Proverbs

Author: King Solomon and other wise men

Audience: The people of Israel

Date: Primarily during Solomon’s reign (970–930 bc)

Theme: God has placed an order in creation to which we should pay attention in order to live wisely.

Introduction

Authors

Although the book begins with a title attributing the proverbs to Solomon, it is clear from later chapters that he was not the only author of the book. Pr 22:17 and 24:23 both refer to “sayings of the wise.” The presence of an introduction in 22:17–21 further indicates that these sections stem from a circle of wise men, not from Solomon himself. Ch. 30 is attributed to Agur, son of Jakeh, and 31:1–9 to King Lemuel, neither of whom is mentioned elsewhere. Lemuel’s sayings contain several Aramaic spellings that may point to a non-Israelite background.

Most of the book, however, is closely linked with Solomon. The headings in 10:1 and 25:1 include his name, though 25:1 states that these proverbs were “compiled by the men of Hezekiah king of Judah.” This indicates that a group of wise men or scribes compiled these proverbs as editors and added chs. 25–29 to the earlier collections. Solomon’s ability to produce proverbs is specified in 1Ki 4:32, where 3,000 proverbs are attributed to him. In light of statements about his unparalleled wisdom (1Ki 4:29–31, 34; 10:1–13, 23–24), it is quite likely that he was the source of most of Proverbs (see article and photo). The book contains a short prologue (1:1–7) and a longer epilogue (31:10–31), which may have been added to the other materials. It is possible that the discourses in the large opening section (1:8—9:18) were the work of a compiler or editor, but the similarities of ch. 6 in this section with other chapters (compare 6:1 with 11:15; 17:18; 20:16; 27:13; compare 6:14,19 with 10:12; 15:18; 16:28; 28:25; 29:22; compare 6:19 with 14:5,25; 19:5) fit a Solomonic origin equally well. The emphasis on the “fear of the LORD” (1:7) throughout the book ties the various segments together.

Date

If Solomon is granted a prominent role in the book, most of Proverbs would stem from the tenth century bc, during the time of Israel’s united kingdom. The peace and prosperity that characterized that era accord well with the development of reflective wisdom and the production of literary works. Moreover, several interpreters have noted that the 30 sayings of the wise in 22:17—24:22 (especially the first ten) contain similarities to the 30 sections of the Egyptian “Wisdom of Amenemope,” an instructional piece that is roughly contemporary with the time of Solomon (see chart). Likewise, the personification of wisdom so prominent in chs. 1–9 (see 1:20 and note; 3:15–18; 8:1–36; 9:1–12) can be compared with the personification of abstract ideas in both Mesopotamian and Egyptian writings of the second millennium bc.

The role of Hezekiah’s men (25:1) indicates that important sections of Proverbs were compiled and edited from 715 to 686 bc. This was a time of spiritual renewal led by the king, who also showed great interest in the writings of David and Asaph (2Ch 29:30). Perhaps it was also at this time that the sayings of Agur (ch. 30) and Lemuel (31:1–9) and the other “sayings of the wise” (22:17—24:22; 24:23–34) were added to the Solomonic collections, though it is possible that the task of compilation was not completed until after the reign of Hezekiah.

The Nature of a Proverb

The proverbs contained in this book are not to be interpreted as prophecies or their statements about effects and results as promises (see 22:6 and note; see also article). For instance, 10:27 says that the years of the wicked are cut short, while the righteous live long and prosperous lives (see 3:2 and note). The righteous have abundant food (10:3), but the wicked will go hungry (13:25). While such statements are generally true, there are enough exceptions to indicate that sometimes the righteous suffer and the wicked prosper (see note on 3:2). Sometimes the righteous and wicked “receive their due on earth” (11:31; cf. also 12:28; 14:3; 15:24; 23:17), but at other times reward and punishment lie beyond the grave. The meaning of the Hebrew word translated “proverb” is considerably broader than the English term. It can refer to a “message” (Nu 23:7,18), “taunt” (Isa 14:4), “parable” (Eze 17:2), poem, similitude, etc. This may help explain the presence of the longer discourse sections in chs. 1–9. Most proverbs, however, are concise, memorable truths that describe common life experience, even though there are sometimes exceptions to them. Frequently there is repetition of a word or sound that aids memorization. In 30:33, e.g., the same Hebrew verb is translated “churning,” “twisting” and “stirring up.”

In the longest section of the book (10:1—22:16) most of the proverbs are two lines long, and those in chs. 10–15 almost always express a contrast. Sometimes the writer simply makes a general observation (descriptive proverbs), such as “A bribe is seen as a charm by the one who gives it” (17:8; cf. 14:20), but usually he evaluates conduct (prescriptive proverbs): “the one who hates bribes will live” (15:27). Many proverbs, in fact, describe the consequences of a particular action or character trait: “A wise son brings joy to his father” (10:1). Since the proverbs were written primarily for instruction, they are often given in the form of commands: “Do not love sleep or you will grow poor” (20:13). Even where the imperative form is not used, the desired action is quite clear (e.g., 14:5).

A common feature of the proverbs is the use of figurative language: “Like cold water to a weary soul / is good news from a distant land” (25:25). In ch. 25 alone there are 12 verses that begin with “like” or “as.” These similes make the proverbs more vivid and powerful. Occasionally the simile is used in a humorous or sarcastic way: “Like a gold ring in a pig’s snout / is a beautiful woman who shows no discretion” (11:22; cf. 26:9), or, “As a door turns on its hinges, / so a sluggard turns on his bed” (26:14). Equally effective is the use of metaphors: “The teaching of the wise is a fountain of life” (13:14), and “The soothing tongue is a tree of life” (15:4). According to 16:24, “Gracious words are a honeycomb.” The figure of sowing and reaping is used in both a positive and a negative way (cf. 11:18; 22:8).

In order to develop a proper set of values, a number of proverbs use direct comparisons: “Better the poor whose walk is blameless / than the rich whose ways are perverse” (28:6). This “better . . . than” pattern can be seen also in 15:16–17; 16:19,32; 17:1,12; a modified form occurs in 22:1. Another pattern found in the book is the so-called numerical proverb. Used for the first time in 6:16 (see note there), this type of saying normally has a particular number x in the first line and x+ 1 in the second (cf. 30:15,18,21,29; see Am 1:3 and note). Three and four are the most common numbers. This pattern emphasizes the last item in the list.

The repetition of entire proverbs (compare 6:10–11 with 24:33–34; 14:12 with 16:25; 18:8 with 26:22; 20:16 with 27:13; 21:19 with 25:24) or parts of proverbs may serve a poetic purpose. A slight variation allows the writer(s) to use the same image to make a related point (as in 17:3; 27:21) or to substitute a word or two to achieve greater clarity or a different emphasis (cf. 19:1; 28:6). In 26:4–5 the same line is repeated in a seemingly contradictory way, but this was designed to make two different points (see notes there).

At times the book of Proverbs is very direct and earthy (cf. 6:6; 21:9; 25:16; 26:3). This is the nature of wisdom literature as it seeks pedagogically effective ways to illumine life situations and to guide people into wise choices concerning how to shape their lives as members of the human community that lives under the scrutiny and the providential rule and care of the Creator (see article).

Purpose and Teaching

According to the purpose and theme of the book (1:1–7), Proverbs was written to give “prudence to those who are simple, knowledge and discretion to the young” (1:4), and to make the wise even wiser (1:5). The frequent references to “my son(s)” (1:8,10; 2:1; 3:1; 4:1; 5:1) emphasize instructing the young and guiding them in a way of life that yields rewarding ends. Acquiring wisdom and knowing how to avoid the pitfalls of folly lead to personal well-being, happy family relationships, fruitful labors and good standing in the community. Although Proverbs is a practical book dealing with the art of living, it bases its practical wisdom solidly on the fear of the Lord (1:7; see Ps 34:8–14 and note). Throughout the book reverence for God and reliance on him are set forth as the path to life, prosperity and security (cf. 3:5–10; 9:10–12; 14:26–27; 16:3,6–7; 18:10; 19:23; 20:22; 22:4; 28:25; 29:25). Such godly wisdom is a virtual “tree of life” (3:18; 11:30; 13:12; 15:4) that yields the fulfilled life that God fashioned the creation to produce.

In the initial cycle of instruction (1:8—9:18) the writer urges a young man to choose the way of wisdom (that leads to life) and shun the ways of folly (that, however tempting they may be, lead to death). The author chooses two prime examples of folly to illustrate his exhortations: (1) to get ahead in the world by exploiting (even oppressing) others, rather than by diligent and honest labor, and (2) to find sexual pleasure outside the bonds and responsibilities of marriage. Temptation to the one comes from the young man’s male peers (1:10–19); temptation to the other comes from the adulterous woman, typified in chs. 5–7 (see also 2:16–19; 6:20–35). Together, these two temptations illustrate the pervasiveness and power of the allurements to folly that the young man will face in life and must be prepared to resist (see also Literary Structure below).

The focus of this part of book of Proverbs on the representative figure of a young man does not, however, exclude older men or women of any age from profiting from the wisdom of the proverbs. Instead, this address to young noblemen, who would have been earmarked for leadership in Israel, makes sense in its original context. Yet the book moves toward a broader range of proverbs that address a wide variety of people; and its conclusion focused on an idealized woman offers a nice complement to its early admonitions to a representative young man (1:8).

The major collections of proverbs that follow (starting with ch. 10) range widely across the broad spectrum of human situations, relationships and responsibilities, offering insights, warnings, instructions and counsel, along with frequent motivations to heed them. The range and variety of these defy summation. However, a brief overview can convey the general character, moral tone and scope of the collections. In a variety of situations and relationships the reader is exhorted to honesty, integrity, diligence, kindness, generosity, readiness to forgive, truthfulness, patience, humility, cheerfulness, loyalty, temperance, self-control and the prudent consideration of consequences that flow from attitudes, choices and / or actions. Anger is to be held in check, violence and quarrelsomeness shunned, gossip avoided, arrogance repudiated. Drunkenness, gluttony, envy and greed are all to be renounced. The poor are not to be exploited, the courts are not to be unjustly manipulated, legitimate authorities are to be honored. Parents are responsible to care for the proper instruction and discipline of their children, and children are to duly honor their parents and bring no disgrace on them. Human observation and experience have taught the wise that a certain order is in place in God’s creation. To honor it leads to known positive effects; to defy it leads only to unhappy consequences. All of life is to be lived in conscious awareness of the unfailing scrutiny of the Lord of creation and in reliance on his generous providence.

Although Proverbs is more practical than theological, God’s work as Creator is especially highlighted. The role of wisdom in creation is the subject of 8:22–31 (see notes there), where wisdom as an attribute of God is personified. God is called the Maker of the poor (14:31; 17:5; 22:2). He sovereignly directs the steps of people (cf. 16:9; 20:24)—even the actions of kings (21:1)—and his eyes observe all that humans do (cf. 5:21; 15:3). All history moves forward under his control (see 16:4,33 and notes).

In summary, Proverbs provides instruction on how to live wisely and successfully in the “fear of the LORD” (1:7; 9:10) under the reign of God. The fear of the Lord includes reverence for, trust in and commitment to the Lord and his will, as disclosed in his creation and as revealed in his word. Wisdom in this context, then, is basically following the benevolent King’s design for human happiness within the creation order—resulting in quality of mind (1:2) and quality of life (1:3).

Literary Structure

A short statement of the purpose and theme (1:1–7) opens the book, and a longer epilogue (identifiable by its subject matter and its alphabetic form, 31:10–31) closes it. The first nine chapters contain a series of discourses that contrast the way and benefits of wisdom with the way of the fool. Except for the sections where personified wisdom speaks (1:20; 8:1; 9:1), each discourse begins with “my son” or “my sons.”

A key feature in the introductory discourses of Proverbs is the personification of both wisdom and folly as women, each of whom (by appeals and warnings on the part of Lady Wisdom, by enticements on the part of Lady Folly) seeks to persuade “simple” youths to follow her ways. These discourses are strikingly organized. Beginning (1:8–33) and ending (chs. 8–9) with direct enticements and appeals, the main body of the discourses is made up of two nicely balanced sections, one devoted to the commendation of wisdom (chs. 2–4) and the other to warnings against folly (chs. 5–7). In these discourses the young man is depicted as being enticed to folly by men who try to get ahead in the world by exploiting others (1:10–19) and by women who seek sexual pleasure outside the bond of marriage (ch. 5; 6:20–35; ch. 7).

The main collection of Solomon’s proverbs in 10:1—22:16 consists of individual couplets, many of which express a contrast. On the surface, there does not seem to be any discernible arrangement, though occasionally two or three proverbs deal with the same subject. For example, 11:24–25 deals with generosity, 16:12–15 mentions kings, and 19:4,6–7 talks about friendship. However, there is growing evidence that arrangements of larger units were deliberate. Because most of these are uncertain, the notes will only occasionally suggest them. The second Solomonic collection (chs. 25–29) continues the pattern of two-line verses, but there are also examples of proverbs with three (25:13; 27:10,22,27) or four (25:4–5,21–22; 26:18–19) lines. The last five verses of ch. 27 (vv. 23–27) present a short discourse on the benefits of raising flocks and herds.

In the “thirty sayings” (22:20) of the wise (22:17—24:22) and the further sayings of 24:23–34, there is a prevalence of two-or three-verse units and something of a return to the style of chs. 1–9 (see especially 23:29–35). These sections have been appended to the preceding and contain some proverbs similar to those included in the foregoing collections (compare 24:6 with 11:14; 24:16 with 11:5). One finds even stronger links with chs. 1–9 (compare 23:27 with 2:16; 24:33–34 with 6:10–11).

At the end of the book the Israelite editor(s) has (have) attached three additional pieces, diverse in form and content: the “sayings of Agur,” the “sayings of King Lemuel” and a description of “a wife of noble character.” The first of these (ch. 30) is dominated by numerical proverbs (30:15,18,21,24,29; see note on 6:16). The second (31:1–9) is devoted exclusively to instruction for kings. The third (31:10–31), effectively an epilogue to the whole, is an impressive acrostic poem honoring the wife of noble character (cf. Ru 3:11 and note). She demonstrates, and thus epitomizes, many of the qualities and values identified with wisdom throughout the book. In view of the fact that Proverbs is primarily addressed to young men on the threshold of mature life, this focus on the ideal wife is striking. Its purpose may be twofold: (1) to offer counsel on the kind of wife a young man ought to seek, and (2) in a subtle way to advise the young man (again) to marry Lady Wisdom, thus returning to the theme of chs. 1–9 (as culminated in ch. 9; compare the description of Lady Wisdom in 9:1–2 with the virtues of the wife in 31:10–31). In any event, the concluding epitomizing of wisdom in the wife of noble character forms a literary frame with the opening discourses, where wisdom is personified as a woman.

Proverbs provides instruction on how to live wisely and successfully in the “fear of the LORD” under the reign of God. Wisdom in this context, then, is following the benevolent King’s design for human happiness within the creation order.

Outline

I. Purpose and Theme (1:1–7)

II. The Superiority of the Way of Wisdom (1:8—9:18)

A. Appeals and Warnings Confronting Youth (1:8–33)

1. Enticements to secure happiness by violence (1:8–19)

2. Warnings against rejecting wisdom (1:20–33)

B. Commendation of Wisdom (chs. 2–4)

1. Benefits of accepting wisdom’s instructions (ch. 2)

2. Wisdom bestows well-being (3:1–20)

3. Wisdom’s instructions and benefits (3:21–35)

4. Challenge to hold on to wisdom (ch. 4)

C. Warnings Against Folly (chs. 5–7)

1. Warning against adultery (ch. 5)

2. Warning against perverse ways (6:1–19)

3. Cost of committing adultery (6:20–35)

4. Warning against the enticements of an adulterous woman (ch. 7)

D. Appeals Addressed to Youth (chs. 8–9)

1. Wisdom’s call (ch. 8)

2. Invitations of wisdom and folly (ch. 9)

III. The Main Collection of Solomon’s Proverbs (10:1—22:16)

IV. Thirty Sayings of the Wise (22:17—24:22)

V. Further Sayings of the Wise (24:23–34)

VI. Hezekiah’s Collection of Solomon’s Proverbs (chs. 25–29)

VII. Sayings of Agur (ch. 30)

VIII. Sayings of King Lemuel (31:1–9)

IX. Epilogue: The Wife of Noble Character (31:10–31)