otherwise noted in the text: Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 255–83; Spence, The Search for Modern China, 154–56; Fay, The Opium War, 213–76; and Li Chien-Nung, Political History of China, 1840–1928 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1956), 37–38.

  61.  Chang, Commissioner Lin, 212.

  62.  “Queen Victoria to the King of the Belgians,” April 13, 1841, in The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence Between the Years 1837 and 1861, vol. 1, edited by Arthur Christopher Benson and Viscount Esher (London: John Murray, 1908), 26.

  63.  Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 280–91; Fay, The Opium War, 277–307; and Hanes and Sanello, The Opium Wars, 134.

  64.  Quotes are, respectively, from Collis, Foreign Mud, 180; and John Francis Davis, China, During the War and Since the Peace, vol. 1 (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1852), 11–12.

  65.  Lovell, The Opium War, 115. See also ibid., 111–15, 184–91, 205; Fay, The Opium War, 261, 344–47; Haines and Sanello, The Opium Wars, 31; Hunt Janin, The India-China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1999), 109–10; and Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy, 86.

  66.  John Ouchterlony, The Chinese War: An Account of all the Operations of the British Forces From the Commencement to the Treaty of Nanking (London: Saunders and Otley, 1844), 53–54.

  67.  Sir Henry Keppel, A Sailor’s Life under Four Sovereigns, vol. 1 (London: Macmillan and Co., 1899), 269.

  68.  Alexander Murray, Doings in China: Being the Personal Narrative of an Officer Engaged in the Late Chinese Expedition, from the Recapture of Chusan in 1841, to the Peace of Nankin in 1842 (London: Richard Bentley, 1843), 244.

  69.  Samuel Wells Williams, The Middle Kingdom: A Survey of the Geography, Government, Education, Social Life, Arts, Religion, &c. of the Chinese Empire and its Inhabitants, vol. 2 (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1848), 562. See also Ouchterlony, The Chinese War, 394–406.

  70.  “China,” Niles’ National Register (December 31, 1842). See also Demetrius Charles Boulger, The History of China, vol. 2 (London: W. Thacker & Co., 1898), 130; Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 295–96; and Fay, The Opium War, 351–53.

  71.  Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 288–97; and Spence, The Search for Modern China, 156–57.

  72.  Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 298–318; Spence, The Search for Modern China, 158–62; and Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, 190.

  73.  Lord Palmerston to Henry Pottinger (May 31, 1841), in Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 658–59.

  74.  Granville G. Loch, The Closing Events of the Campaign in China: The Operations in the Yang-Tze-Kiang; and the Treaty of Nanking (London: John Murray, 1843), 173–74.

  75.  Fay, The Opium War, 366–67; and “The Chinese Treaty,” The Times (November 26, 1842).

  76.  “London, Friday, November 25, 1842,” The Times (November 25, 1842).

  77.  Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 253–54; Gelber, The Dragon, 188; and Collis, Foreign Mud, 260–74; Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy, 74; Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, 192; Ouchterlony, The Chinese War, 35–37; “The Chinese Question and the British,” New Hampshire Sentinel (May 6, 1840); “Chinese Affairs,” The London Quarterly Review, 295, 312–13, 316–17; “The Chinese Question,” New Hampshire Sentinel (May 8, 1840); and Lord Macaulay, “China,” in The Mirror of Parliament, Session 1840, vol. 3, 2407.

  78.  Backhouse and Bland, Annals & Memoirs of the Court of Peking, 331.

  79.  Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 119–44; Fay, The Opium War, 67–79; and Collis, Foreign Mud, 108–72.

  80.  Kenneth Scott Latourette, The Chinese: Their History and Culture (New York: Macmillan Company, 1962), 277. See also Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy, 72–73; “China,” The Mirror of Parliament, Session of 1840, vol. 3, 2432–33; and “The Chinese Trade,” The Corsair: A Gazette of Literature, Art, Dramatic Criticism, Fashion, and Novelty (January 4, 1840), 684–85.

  81.  John Quincy Adams, “Lecture on the War with China, delivered before the Massachusetts Historical Society, December, 1841,” Chinese Repository (May 1842), 281, 288. See also Dulles, The Old China Trade, 182–83; Gelber, The Dragon, 188; and Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 106–8.

  82.  Augustine Heard, quoted in Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 140. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 261; Robert Bennet Forbes, et al., “Memorial of R. B. Forbes and Others,” 2–3; Fay, The Opium War, 337–38; and Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant, 97–100.

  83.  King, A Letter Addressed to Charles Elliot, 49, 51.

  84.  The quotes from, respectively, Michael C. Lazich, “American Missionaries and the Opium Trade in Nineteenth-Century China,” Journal of World History (June 2006), 205–6; Jeremiah Bell Jeter, A Memoir of Mrs. Henrietta Shuck: The First American Missionary to China (Boston: Gould, Kendall, & Lincoln, 1849), 145–46; William Wells Williams, “Letter from Mr. Williams, Dated at Macao, Aug. 29th, 1839,” Missionary Herald (April 1840), 115–16; and “Recent Intelligence, China,” Missionary Herald (January 1841), 43. See also Latourette, The History of Early Relations, 120; Fay, The Opium War, 331. Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrants, 100–2; Stevens, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, 168; and Murray A. Rubinstein, “The Wars They Wanted: American Missionaries’ Use of The Chinese Repository before the Opium War,” American Neptune (Fall 1988), 271–82.

  85.  John Quincy Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848, vol. 11, edited by Charles Francis Adams (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1876), 30–31. See also John Quincy Adams, “Lecture on the War With China,” Niles’ National Register (January 26, 1842), 326–30; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 268–71; “J. Q. Adams and the Opium War,” Pittsfield Sun (December 2, 1841); and “Mr. Adams and the Opium War,” Baltimore Sun (December 20, 1841). Not all coverage of Adams’s speech was negative. See, for example, “Hon. John Quincy Adams,” The Daily Atlas (November 24, 1841). See also Fay, The Opium War, 337–38; Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 102; and Howard Malcolm, Travels in South-Eastern Asia, Embracing Hindustan, Malaya, Siam, and China, vol. 1 (Boston: Gould, Kendall, and Lincoln, 1839), 159–60; and “The Opium Trade,” Farmer’s Cabinet (April 10, 1840).

  86.  Freeman Hunt, “The Opium Trade—England and China,” Merchant’s Magazine, and Commercial Review (May 1840), 413; and “Twenty-Sixth Congress—1st Session,” Niles’ National Register (March 21, 1840), 46. See also “The Opium Trade”; Dulles, The Old China Trade, 180–81; “China and the Chinese,” The Southern Literary Messenger (February 1841), 151–52; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 260–62; Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars, 106; Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant, 96; and Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 105.

  87.  John Tyler, “Sandwich Islands and China, Message From the President of the United States, December 31, 1842,” House Document no. 35, United States Congress, 27th Congress, 3rd Session; and A Memorial of Caleb Cushing from the City of Newburyport (Newburyport: Published by Order of the City Council, 1874), 101–4.

  88.  “The Dinner at Faneuil Hall, on the 17th Instant,” Niles’ National Register (July 1, 1843).

  89.  Daniel Webster to Caleb Cushing, May 8, 1843, in The Diplomatic and Official Papers of Daniel Webster (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1848), 361–62, 364.

  90.  Robert V. Remini, Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997), 578.

  91.  John Tyler, “The President’s Letter to the Emperor,” in The Diplomatic and Official Papers of Daniel Webster, 367–68.

  92.  Stevens and Markwick, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, 249–50. See also Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 290.

  93.  Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 143.

  94.  “The American Flag-Staff,” Chinese Repository (May 1844), 276–77. See also John Watson Foster, American Diplomacy in the Orient (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, 1903), 91–92; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 296; and “The Hon. Caleb Cushing, Commissioner to China,” Daily Atlas (May 24, 1843).

  95.  First quote: Caleb Cushing to Ch’i-ying, June 22, 1844, in Chinese Repository (October 1845), 491. Second quote: Caleb Cushing to Ch’i-ying, July 22, 1844, in Chinese Repository (November 1845), 531. See also Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 327–28.

  96.  Treaty with China, in The Public Statutes at Large of the United States of America, from the Organization of the Government in 1789 to March 3, 1845, vol. 8, edited by Richard Peters (Boston: Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1846), 592–600.

  97.  “Howqua,—The Hong Merchant,” New-Hampshire Patriot (May 23, 1844); and The Friend of China and Hong Kong Gazette, quoted in “Howqua, The Senior Hong Merchant,” Merchant’s Magazine (May 1844), 459–61.

  98.  Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, 192. See also ibid., 123–35; Spence, The Search for Modern China, 139–48, 165–67; and Gelber, The Dragon, 154.

Chapter Nine: RACING THE WIND

  1.  Philip Hone, The Diary of Philip Hone, 1828–1851, edited by Bayard Tuckerman, vol. 2 (New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1889), 242. See also Federal Writer’s Project, Maritime History of New York (1941; reprint Brooklyn: Going Coastal, 2004), 139–40; and “New Ships,” The New York Herald (January 22, 1845).

  2.  Carl C. Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea: The Story of the American Clipper Ship (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1984), 50.

  3.  Howard Irving Chapelle, The Baltimore Clipper, Its Origin and Development (Salem: Marine Research Society, 1930), 3.

  4.  Addison Beecher Colvin Whipple, The Clipper Ships (Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1980), 23–24; and “Early History of Shipbuilding in New York,” U. S. Nautical Magazine and Naval Journal (September 1857), 438–39.

  5.  Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 25–27; Basil Lubbock, The China Clippers (London: Century Publishing, 1984), 24; Robert Carse, The Moonrakers: The Story of the Clipper Ship Men (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1961), 43–44; and Arthur H. Clark, The Clipper Ship Era: An Epitome of Famous American and British Clipper Ships, Their Owners, Builders, Commanders, and Crews (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1910), 66.

  6.  Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 21.

  7.  Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 44.

  8.  Mirror, “Dock Rambles of a Nautical Mechanic,” Monthly Nautical Magazine and Quarterly Review (February 1855), 353.

  9.  Clark, The Clipper Ship Era, 61–62; Arthur H. Clark, “A Glimpse of the Clipper-Ship Days,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine (June 1908), 93; Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 23–29; Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 112–13; Lubbock, The China Clippers, 24; and Leo Block, To Harness the Wind: A Short History of the Development of Sails (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 101.

  10.  Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 115, 120; Octavius T. Howe and Frederick C. Mathews, American Clipper Ships: 1833–1858, vol. 2 (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1986), 501; Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 29–30; and Lubbock, The China Clippers, 24.

  11.  “Very Late from China—Astonishing Voyage,” Weekly Herald (April 5, 1845); and Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 30.

  12.  Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 121.

  13.  Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 31, 61. See also Howe and Mathews, American Clipper Ships, 569.

  14.  “The Fastest Vessel in the World,” Northern Standard (July 15, 1848). See also “Eighty One Days From China,” Constitution (August 4, 1847); “One Week Later from China,” Daily Picayune (April 3, 1849); Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 34, 36, 41; and Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 137–38.

  15.  James K. Polk, Fourth Annual Message to Congress, December 5, 1848, in A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897, vol. 4, edited by James D. Richardson (Washington, DC: Published by Authority of Congress, 1899), 636.

  16.  “Ho! For California,” Weekly Herald (January 13, 1849); Carse, The Moonrakers, 70; Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 143–44; Clark, The Clipper Ship Era, 102–5; and Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 48–51.

  17.  Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 148.

  18.  Frank Moss, The American Metropolis, from Knickerbocker Days to the Present Time: New York City Life in All Its Various Phases (New York: Peter Fenelon Collier, 1897), 251.

  19.  Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 51–54.

  20.  Lubbock, The China Clippers, 41.

  21.  “The New Clipper Ship Stag Hound, of Boston,” Boston Daily Atlas (December 21, 1850).

  22.  F. C. Mathews, “The Clipper Ship Stag Hound,” Pacific Marine Review (March 1922), 153.

  23.  Ibid., 153–54.

  24.  “The New Clipper Ship Bald Eagle, of Boston,” Boston Daily Atlas (November 17, 1852); and Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 51–54.

  25.  David W. Shaw, Flying Cloud: The True Story of America’s Most Famous Clipper Ship and the Woman Who Guided Her (New York: William Morrow, 2000), 259–62; Octavius T. Howe and Frederick C. Mathews, American Clipper Ships: 1833–1858, vol. 1 (1926; reprint, Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1986), 190–95; Priscilla Sawyer Lord and Virginia Clegg Gamage, The Spirit of ’76 Lives Here: Marblehead (Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Company, 1972), 176–78; “The Clipper Race,” New-Hampshire Gazette (October 21, 1851); “Magnificent Clipper Race,” Sun (May 17, 1853); “Clipper Race,” Weekly Alta California (December 1, 1854); and Clark, The Clipper Ship Era, 212–13.

  26.  Matthew F. Maury, The Physical Geography of the Sea (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1855), 263–64; and Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 41–45.

  27.  Clark, The Clipper Ship Era, 97–98. See also Spears, Captain Nathaniel Brown Palmer, 207–208; and Howe and Mathews, American Clipper Ships, vol. 2, 461–63.

  28.  “London, Thursday, December 5, 1850,” The Times (December 5, 1850).

  29.  Cutler, Greyhounds of the Sea, 125. See also Carse, The Moonrakers, 78.

  30.  George Francis Train, An American Merchant in Europe, Asia, and Australia (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1857), 446.

  31.  Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 21.

  32.  Clark, The Clipper Ship Era, 202–5; Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 103; and “Challenge from American Ship-Builders,” The People’s Illustrated Journal, July 10, 1852, 175.

Chapter Ten: FADING FORTUNE

  1.  Freeman Hunt, “Monthly Commercial Chronicle,” Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine (January 1845), 79–80. See also James Christy Bell, Opening a Highway to the Pacific, 1838–1846 (New York: Columbia University, 1921), 129–30 n4, and Dennett, Americans in Eastern Asia, 74.

  2.  The calculations are mine, based on the following: Homans, An Historical and Statistical Account of the Foreign Commerce of the United States, 64, 181; Historical Statistics of the United States, vol. 5, 534–44; and Pan, The Trade of the United States with China, 22, 32. See also Peter Schran, “The Minor Significance of Commercial Relations Between the United States and China, 1850–1931,” in America’s China Trade in Historical Perspective, 237–58.

  3.  Statements about the range of exported and imported goods are based on data culled from multiple reports, from the 1840s through the 1860s, issued by the secretary of the treasury or the director of the U.S. Bureau of Statistics, reporting on the commerce and navigation of the United States for particular years. For example, Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, Transmitting a Report from the Register of the Treasury of the Commerce and Navigation of the United States, for the Year Ending June 30, 1860 (Washington, DC: George W. Bowman, 1860), 7–51. See also, Pan, The Trade of the United States with China, 20–43, 205–9, 329–31; Hao, “Chinese Teas to America,” 16–31; Kang Chao, “The Chinese-American Cotton-Textile Trade, 1830–1930,” in America’s China Trade in Historical Perspective, 104–5.

  4.  Robert Hart, “These From the Land of Sinim”: Essays on the Chinese Question (London: Chapman & Hall, 1901), 60–61.

  5.  Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, 221–56; Latourette, The Chinese, 280–87; and Whipple, The Clipper Ships, 112–13.

  6.  The background for this section comes from the following sources, unless otherwise noted: Spence, The Search for Modern China, 179–81; Hsü, The Rise of Modern China, 196–219; Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 367–437, 539–56; Gelber, The Dragon, 192–203; Stelle, Americans and the China Opium Trade, 87, 106–34; Fairbank, Trade and Diplomacy, 240–43; Hunt Janin, The India-China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1999), 70; “The War in China,” The Times (December 15, 1860); and Hanes and Sanello, The Opium Wars, 3–12.

  7.  Demetrius C. Boulger, The Life of Gordon (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1896), 46.

  8.  Forbes, Remarks on China, 56. See also Stelle, Americans and the China Opium Trade, 96–97, 106–9, 135–40; Gideon Nye, “Tea: And the Tea Trade,” Hunt’s Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review (January 1850), 20; “Tea—Its Consumption and Culture,” Merchant’s Magazine and Commercial Review (February 1863), 118; Nathan Allen, An Essay on the Opium Trade (Boston: John P. Jewett, 1850), 12–13; Trocki, Opium, 109–10; R. Alexander, The Rise and Progress of British Opium Smuggling (London: Judd and Glass, 1856), 40–54; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “A Century of International Drug Control,” Bulletin on Narcotics 49 (2007), 18–20; and “The Opium Question,” Church Missionary Intelligencer, vol. 8 (London: Seeley, Jackson and Halliday, 1857), 89–90.

  9.  Arnold J. Meagher, The Coolie Trade: The Traffic in Chinese Laborers to Latin America 1847–1874 (diss., University of California, Davis, 1975; reprint, Bloomington, IN: XLibris, 2008), 27–41.

  10.  “The Word Coolie,” Notes and Queries on China and Japan, June 29, 1867), 77; “Coolie,” in Mission Life; or, The Emigrant and the Heathen, vol. 4, edited by J. J. Halcombe (London: J. E. Adlard, 1867), 19; Chang, The Chinese in America, 30; and Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans (New York: Random House, 2007), 25. See also Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 24–25, 29–30, 140–44, 148, 169–70; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 49–50; and Evelyn Hu-Dehart, “Chinese Coolie Labor in Cuba in the Nineteenth Century: Free Labor of Neoslavery,” in Black Studies (1994), 39.

  11.  Leonard Wray, The Practical Sugar Planter (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1848), 83–84. See also Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 50–51; and “The Cuban Slave Trade,” Charleston Mercury (December 23, 1856).

  12.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 52–91; “The Chinese Puzzle,” Chambers’s Journal of Popular Literature (August 8, 1863), 96; William Fred Mayers, N. B. Dennys, and Charles King, The Treaty Ports of China and Japan (London: Trubner and Co., 1867), 228; “Coolie Slaves,” Anglo-American Times (July 21, 1866), 9; Lisa Yun, The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves of Cuba (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 1–2, 8, 18, 21; and “The Coolie Trade,” Charleston Mercury (October 9, 1856).

  13.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 153–62; and Chang, The Chinese in America, 30–31.

  14.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 179, 190.

  15.  U.S. Senate, Report of the Secretary of State in Compliance with a Resolution of the Senate of April 24, Calling for Information Relative to the Coolie Trade, Index to the Executive Documents, 1855–1856, doc. 99 (Washington, DC: A. O. P. Nicholson, 1856), 8–10; “The Coolie Trade,” De Bow’s Review (July 1857), 33–34.

  16.  All the background and the quotes for this section on the Norway are from Edgar Holden, “A Chapter on the Coolie Trade,” in Harper’s New Monthly Magazine (June 1864), 1–10. See also “Revolt of the Chinese Coolies,” Sun (May 18, 1857).

  17.  “The Ship Flora Temple: Shipwreck, and Loss of Eight Hundred and Fifty Lives,” New York Times (February 6, 1860); and “Later from China,” San Francisco Bulletin (February 6, 1860).

  18.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 163, 168–73; Hu-Dehart, “Chinese Coolie Labor in Cuba in the Nineteenth Century,” 45; and Sharon A. Roger Hepburn, “Disease,” in Encyclopedia of the Middle Passage, edited by Toyin Falola and Amanda B. Warnock (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2007), 138.

  19.  G. Fitz-Roy Cole, “John Chinaman Abroad,” Fraser’s Magazine (October 1878), 451–52. See also Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 140–43.

  20.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 222; Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye, The Birder’s Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988), 263; Gregory T. Cushman, “The Most Valuable Birds in the World: International Conservation Science and the Revival of Peru’s Guano Industry, 1909–1965,” Environmental History (July 2005), 477–509; David Hollett, More Precious than Gold: The Story of the Peruvian Guano Trade (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2008), 82; W. M. Mathew, “Peru and the British Guano Market, 1840–1870,” The Economic History Review (April 1970), 112–28; and Richard J. King, “ ‘The Most Valuable Bird in the World’: A Maritime History of the Cormorant,” Log of the Mystic Seaport (2002–3), 24–25.

  21.  George Washington Peck, “Chincha Islands,” Littell’s Living Age (January 28, 1854), 213–14. See also George Washington Peck, Melbourne and the Chincha Islands: With Sketches of Lima, and a Voyage Around the World (New York: Charles Scribner, 1854), 209; and “Chinese Immigration and the Guano Trade,” Anti-Slavery Reporter, vol. 3 (London: Peter Jones Bolton, 1855), 39–42.

  22.  Lisa Yun, The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves of Cuba (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008), 28–32; Hu-Dehart, “Chinese Coolie Labor in Cuba in the Nineteenth Century,” 46–47; Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 98, 100; W. W. Wright, “The Coolie Trade, or, the Encomienda System of the Nineteenth Century,” De Bow’s Review (January 1859), 296–322; and Charles Dickens, “The Coolie Trade in China,” All the Year Round (July 18, 1860), 365.

  23.  Basil Lubbock, quoted in Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 49. See also ibid., 50; Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 145, 148; and Daniel Henderson, Yankee Ships in China Seas: Adventures of Pioneer Americans in the Troubled Far East (New York: Hastings House, 1946), 185.

  24.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 145; George Francis Train, An American Merchant in Europe, Asia, and Australia (New York: G. P. Putnam & Co., 1857), 78–79; and Lubbock, The China Clippers, 28–31.

  25.  Stevens, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, M.D., 306–7. See also Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 283–84; U.S. House, Committee of Commerce, “Coolie Trade,” 36th Cong., 1st sess., Report No. 443 (April 16, 1860), 7.

  26.  Editorial, New York Times (April 21, 1856); Moon-Ho Jung, Coolies and Cane: Race, Labor, and Sugar in the Age of Emancipation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 2006), 24; “A New Slave Trade Protected by the Stars and Stripes,” New York Herald (September 2, 1856); “The White Slave Trade,” Pittsfield Sun (April 17, 1856); “The Coolie Trade,” The Charleston Mercury (October 9, 1856); and U.S. House, Committee of Commerce, “Coolie Trade,” 5.

  27.  Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 144–45, 278–94; “An Act to Prohibit the ‘Coolie Trade’ by American Citizens in American Vessels,” in The Columbia Documentary History of the Asian American Experience, edited by Franklin Odo (New York: Columbia University, 2002), 24; and Najia Aarim-Heriot, Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848–82 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2003), 77–79.

  28.  This next section on the Chinese in California is based on the following sources: Chang, The Chinese in America, 1–132; Tchen, New York Before Chinatown, 170–75; Pfaelzer, Driven Out, 3–6, 24–29; David Haward Bain, Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad (New York: Viking, 1999), 205–9; Meagher, The Coolie Trade, 136–39; “An Act to Execute Certain Treaty Stipulations Relating to the Chinese (a.k.a. Chinese Exclusion Act), May 6, 1882,” in The Columbia Documentary History of the Asian American Experience, 62; Shih-Shan Henry Tsai, The Chinese Experience in America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 6–10; Stephen E. Ambrose, Nothing Like it in the World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863–1869 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), 149–52; and “The Chinese Coolie Question,” San Francisco Bulletin (December 16, 1859).

  29.  Asa Whitney, “House of Representatives, January 28, 1845,” in The Congressional Globe, Containing Sketches of the Debates and Proceedings of the Second Session of the Twenty-Eighth Congress, vol. 14 (Washington, DC: Globe, 1845), 218; and Robert V. Hine and John Mack Faragher, The American West: A New Interpretive History (New Haven: Yale University, 2000), 280.

  30.  Thomas Hart Benton, “Speech of Mr. Benton,” in Niles’ National Register (March 14, 1849), 171. See also William H. Seward, “Colonization in North America,” (January 25, 1853), in Appendix to the Congressional Globe for the Second Session, Thirty-Second Congress, vol. 27 (Washington, DC: John C. Rivers, 1853), 127; and Bruce Cummings, Dominion from Sea to Sea: Pacific Ascendancy and American Power (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 70–72.

  31.  “Mail Communication with China,” The Congressional Globe (February 16, 1865), 828–31; U.S. House, “Causes of the Reduction of American Tonnage,” 41st Cong., 2d sess., Report No. 28 (February 17, 1870), 48; Seth Low, “Tea,” in Johnson’s Universal Cyclopedia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge, edited by Frederick A. P. Barnard and Arnold Guyot (New York: A. J. Johnson, 1878), 751; “The New Route of Commerce to the Eastern World,” New York Times (January 1, 1867); “America and China,” New York Times (December 2, 1869); “Report of the Secretary of the Treasury (December 1, 1868), in Message From the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress at the Commencement of the Third Session of the Fortieth Congress (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1869), 32; “The Pacific Railroad,” Engineering (May 14, 1869), 324; Schran, “The Minor Significance of Commercial Relations Between the United States and China,” 238–47; Pan, The Trade of the United States with China, 30–43, 330–31; and Historical Statistics of the United States, vol. 5, 534–44.

Epilogue: ECHOES OF THE PAST

  1.  Henrietta M. Larson, “A China Trader Turns Investor—A Biographical Chapter in American Business History,” Harvard Business Review vol. 12 (1933–34), 345–58; Downs, The Golden Ghetto, 236–41.

  2.  Richard B. Westbrook, Girard’s Will and Girard College Theology (Philadelphia: Published by the author, 1888), 145–72; and the Girard College Web site, accessed on June 15, 2011: http://www.girardcollege.edu/page.cfm?p=359.

  3.  Lovell, The Opium War, 8–15, 333–61. Soon after When America First Met China went into editing, Julia Lovell’s new book on the Opium Wars was published. She provides a fascinating and thought-provoking new perspective on the Opium Wars, especially the first, and analyzes how China viewed and reacted to the wars, and how those views and reactions have changed from the nineteenth to the twenty-first centuries. It is important to note that the Chinese interpretation of the Opium Wars is wrapped up in a much larger debate that involves China’s history through the present, and includes the so-called century of humiliation—the period from the first Opium War up through 1949, when the Communist Party took over in China, during which time China was repeatedly defeated in wars with foreign powers, and forced to accept more so-called unequal treaties. The wars that took place during that period are not, with the exception of the second Opium War, covered in When America First Met China, and neither is the Chinese government’s interpretation of how those wars contributed to modern Chinese nationalism, which tends to view the Opium Wars as part of a continuum of imperialistic attacks on China that subjugated China until the Communist Party liberated the nation and lifted it to glory.

  4.  U.S. Census Bureau, “Foreign Trade Statistics, Top Trading Partners—Total Trade, Exports, Imports: Year-to-Date December 2011,” Web site accessed on February 26, 2012: http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/top/top1112yr.html.

  5.  As John King Fairbank once commented, “American commercial interest in China has always had a large admixture of imagination and hope.” Fairbank, The United States and China, 324.