Subpart C—Structure

GENERAL

§25.301 Loads.

(a) Strength requirements are specified in terms of limit loads (the maximum loads to be expected in service) and ultimate loads (limit loads multiplied by prescribed factors of safety). Unless otherwise provided, prescribed loads are limit loads.

(b) Unless otherwise provided, the specified air, ground, and water loads must be placed in equilibrium with inertia forces, considering each item of mass in the airplane. These loads must be distributed to conservatively approximate or closely represent actual conditions. Methods used to determine load intensities and distribution must be validated by flight load measurement unless the methods used for determining those loading conditions are shown to be reliable.

(c) If deflections under load would significantly change the distribution of external or internal loads, this redistribution must be taken into account.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.303 Factor of safety.

Unless otherwise specified, a factor of safety of 1.5 must be applied to the prescribed limit load which are considered external loads on the structure. When a loading condition is prescribed in terms of ultimate loads, a factor of safety need not be applied unless otherwise specified.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.305 Strength and deformation.

(a) The structure must be able to support limit loads without detrimental permanent deformation. At any load up to limit loads, the deformation may not interfere with safe operation.

(b) The structure must be able to support ultimate loads without failure for at least 3 seconds. However, when proof of strength is shown by dynamic tests simulating actual load conditions, the 3-second limit does not apply. Static tests conducted to ultimate load must include the ultimate deflections and ultimate deformation induced by the loading. When analytical methods are used to show compliance with the ultimate load strength requirements, it must be shown that—

(1) The effects of deformation are not significant;

(2) The deformations involved are fully accounted for in the analysis; or

(3) The methods and assumptions used are sufficient to cover the effects of these deformations.

(c) Where structural flexibility is such that any rate of load application likely to occur in the operating conditions might produce transient stresses appreciably higher than those corresponding to static loads, the effects of this rate of application must be considered.

(d) [Reserved]

(e) The airplane must be designed to withstand any vibration and buffeting that might occur in any likely operating condition up to VD/MD, including stall and probable inadvertent excursions beyond the boundaries of the buffet onset envelope. This must be shown by analysis, flight tests, or other tests found necessary by the Administrator.

(f) Unless shown to be extremely improbable, the airplane must be designed to withstand any forced structural vibration resulting from any failure, malfunction or adverse condition in the flight control system. These must be considered limit loads and must be investigated at airspeeds up to VC/MC.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 25-77, 57 FR 28949, June 29, 1992; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996]

§25.307 Proof of structure.

(a) Compliance with the strength and deformation requirements of this subpart must be shown for each critical loading condition. Structural analysis may be used only if the structure conforms to that for which experience has shown this method to be reliable. In other cases, substantiating tests must be made to load levels that are sufficient to verify structural behavior up to loads specified in §25.305.

(b)-(c) [Reserved]

(d) When static or dynamic tests are used to show compliance with the requirements of §25.305(b) for flight structures, appropriate material correction factors must be applied to the test results, unless the structure, or part thereof, being tested has features such that a number of elements contribute to the total strength of the structure and the failure of one element results in the redistribution of the load through alternate load paths.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29775, July 20, 1990; 79 FR 59429, Oct. 2, 2014]

FLIGHT LOADS

§25.321 General.

(a) Flight load factors represent the ratio of the aerodynamic force component (acting normal to the assumed longitudinal axis of the airplane) to the weight of the airplane. A positive load factor is one in which the aerodynamic force acts upward with respect to the airplane.

(b) Considering compressibility effects at each speed, compliance with the flight load requirements of this subpart must be shown—

(1) At each critical altitude within the range of altitudes selected by the applicant;

(2) At each weight from the design minimum weight to the design maximum weight appropriate to each particular flight load condition; and

(3) For each required altitude and weight, for any practicable distribution of disposable load within the operating limitations recorded in the Airplane Flight Manual.

(c) Enough points on and within the boundaries of the design envelope must be investigated to ensure that the maximum load for each part of the airplane structure is obtained.

(d) The significant forces acting on the airplane must be placed in equilibrium in a rational or conservative manner. The linear inertia forces must be considered in equilibrium with the thrust and all aerodynamic loads, while the angular (pitching) inertia forces must be considered in equilibrium with thrust and all aerodynamic moments, including moments due to loads on components such as tail surfaces and nacelles. Critical thrust values in the range from zero to maximum continuous thrust must be considered.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996]

FLIGHT MANEUVER AND GUST CONDITIONS

§25.331 Symmetric maneuvering conditions.

(a) Procedure. For the analysis of the maneuvering flight conditions specified in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section, the following provisions apply:

(1) Where sudden displacement of a control is specified, the assumed rate of control surface displacement may not be less than the rate that could be applied by the pilot through the control system.

(2) In determining elevator angles and chordwise load distribution in the maneuvering conditions of paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section, the effect of corresponding pitching velocities must be taken into account. The in-trim and out-of-trim flight conditions specified in §25.255 must be considered.

(b) Maneuvering balanced conditions. Assuming the airplane to be in equilibrium with zero pitching acceleration, the maneuvering conditions A through I on the maneuvering envelope in §25.333(b) must be investigated.

(c) Maneuvering pitching conditions. The following conditions must be investigated:

(1) Maximum pitch control displacement at VA. The airplane is assumed to be flying in steady level flight (point A1, §25.333(b)) and the cockpit pitch control is suddenly moved to obtain extreme nose up pitching acceleration. In defining the tail load, the response of the airplane must be taken into account. Airplane loads that occur subsequent to the time when normal acceleration at the c.g. exceeds the positive limit maneuvering load factor (at point A2 in §25.333(b)), or the resulting tailplane normal load reaches its maximum, whichever occurs first, need not be considered.

(2) Checked maneuver between VA and VD. Nose-up checked pitching maneuvers must be analyzed in which the positive limit load factor prescribed in §25.337 is achieved. As a separate condition, nose-down checked pitching maneuvers must be analyzed in which a limit load factor of 0g is achieved. In defining the airplane loads, the flight deck pitch control motions described in paragraphs (c)(2)(i) through (iv) of this section must be used:

(i) The airplane is assumed to be flying in steady level flight at any speed between VA and VD and the flight deck pitch control is moved in accordance with the following formula:

δ(t) = δ1 sin(ωt) for 0 ≤ t ≤ tmax

Where—

δ1 = the maximum available displacement of the flight deck pitch control in the initial direction, as limited by the control system stops, control surface stops, or by pilot effort in accordance with §25.397(b);

δ(t) = the displacement of the flight deck pitch control as a function of time. In the initial direction, δ(t) is limited to δ1. In the reverse direction, δ(t) may be truncated at the maximum available displacement of the flight deck pitch control as limited by the control system stops, control surface stops, or by pilot effort in accordance with 25.397(b);

tmax = 3π/2ω;

ω = the circular frequency (radians/second) of the control deflection taken equal to the undamped natural frequency of the short period rigid mode of the airplane, with active control system effects included where appropriate; but not less than:

Where

V = the speed of the airplane at entry to the maneuver.

VA = the design maneuvering speed prescribed in §25.335(c).

(ii) For nose-up pitching maneuvers, the complete flight deck pitch control displacement history may be scaled down in amplitude to the extent necessary to ensure that the positive limit load factor prescribed in §25.337 is not exceeded. For nose-down pitching maneuvers, the complete flight deck control displacement history may be scaled down in amplitude to the extent necessary to ensure that the normal acceleration at the center of gravity does not go below 0g.

(iii) In addition, for cases where the airplane response to the specified flight deck pitch control motion does not achieve the prescribed limit load factors, then the following flight deck pitch control motion must be used:

δ(t) = δ1 sin(ωt) for 0 ≤ t ≤ t1

δ(t) = δ1 for t1 ≤ t ≤ t2

δ(t) = δ1 sin(ω[t + t1 − t2]) for t2 ≤ t ≤ tmax

Where—

t1 = π/2ω

t2 = t1 + Δt

tmax = t2 + π/ω;

Δt = the minimum period of time necessary to allow the prescribed limit load factor to be achieved in the initial direction, but it need not exceed five seconds (see figure below).

(iv) In cases where the flight deck pitch control motion may be affected by inputs from systems (for example, by a stick pusher that can operate at high load factor as well as at 1g), then the effects of those systems shall be taken into account.

(v) Airplane loads that occur beyond the following times need not be considered:

(A) For the nose-up pitching maneuver, the time at which the normal acceleration at the center of gravity goes below 0g;

(B) For the nose-down pitching maneuver, the time at which the normal acceleration at the center of gravity goes above the positive limit load factor prescribed in §25.337;

(C) tmax..

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50594, Oct. 30, 1978; 43 FR 52495, Nov. 13, 1978; 43 FR 54082, Nov. 20, 1978; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29775, July 20, 1990; 55 FR 37607, Sept. 12, 1990; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997; Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73466, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.333 Flight maneuvering envelope.

(a) General. The strength requirements must be met at each combination of airspeed and load factor on and within the boundaries of the representative maneuvering envelope (V-n diagram) of paragraph (b) of this section. This envelope must also be used in determining the airplane structural operating limitations as specified in §25.1501.

(b) Maneuvering envelope.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996]

§25.335 Design airspeeds.

The selected design airspeeds are equivalent airspeeds (EAS). Estimated values of VS0 and VS1 must be conservative.

(a) Design cruising speed, VC. For VC, the following apply:

(1) The minimum value of VC must be sufficiently greater than VB to provide for inadvertent speed increases likely to occur as a result of severe atmospheric turbulence.

(2) Except as provided in §25.335(d)(2), VC may not be less than VB + 1.32 UREF (with UREF as specified in §25.341(a)(5)(i)). However VC need not exceed the maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power for the corresponding altitude.

(3) At altitudes where VD is limited by Mach number, VC may be limited to a selected Mach number.

(b) Design dive speed, VD. VD must be selected so that VC/MC is not greater than 0.8 VD/MD, or so that the minimum speed margin between VC/MC and VD/MD is the greater of the following values:

(1) From an initial condition of stabilized flight at VC/MC, the airplane is upset, flown for 20 seconds along a flight path 7.5° below the initial path, and then pulled up at a load factor of 1.5g (0.5g acceleration increment). The speed increase occurring in this maneuver may be calculated if reliable or conservative aerodynamic data is used. Power as specified in §25.175(b)(1)(iv) is assumed until the pullup is initiated, at which time power reduction and the use of pilot controlled drag devices may be assumed;

(2) The minimum speed margin must be enough to provide for atmospheric variations (such as horizontal gusts, and penetration of jet streams and cold fronts) and for instrument errors and airframe production variations. These factors may be considered on a probability basis. The margin at altitude where MC is limited by compressibility effects must not less than 0.07M unless a lower margin is determined using a rational analysis that includes the effects of any automatic systems. In any case, the margin may not be reduced to less than 0.05M.

(c) Design maneuvering speed VA. For VA, the following apply:

(1) VA may not be less than VS1 √n where—

(i) n is the limit positive maneuvering load factor at VC; and

(ii) VS1 is the stalling speed with flaps retracted.

(2) VA and VS must be evaluated at the design weight and altitude under consideration.

(3) VA need not be more than VC or the speed at which the positive CN max curve intersects the positive maneuver load factor line, whichever is less.

(d) Design speed for maximum gust intensity, VB.

(1) VB may not be less than

where—

VS1 = the 1-g stalling speed based on CNAmax with the flaps retracted at the particular weight under consideration;

Vc = design cruise speed (knots equivalent airspeed);

Uref = the reference gust velocity (feet per second equivalent airspeed) from §25.341(a)(5)(i);

w = average wing loading (pounds per square foot) at the particular weight under consideration.

ρ = density of air (slugs/ft3);

c = mean geometric chord of the wing (feet);

g = acceleration due to gravity (ft/sec2);

a = slope of the airplane normal force coefficient curve, CNA per radian;

(2) At altitudes where VC is limited by Mach number—

(i) VB may be chosen to provide an optimum margin between low and high speed buffet boundaries; and,

(ii) VB need not be greater than VC.

(e) Design flap speeds, VF. For VF, the following apply:

(1) The design flap speed for each flap position (established in accordance with §25.697(a)) must be sufficiently greater than the operating speed recommended for the corresponding stage of flight (including balked landings) to allow for probable variations in control of airspeed and for transition from one flap position to another.

(2) If an automatic flap positioning or load limiting device is used, the speeds and corresponding flap positions programmed or allowed by the device may be used.

(3) VF may not be less than—

(i) 1.6 VS1 with the flaps in takeoff position at maximum takeoff weight;

(ii) 1.8 VS1 with the flaps in approach position at maximum landing weight, and

(iii) 1.8 VS0 with the flaps in landing position at maximum landing weight.

(f) Design drag device speeds, VDD. The selected design speed for each drag device must be sufficiently greater than the speed recommended for the operation of the device to allow for probable variations in speed control. For drag devices intended for use in high speed descents, VDD may not be less than VD. When an automatic drag device positioning or load limiting means is used, the speeds and corresponding drag device positions programmed or allowed by the automatic means must be used for design.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5220, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]

§25.337 Limit maneuvering load factors.

(a) Except where limited by maximum (static) lift coefficients, the airplane is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical maneuvers resulting in the limit maneuvering load factors prescribed in this section. Pitching velocities appropriate to the corresponding pull-up and steady turn maneuvers must be taken into account.

(b) The positive limit maneuvering load factor n for any speed up to Vn may not be less than 2.1 + 24,000/ (W + 10,000) except that n may not be less than 2.5 and need not be greater than 3.8—where W is the design maximum takeoff weight.

(c) The negative limit maneuvering load factor—

(1) May not be less than −1.0 at speeds up to VC; and

(2) Must vary linearly with speed from the value at VC to zero at VD.

(d) Maneuvering load factors lower than those specified in this section may be used if the airplane has design features that make it impossible to exceed these values in flight.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.341 Gust and turbulence loads.

(a) Discrete Gust Design Criteria. The airplane is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical vertical and lateral gusts in level flight. Limit gust loads must be determined in accordance with the provisions:

(1) Loads on each part of the structure must be determined by dynamic analysis. The analysis must take into account unsteady aerodynamic characteristics and all significant structural degrees of freedom including rigid body motions.

(2) The shape of the gust must be:

for 0 ≤s ≤2H

where—

s = distance penetrated into the gust (feet);

Uds = the design gust velocity in equivalent airspeed specified in paragraph (a)(4) of this section; and

H = the gust gradient which is the distance (feet) parallel to the airplane’s flight path for the gust to reach its peak velocity.

(3) A sufficient number of gust gradient distances in the range 30 feet to 350 feet must be investigated to find the critical response for each load quantity.

(4) The design gust velocity must be:

where—

Uref = the reference gust velocity in equivalent airspeed defined in paragraph (a)(5) of this section.

Fg = the flight profile alleviation factor defined in paragraph (a)(6) of this section.

(5) The following reference gust velocities apply:

(i) At airplane speeds between VB and VC: Positive and negative gusts with reference gust velocities of 56.0 ft/sec EAS must be considered at sea level. The reference gust velocity may be reduced linearly from 56.0 ft/sec EAS at sea level to 44.0 ft/sec EAS at 15,000 feet. The reference gust velocity may be further reduced linearly from 44.0 ft/sec EAS at 15,000 feet to 20.86 ft/sec EAS at 60,000 feet.

(ii) At the airplane design speed VD: The reference gust velocity must be 0.5 times the value obtained under §25.341(a)(5)(i).

(6) The flight profile alleviation factor, Fg, must be increased linearly from the sea level value to a value of 1.0 at the maximum operating altitude defined in §25.1527. At sea level, the flight profile alleviation factor is determined by the following equation:

Zmo = Maximum operating altitude defined in §25.1527 (feet).

(7) When a stability augmentation system is included in the analysis, the effect of any significant system nonlinearities should be accounted for when deriving limit loads from limit gust conditions.

(b) Continuous turbulence design criteria. The dynamic response of the airplane to vertical and lateral continuous turbulence must be taken into account. The dynamic analysis must take into account unsteady aerodynamic characteristics and all significant structural degrees of freedom including rigid body motions. The limit loads must be determined for all critical altitudes, weights, and weight distributions as specified in §25.321(b), and all critical speeds within the ranges indicated in §25.341(b)(3).

(1) Except as provided in paragraphs (b)(4) and (5) of this section, the following equation must be used:

PL = PL−1g ± UσA¯

Where—

PL = limit load;

PL−1g = steady 1g load for the condition;

A = ratio of root-mean-square incremental load for the condition to root-mean-square turbulence velocity; and

Uσ = limit turbulence intensity in true airspeed, specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this section.

(2) Values of A must be determined according to the following formula:

Where—

H(Ω) = the frequency response function, determined by dynamic analysis, that relates the loads in the aircraft structure to the atmospheric turbulence; and

Φ(Ω) = normalized power spectral density of atmospheric turbulence given by—

Where—

Ω = reduced frequency, radians per foot; and

L = scale of turbulence = 2,500 ft.

(3) The limit turbulence intensities, Uσ, in feet per second true airspeed required for compliance with this paragraph are—

(i) At airplane speeds between VB and VC:

Uσ = Uσref Fg

Where—

Uσref is the reference turbulence intensity that varies linearly with altitude from 90 fps (TAS) at sea level to 79 fps (TAS) at 24,000 feet and is then constant at 79 fps (TAS) up to the altitude of 60,000 feet.

Fg is the flight profile alleviation factor defined in paragraph (a)(6) of this section;

(ii) At speed VD: Uσ is equal to 1⁄2 the values obtained under paragraph (b)(3)(i) of this section.

(iii) At speeds between VC and VD: Uσ is equal to a value obtained by linear interpolation.

(iv) At all speeds, both positive and negative incremental loads due to continuous turbulence must be considered.

(4) When an automatic system affecting the dynamic response of the airplane is included in the analysis, the effects of system non-linearities on loads at the limit load level must be taken into account in a realistic or conservative manner.

(5) If necessary for the assessment of loads on airplanes with significant non-linearities, it must be assumed that the turbulence field has a root-mean-square velocity equal to 40 percent of the Uσ values specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this section. The value of limit load is that load with the same probability of exceedance in the turbulence field as AUσ of the same load quantity in a linear approximated model.

(c) Supplementary gust conditions for wing-mounted engines. For airplanes equipped with wing-mounted engines, the engine mounts, pylons, and wing supporting structure must be designed for the maximum response at the nacelle center of gravity derived from the following dynamic gust conditions applied to the airplane:

(1) A discrete gust determined in accordance with §25.341(a) at each angle normal to the flight path, and separately,

(2) A pair of discrete gusts, one vertical and one lateral. The length of each of these gusts must be independently tuned to the maximum response in accordance with §25.341(a). The penetration of the airplane in the combined gust field and the phasing of the vertical and lateral component gusts must be established to develop the maximum response to the gust pair. In the absence of a more rational analysis, the following formula must be used for each of the maximum engine loads in all six degrees of freedom:

Where—

PL = limit load;

PL-1g = steady 1g load for the condition;

LV = peak incremental response load due to a vertical gust according to §25.341(a); and

LL = peak incremental response load due to a lateral gust according to §25.341(a).

[Doc. No. 27902, 61 FR 5221, Feb. 9, 1996; 61 FR 9533, Mar. 8, 1996; Doc. No. FAA-2013-0142; 79 FR 73467, Dec. 11, 2014; Amdt. 25-141, 80 FR 4762, Jan. 29, 2015; 80 FR 6435, Feb. 5, 2015]

§25.343 Design fuel and oil loads.

(a) The disposable load combinations must include each fuel and oil load in the range from zero fuel and oil to the selected maximum fuel and oil load. A structural reserve fuel condition, not exceeding 45 minutes of fuel under the operating conditions in §25.1001(e) and (f), as applicable, may be selected.

(b) If a structural reserve fuel condition is selected, it must be used as the minimum fuel weight condition for showing compliance with the flight load requirements as prescribed in this subpart. In addition—

(1) The structure must be designed for a condition of zero fuel and oil in the wing at limit loads corresponding to—

(i) A maneuvering load factor of + 2.25; and

(ii) The gust and turbulence conditions of §25.341(a) and (b), but assuming 85% of the gust velocities prescribed in §25.341(a)(4) and 85% of the turbulence intensities prescribed in §25.341(b)(3).

(2) Fatigue evaluation of the structure must account for any increase in operating stresses resulting from the design condition of paragraph (b)(1) of this section; and

(3) The flutter, deformation, and vibration requirements must also be met with zero fuel.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-18, 33 FR 12226, Aug. 30, 1968; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 37607, Sept. 12, 1990; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5221, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.345 High lift devices.

(a) If wing flaps are to be used during takeoff, approach, or landing, at the design flap speeds established for these stages of flight under §25.335(e) and with the wing flaps in the corresponding positions, the airplane is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical maneuvers and gusts. The resulting limit loads must correspond to the conditions determined as follows:

(1) Maneuvering to a positive limit load factor of 2.0; and

(2) Positive and negative gusts of 25 ft/sec EAS acting normal to the flight path in level flight. Gust loads resulting on each part of the structure must be determined by rational analysis. The analysis must take into account the unsteady aerodynamic characteristics and rigid body motions of the aircraft. The shape of the gust must be as described in §25.341(a)(2) except that—

Uds = 25 ft/sec EAS;

H = 12.5 c; and

c = mean geometric chord of the wing (feet).

(b) The airplane must be designed for the conditions prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section, except that the airplane load factor need not exceed 1.0, taking into account, as separate conditions, the effects of—

(1) Propeller slipstream corresponding to maximum continuous power at the design flap speeds VF, and with takeoff power at not less than 1.4 times the stalling speed for the particular flap position and associated maximum weight; and

(2) A head-on gust of 25 feet per second velocity (EAS).

(c) If flaps or other high lift devices are to be used in en route conditions, and with flaps in the appropriate position at speeds up to the flap design speed chosen for these conditions, the airplane is assumed to be subjected to symmetrical maneuvers and gusts within the range determined by—

(1) Maneuvering to a positive limit load factor as prescribed in §25.337(b); and

(2) The vertical gust and turbulence conditions prescribed in §25.341(a) and (b).

(d) The airplane must be designed for a maneuvering load factor of 1.5 g at the maximum take-off weight with the wing-flaps and similar high lift devices in the landing configurations.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 37607, Sept. 17, 1990; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5221, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997; Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.349 Rolling conditions.

The airplane must be designed for loads resulting from the rolling conditions specified in paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section. Unbalanced aerodynamic moments about the center of gravity must be reacted in a rational or conservative manner, considering the principal masses furnishing the reacting inertia forces.

(a) Maneuvering. The following conditions, speeds, and aileron deflections (except as the deflections may be limited by pilot effort) must be considered in combination with an airplane load factor of zero and of two-thirds of the positive maneuvering factor used in design. In determining the required aileron deflections, the torsional flexibility of the wing must be considered in accordance with §25.301(b):

(1) Conditions corresponding to steady rolling velocities must be investigated. In addition, conditions corresponding to maximum angular acceleration must be investigated for airplanes with engines or other weight concentrations outboard of the fuselage. For the angular acceleration conditions, zero rolling velocity may be assumed in the absence of a rational time history investigation of the maneuver.

(2) At VA, a sudden deflection of the aileron to the stop is assumed.

(3) At VC, the aileron deflection must be that required to produce a rate of roll not less than that obtained in paragraph (a)(2) of this section.

(4) At VD, the aileron deflection must be that required to produce a rate of roll not less than one-third of that in paragraph (a)(2) of this section.

(b) Unsymmetrical gusts. The airplane is assumed to be subjected to unsymmetrical vertical gusts in level flight. The resulting limit loads must be determined from either the wing maximum airload derived directly from §25.341(a), or the wing maximum airload derived indirectly from the vertical load factor calculated from §25.341(a). It must be assumed that 100 percent of the wing air load acts on one side of the airplane and 80 percent of the wing air load acts on the other side.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]

§25.351 Yaw maneuver conditions.

The airplane must be designed for loads resulting from the yaw maneuver conditions specified in paragraphs (a) through (d) of this section at speeds from VMC to VD. Unbalanced aerodynamic moments about the center of gravity must be reacted in a rational or conservative manner considering the airplane inertia forces. In computing the tail loads the yawing velocity may be assumed to be zero.

(a) With the airplane in unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed that the cockpit rudder control is suddenly displaced to achieve the resulting rudder deflection, as limited by:

(1) The control system on control surface stops; or

(2) A limit pilot force of 300 pounds from VMC to VA and 200 pounds from VC/MC to VD/MD, with a linear variation between VA and VC/MC.

(b) With the cockpit rudder control deflected so as always to maintain the maximum rudder deflection available within the limitations specified in paragraph (a) of this section, it is assumed that the airplane yaws to the overswing sideslip angle.

(c) With the airplane yawed to the static equilibrium sideslip angle, it is assumed that the cockpit rudder control is held so as to achieve the maximum rudder deflection available within the limitations specified in paragraph (a) of this section.

(d) With the airplane yawed to the static equilibrium sideslip angle of paragraph (c) of this section, it is assumed that the cockpit rudder control is suddenly returned to neutral.

[Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]

SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS

§25.361 Engine and auxiliary power unit torque.

(a) For engine installations—

(1) Each engine mount, pylon, and adjacent supporting airframe structures must be designed for the effects of—

(i) A limit engine torque corresponding to takeoff power/thrust and, if applicable, corresponding propeller speed, acting simultaneously with 75% of the limit loads from flight condition A of §25.333(b);

(ii) A limit engine torque corresponding to the maximum continuous power/thrust and, if applicable, corresponding propeller speed, acting simultaneously with the limit loads from flight condition A of §25.333(b); and

(iii) For turbopropeller installations only, in addition to the conditions specified in paragraphs (a)(1)(i) and (ii) of this section, a limit engine torque corresponding to takeoff power and propeller speed, multiplied by a factor accounting for propeller control system malfunction, including quick feathering, acting simultaneously with 1g level flight loads. In the absence of a rational analysis, a factor of 1.6 must be used.

(2) The limit engine torque to be considered under paragraph (a)(1) of this section must be obtained by—

(i) For turbopropeller installations, multiplying mean engine torque for the specified power/thrust and speed by a factor of 1.25;

(ii) For other turbine engines, the limit engine torque must be equal to the maximum accelerating torque for the case considered.

(3) The engine mounts, pylons, and adjacent supporting airframe structure must be designed to withstand 1g level flight loads acting simultaneously with the limit engine torque loads imposed by each of the following conditions to be considered separately:

(i) Sudden maximum engine deceleration due to malfunction or abnormal condition; and

(ii) The maximum acceleration of engine.

(b) For auxiliary power unit installations, the power unit mounts and adjacent supporting airframe structure must be designed to withstand 1g level flight loads acting simultaneously with the limit torque loads imposed by each of the following conditions to be considered separately:

(1) Sudden maximum auxiliary power unit deceleration due to malfunction, abnormal condition, or structural failure; and

(2) The maximum acceleration of the auxiliary power unit.

[Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.362 Engine failure loads.

(a) For engine mounts, pylons, and adjacent supporting airframe structure, an ultimate loading condition must be considered that combines 1g flight loads with the most critical transient dynamic loads and vibrations, as determined by dynamic analysis, resulting from failure of a blade, shaft, bearing or bearing support, or bird strike event. Any permanent deformation from these ultimate load conditions must not prevent continued safe flight and landing.

(b) The ultimate loads developed from the conditions specified in paragraph (a) of this section are to be—

(1) Multiplied by a factor of 1.0 when applied to engine mounts and pylons; and

(2) Multiplied by a factor of 1.25 when applied to adjacent supporting airframe structure.

[Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.363 Side load on engine and auxiliary power unit mounts.

(a) Each engine and auxiliary power unit mount and its supporting structure must be designed for a limit load factor in lateral direction, for the side load on the engine and auxiliary power unit mount, at least equal to the maximum load factor obtained in the yawing conditions but not less than—

(1) 1.33; or

(2) One-third of the limit load factor for flight condition A as prescribed in §25.333(b).

(b) The side load prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section may be assumed to be independent of other flight conditions.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40704, July 29, 1997]

§25.365 Pressurized compartment loads.

For airplanes with one or more pressurized compartments the following apply:

(a) The airplane structure must be strong enough to withstand the flight loads combined with pressure differential loads from zero up to the maximum relief valve setting.

(b) The external pressure distribution in flight, and stress concentrations and fatigue effects must be accounted for.

(c) If landings may be made with the compartment pressurized, landing loads must be combined with pressure differential loads from zero up to the maximum allowed during landing.

(d) The airplane structure must be designed to be able to withstand the pressure differential loads corresponding to the maximum relief valve setting multiplied by a factor of 1.33 for airplanes to be approved for operation to 45,000 feet or by a factor of 1.67 for airplanes to be approved for operation above 45,000 feet, omitting other loads.

(e) Any structure, component or part, inside or outside a pressurized compartment, the failure of which could interfere with continued safe flight and landing, must be designed to withstand the effects of a sudden release of pressure through an opening in any compartment at any operating altitude resulting from each of the following conditions:

(1) The penetration of the compartment by a portion of an engine following an engine disintegration;

(2) Any opening in any pressurized compartment up to the size Ho in square feet; however, small compartments may be combined with an adjacent pressurized compartment and both considered as a single compartment for openings that cannot reasonably be expected to be confined to the small compartment. The size Ho must be computed by the following formula:

Ho = PAs

where,

Ho = Maximum opening in square feet, need not exceed 20 square feet.

P = (As/6240) + .024

As = Maximum cross-sectional area of the pressurized shell normal to the longitudinal axis, in square feet; and

(3) The maximum opening caused by airplane or equipment failures not shown to be extremely improbable.

(f) In complying with paragraph (e) of this section, the fail-safe features of the design may be considered in determining the probability of failure or penetration and probable size of openings, provided that possible improper operation of closure devices and inadvertent door openings are also considered. Furthermore, the resulting differential pressure loads must be combined in a rational and conservative manner with 1-g level flight loads and any loads arising from emergency depressurization conditions. These loads may be considered as ultimate conditions; however, any deformations associated with these conditions must not interfere with continued safe flight and landing. The pressure relief provided by intercompartment venting may also be considered.

(g) Bulkheads, floors, and partitions in pressurized compartments for occupants must be designed to withstand the conditions specified in paragraph (e) of this section. In addition, reasonable design precautions must be taken to minimize the probability of parts becoming detached and injuring occupants while in their seats.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-54, 45 FR 60172, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 25-71, 55 FR 13477, Apr. 10, 1990; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-87, 61 FR 28695, June 5, 1996]

§25.367 Unsymmetrical loads due to engine failure.

(a) The airplane must be designed for the unsymmetrical loads resulting from the failure of the critical engine. Turbopropeller airplanes must be designed for the following conditions in combination with a single malfunction of the propeller drag limiting system, considering the probable pilot corrective action on the flight controls:

(1) At speeds between VMC and VD, the loads resulting from power failure because of fuel flow interruption are considered to be limit loads.

(2) At speeds between VMC and VC, the loads resulting from the disconnection of the engine compressor from the turbine or from loss of the turbine blades are considered to be ultimate loads.

(3) The time history of the thrust decay and drag build-up occurring as a result of the prescribed engine failures must be substantiated by test or other data applicable to the particular engine-propeller combination.

(4) The timing and magnitude of the probable pilot corrective action must be conservatively estimated, considering the characteristics of the particular engine-propeller-airplane combination.

(b) Pilot corrective action may be assumed to be initiated at the time maximum yawing velocity is reached, but not earlier than two seconds after the engine failure. The magnitude of the corrective action may be based on the control forces specified in §25.397(b) except that lower forces may be assumed where it is shown by anaylsis or test that these forces can control the yaw and roll resulting from the prescribed engine failure conditions.

§25.371 Gyroscopic loads.

The structure supporting any engine or auxiliary power unit must be designed for the loads, including gyroscopic loads, arising from the conditions specified in §§25.331, 25.341, 25.349, 25.351, 25.473, 25.479, and 25.481, with the engine or auxiliary power unit at the maximum rotating speed appropriate to the condition. For the purposes of compliance with this paragraph, the pitch maneuver in §25.331(c)(1) must be carried out until the positive limit maneuvering load factor (point A2 in §25.333(b)) is reached.

[Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.373 Speed control devices.

If speed control devices (such as spoilers and drag flaps) are installed for use in en route conditions—

(a) The airplane must be designed for the symmetrical maneuvers prescribed in §§25.333 and 25.337, the yawing maneuvers in §25.351, and the vertical and lateral gust and turbulence conditions prescribed in §25.341(a) and (b) at each setting and the maximum speed associated with that setting; and

(b) If the device has automatic operating or load limiting features, the airplane must be designed for the maneuver and gust conditions prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section, at the speeds and corresponding device positions that the mechanism allows.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS

§25.391 Control surface loads: General.

The control surfaces must be designed for the limit loads resulting from the flight conditions in §§25.331, 25.341(a) and (b), 25.349, and 25.351, considering the requirements for—

(a) Loads parallel to hinge line, in §25.393;

(b) Pilot effort effects, in §25.397;

(c) Trim tab effects, in §25.407;

(d) Unsymmetrical loads, in §25.427; and

(e) Auxiliary aerodynamic surfaces, in §25.445.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.393 Loads parallel to hinge line.

(a) Control surfaces and supporting hinge brackets must be designed for inertia loads acting parallel to the hinge line.

(b) In the absence of more rational data, the inertia loads may be assumed to be equal to KW, where—

(1) K = 24 for vertical surfaces;

(2) K = 12 for horizontal surfaces; and

(3) W = weight of the movable surfaces.

§25.395 Control system.

(a) Longitudinal, lateral, directional, and drag control system and their supporting structures must be designed for loads corresponding to 125 percent of the computed hinge moments of the movable control surface in the conditions prescribed in §25.391.

(b) The system limit loads of paragraph (a) of this section need not exceed the loads that can be produced by the pilot (or pilots) and by automatic or power devices operating the controls.

(c) The loads must not be less than those resulting from application of the minimum forces prescribed in §25.397(c).

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5672, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.397 Control system loads.

(a) General. The maximum and minimum pilot forces, specified in paragraph (c) of this section, are assumed to act at the appropriate control grips or pads (in a manner simulating flight conditions) and to be reacted at the attachment of the control system to the control surface horn.

(b) Pilot effort effects. In the control surface flight loading condition, the air loads on movable surfaces and the corresponding deflections need not exceed those that would result in flight from the application of any pilot force within the ranges specified in paragraph (c) of this section. Two-thirds of the maximum values specified for the aileron and elevator may be used if control surface hinge moments are based on reliable data. In applying this criterion, the effects of servo mechanisms, tabs, and automatic pilot systems, must be considered.

(c) Limit pilot forces and torques. The limit pilot forces and torques are as follows:

1The critical parts of the aileron control system must be designed for a single tangential force with a limit value equal to 1.25 times the couple force determined from these criteria.

2D = wheel diameter (inches).

3The unsymmetrical forces must be applied at one of the normal handgrip points on the periphery of the control wheel.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]

§25.399 Dual control system.

(a) Each dual control system must be designed for the pilots operating in opposition, using individual pilot forces not less than—

(1) 0.75 times those obtained under §25.395; or

(2) The minimum forces specified in §25.397(c).

(b) The control system must be designed for pilot forces applied in the same direction, using individual pilot forces not less than 0.75 times those obtained under §25.395.

§25.405 Secondary control system.

Secondary controls, such as wheel brake, spoiler, and tab controls, must be designed for the maximum forces that a pilot is likely to apply to those controls. The following values may be used:

PILOT CONTROL FORCE LIMITS (SECONDARY CONTROLS)

Control	Limit pilot forces
Miscellaneous:
*Crank, wheel, or lever	((1 + R) / 3) × 50 lbs., but not less than 50 lbs. nor more than 150 lbs. (R = radius). (Applicable to any angle within 20° of plane of control).
Twist	133 in.-lbs.
Push-pull	To be chosen by applicant.

*Limited to flap, tab, stabilizer, spoiler, and landing gear operation controls.

§25.407 Trim tab effects.

The effects of trim tabs on the control surface design conditions must be accounted for only where the surface loads are limited by maximum pilot effort. In these cases, the tabs are considered to be deflected in the direction that would assist the pilot, and the deflections are—

(a) For elevator trim tabs, those required to trim the airplane at any point within the positive portion of the pertinent flight envelope in §25.333(b), except as limited by the stops; and

(b) For aileron and rudder trim tabs, those required to trim the airplane in the critical unsymmetrical power and loading conditions, with appropriate allowance for rigging tolerances.

§25.409 Tabs.

(a) Trim tabs. Trim tabs must be designed to withstand loads arising from all likely combinations of tab setting, primary control position, and airplane speed (obtainable without exceeding the flight load conditions prescribed for the airplane as a whole), when the effect of the tab is opposed by pilot effort forces up to those specified in §25.397(b).

(b) Balancing tabs. Balancing tabs must be designed for deflections consistent with the primary control surface loading conditions.

(c) Servo tabs. Servo tabs must be designed for deflections consistent with the primary control surface loading conditions obtainable within the pilot maneuvering effort, considering possible opposition from the trim tabs.

§25.415 Ground gust conditions.

(a) The flight control systems and surfaces must be designed for the limit loads generated when the airplane is subjected to a horizontal 65-knot ground gust from any direction while taxiing and while parked. For airplanes equipped with control system gust locks, the taxiing condition must be evaluated with the controls locked and unlocked, and the parked condition must be evaluated with the controls locked.

(b) The control system and surface loads due to ground gust may be assumed to be static loads, and the hinge moments H must be computed from the formula:

H = K (1/2) ρo V2 c S

Where—

K = hinge moment factor for ground gusts derived in paragraph (c) of this section;

ρo = density of air at sea level;

V = 65 knots relative to the aircraft;

S = area of the control surface aft of the hinge line;

c = mean aerodynamic chord of the control surface aft of the hinge line.

(c) The hinge moment factor K for ground gusts must be taken from the following table:

*A positive value of K indicates a moment tending to depress the surface, while a negative value of K indicates a moment tending to raise the surface.

(d) The computed hinge moment of paragraph (b) of this section must be used to determine the limit loads due to ground gust conditions for the control surface. A 1.25 factor on the computed hinge moments must be used in calculating limit control system loads.

(e) Where control system flexibility is such that the rate of load application in the ground gust conditions might produce transient stresses appreciably higher than those corresponding to static loads, in the absence of a rational analysis substantiating a different dynamic factor, an additional factor of 1.6 must be applied to the control system loads of paragraph (d) of this section to obtain limit loads. If a rational analysis is used, the additional factor must not be less than 1.2.

(f) For the condition of the control locks engaged, the control surfaces, the control system locks, and the parts of any control systems between the surfaces and the locks must be designed to the resultant limit loads. Where control locks are not provided, then the control surfaces, the control system stops nearest the surfaces, and the parts of any control systems between the surfaces and the stops must be designed to the resultant limit loads. If the control system design is such as to allow any part of the control system to impact with the stops due to flexibility, then the resultant impact loads must be taken into account in deriving the limit loads due to ground gust.

(g) For the condition of taxiing with the control locks disengaged, or where control locks are not provided, the following apply:

(1) The control surfaces, the control system stops nearest the surfaces, and the parts of any control systems between the surfaces and the stops must be designed to the resultant limit loads.

(2) The parts of the control systems between the stops nearest the surfaces and the flight deck controls must be designed to the resultant limit loads, except that the parts of the control system where loads are eventually reacted by the pilot need not exceed:

(i) The loads corresponding to the maximum pilot loads in §25.397(c) for each pilot alone; or

(ii) 0.75 times these maximum loads for each pilot when the pilot forces are applied in the same direction.

[Amdt. 25-141, 79 FR 73468, Dec. 11, 2014]

§25.427 Unsymmetrical loads.

(a) In designing the airplane for lateral gust, yaw maneuver and roll maneuver conditions, account must be taken of unsymmetrical loads on the empennage arising from effects such as slipstream and aerodynamic interference with the wing, vertical fin and other aerodynamic surfaces.

(b) The horizontal tail must be assumed to be subjected to unsymmetrical loading conditions determined as follows:

(1) 100 percent of the maximum loading from the symmetrical maneuver conditions of §25.331 and the vertical gust conditions of §25.341(a) acting separately on the surface on one side of the plane of symmetry; and

(2) 80 percent of these loadings acting on the other side.

(c) For empennage arrangements where the horizontal tail surfaces have dihedral angles greater than plus or minus 10 degrees, or are supported by the vertical tail surfaces, the surfaces and the supporting structure must be designed for gust velocities specified in §25.341(a) acting in any orientation at right angles to the flight path.

(d) Unsymmetrical loading on the empennage arising from buffet conditions of §25.305(e) must be taken into account.

[Doc. No. 27902, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996]

§25.445 Auxiliary aerodynamic surfaces.

(a) When significant, the aerodynamic influence between auxiliary aerodynamic surfaces, such as outboard fins and winglets, and their supporting aerodynamic surfaces, must be taken into account for all loading conditions including pitch, roll, and yaw maneuvers, and gusts as specified in §25.341(a) acting at any orientation at right angles to the flight path.

(b) To provide for unsymmetrical loading when outboard fins extend above and below the horizontal surface, the critical vertical surface loading (load per unit area) determined under §25.391 must also be applied as follows:

(1) 100 percent to the area of the vertical surfaces above (or below) the horizontal surface.

(2) 80 percent to the area below (or above) the horizontal surface.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996]

§25.457 Wing flaps.

Wing flaps, their operating mechanisms, and their supporting structures must be designed for critical loads occurring in the conditions prescribed in §25.345, accounting for the loads occurring during transition from one flap position and airspeed to another.

§25.459 Special devices.

The loading for special devices using aerodynamic surfaces (such as slots, slats and spoilers) must be determined from test data.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]

GROUND LOADS

§25.471 General.

(a) Loads and equilibrium. For limit ground loads—

(1) Limit ground loads obtained under this subpart are considered to be external forces applied to the airplane structure; and

(2) In each specified ground load condition, the external loads must be placed in equilibrium with the linear and angular inertia loads in a rational or conservative manner.

(b) Critical centers of gravity. The critical centers of gravity within the range for which certification is requested must be selected so that the maximum design loads are obtained in each landing gear element. Fore and aft, vertical, and lateral airplane centers of gravity must be considered. Lateral displacements of the c.g. from the airplane centerline which would result in main gear loads not greater than 103 percent of the critical design load for symmetrical loading conditions may be selected without considering the effects of these lateral c.g. displacements on the loading of the main gear elements, or on the airplane structure provided—

(1) The lateral displacement of the c.g. results from random passenger or cargo disposition within the fuselage or from random unsymmetrical fuel loading or fuel usage; and

(2) Appropriate loading instructions for random disposable loads are included under the provisions of §25.1583(c)(1) to ensure that the lateral displacement of the center of gravity is maintained within these limits.

(c) Landing gear dimension data. Figure 1 of appendix A contains the basic landing gear dimension data.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.473 Landing load conditions and assumptions.

(a) For the landing conditions specified in §25.479 to §25.485 the airplane is assumed to contact the ground—

(1) In the attitudes defined in §25.479 and §25.481;

(2) With a limit descent velocity of 10 fps at the design landing weight (the maximum weight for landing conditions at maximum descent velocity); and

(3) With a limit descent velocity of 6 fps at the design take-off weight (the maximum weight for landing conditions at a reduced descent velocity).

(4) The prescribed descent velocities may be modified if it is shown that the airplane has design features that make it impossible to develop these velocities.

(b) Airplane lift, not exceeding airplane weight, may be assumed unless the presence of systems or procedures significantly affects the lift.

(c) The method of analysis of airplane and landing gear loads must take into account at least the following elements:

(1) Landing gear dynamic characteristics.

(2) Spin-up and springback.

(3) Rigid body response.

(4) Structural dynamic response of the airframe, if significant.

(d) The landing gear dynamic characteristics must be validated by tests as defined in §25.723(a).

(e) The coefficient of friction between the tires and the ground may be established by considering the effects of skidding velocity and tire pressure. However, this coefficient of friction need not be more than 0.8.

[Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 45481, Aug. 27, 1997; Amdt. 25-103, 66 FR 27394, May 16, 2001]

§25.477 Landing gear arrangement.

Sections 25.479 through 25.485 apply to airplanes with conventional arrangements of main and nose gears, or main and tail gears, when normal operating techniques are used.

§25.479 Level landing conditions.

(a) In the level attitude, the airplane is assumed to contact the ground at forward velocity components, ranging from VL1 to 1.25 VL2 parallel to the ground under the conditions prescribed in §25.473 with—

(1) VL1 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the appropriate landing weight and in standard sea level conditions; and

(2) VL2 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the appropriate landing weight and altitudes in a hot day temperature of 41 degrees F. above standard.

(3) The effects of increased contact speed must be investigated if approval of downwind landings exceeding 10 knots is requested.

(b) For the level landing attitude for airplanes with tail wheels, the conditions specified in this section must be investigated with the airplane horizontal reference line horizontal in accordance with Figure 2 of Appendix A of this part.

(c) For the level landing attitude for airplanes with nose wheels, shown in Figure 2 of Appendix A of this part, the conditions specified in this section must be investigated assuming the following attitudes:

(1) An attitude in which the main wheels are assumed to contact the ground with the nose wheel just clear of the ground; and

(2) If reasonably attainable at the specified descent and forward velocities, an attitude in which the nose and main wheels are assumed to contact the ground simultaneously.

(d) In addition to the loading conditions prescribed in paragraph (a) of this section, but with maximum vertical ground reactions calculated from paragraph (a), the following apply:

(1) The landing gear and directly affected attaching structure must be designed for the maximum vertical ground reaction combined with an aft acting drag component of not less than 25% of this maximum vertical ground reaction.

(2) The most severe combination of loads that are likely to arise during a lateral drift landing must be taken into account. In absence of a more rational analysis of this condition, the following must be investigated:

(i) A vertical load equal to 75% of the maximum ground reaction of §25.473 must be considered in combination with a drag and side load of 40% and 25% respectively of that vertical load.

(ii) The shock absorber and tire deflections must be assumed to be 75% of the deflection corresponding to the maximum ground reaction of §25.473(a)(2). This load case need not be considered in combination with flat tires.

(3) The combination of vertical and drag components is considered to be acting at the wheel axle centerline.

[Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 45481, Aug. 27, 1997]

§25.481 Tail-down landing conditions.

(a) In the tail-down attitude, the airplane is assumed to contact the ground at forward velocity components, ranging from VL1 to VL2 parallel to the ground under the conditions prescribed in §25.473 with—

(1) VL1 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the appropriate landing weight and in standard sea level conditions; and

(2) VL2 equal to VS0 (TAS) at the appropriate landing weight and altitudes in a hot day temperature of 41 degrees F. above standard.

(3) The combination of vertical and drag components considered to be acting at the main wheel axle centerline.

(b) For the tail-down landing condition for airplanes with tail wheels, the main and tail wheels are assumed to contact the ground simultaneously, in accordance with figure 3 of appendix A. Ground reaction conditions on the tail wheel are assumed to act—

(1) Vertically; and

(2) Up and aft through the axle at 45 degrees to the ground line.

(c) For the tail-down landing condition for airplanes with nose wheels, the airplane is assumed to be at an attitude corresponding to either the stalling angle or the maximum angle allowing clearance with the ground by each part of the airplane other than the main wheels, in accordance with figure 3 of appendix A, whichever is less.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997; Amdt. 25-94, 63 FR 8848, Feb. 23, 1998]

§25.483 One-gear landing conditions.

For the one-gear landing conditions, the airplane is assumed to be in the level attitude and to contact the ground on one main landing gear, in accordance with Figure 4 of Appendix A of this part. In this attitude—

(a) The ground reactions must be the same as those obtained on that side under §25.479(d)(1), and

(b) Each unbalanced external load must be reacted by airplane inertia in a rational or conservative manner.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]

§25.485 Side load conditions.

In addition to §25.479(d)(2) the following conditions must be considered:

(a) For the side load condition, the airplane is assumed to be in the level attitude with only the main wheels contacting the ground, in accordance with figure 5 of appendix A.

(b) Side loads of 0.8 of the vertical reaction (on one side) acting inward and 0.6 of the vertical reaction (on the other side) acting outward must be combined with one-half of the maximum vertical ground reactions obtained in the level landing conditions. These loads are assumed to be applied at the ground contact point and to be resisted by the inertia of the airplane. The drag loads may be assumed to be zero.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]

§25.487 Rebound landing condition.

(a) The landing gear and its supporting structure must be investigated for the loads occurring during rebound of the airplane from the landing surface.

(b) With the landing gear fully extended and not in contact with the ground, a load factor of 20.0 must act on the unsprung weights of the landing gear. This load factor must act in the direction of motion of the unsprung weights as they reach their limiting positions in extending with relation to the sprung parts of the landing gear.

§25.489 Ground handling conditions.

Unless otherwise prescribed, the landing gear and airplane structure must be investigated for the conditions in §§25.491 through 25.509 with the airplane at the design ramp weight (the maximum weight for ground handling conditions). No wing lift may be considered. The shock absorbers and tires may be assumed to be in their static position.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.491 Taxi, takeoff and landing roll.

Within the range of appropriate ground speeds and approved weights, the airplane structure and landing gear are assumed to be subjected to loads not less than those obtained when the aircraft is operating over the roughest ground that may reasonably be expected in normal operation.

[Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]

§25.493 Braked roll conditions.

(a) An airplane with a tail wheel is assumed to be in the level attitude with the load on the main wheels, in accordance with figure 6 of appendix A. The limit vertical load factor is 1.2 at the design landing weight and 1.0 at the design ramp weight. A drag reaction equal to the vertical reaction multiplied by a coefficient of friction of 0.8, must be combined with the vertical ground reaction and applied at the ground contact point.

(b) For an airplane with a nose wheel the limit vertical load factor is 1.2 at the design landing weight, and 1.0 at the design ramp weight. A drag reaction equal to the vertical reaction, multiplied by a coefficient of friction of 0.8, must be combined with the vertical reaction and applied at the ground contact point of each wheel with brakes. The following two attitudes, in accordance with figure 6 of appendix A, must be considered:

(1) The level attitude with the wheels contacting the ground and the loads distributed between the main and nose gear. Zero pitching acceleration is assumed.

(2) The level attitude with only the main gear contacting the ground and with the pitching moment resisted by angular acceleration.

(c) A drag reaction lower than that prescribed in this section may be used if it is substantiated that an effective drag force of 0.8 times the vertical reaction cannot be attained under any likely loading condition.

(d) An airplane equipped with a nose gear must be designed to withstand the loads arising from the dynamic pitching motion of the airplane due to sudden application of maximum braking force. The airplane is considered to be at design takeoff weight with the nose and main gears in contact with the ground, and with a steady-state vertical load factor of 1.0. The steady-state nose gear reaction must be combined with the maximum incremental nose gear vertical reaction caused by the sudden application of maximum braking force as described in paragraphs (b) and (c) of this section.

(e) In the absence of a more rational analysis, the nose gear vertical reaction prescribed in paragraph (d) of this section must be calculated according to the following formula:

Where:

VN = Nose gear vertical reaction.

WT = Design takeoff weight.

A = Horizontal distance between the c.g. of the airplane and the nose wheel.

B = Horizontal distance between the c.g. of the airplane and the line joining the centers of the main wheels.

E = Vertical height of the c.g. of the airplane above the ground in the 1.0 g static condition.

μ = Coefficient of friction of 0.80.

f = Dynamic response factor; 2.0 is to be used unless a lower factor is substantiated. In the absence of other information, the dynamic response factor f may be defined by the equation:

Where:

ξ is the effective critical damping ratio of the rigid body pitching mode about the main landing gear effective ground contact point.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-97, 63 FR 29072, May 27, 1998]

§25.495 Turning.

In the static position, in accordance with figure 7 of appendix A, the airplane is assumed to execute a steady turn by nose gear steering, or by application of sufficient differential power, so that the limit load factors applied at the center of gravity are 1.0 vertically and 0.5 laterally. The side ground reaction of each wheel must be 0.5 of the vertical reaction.

§25.497 Tail-wheel yawing.

(a) A vertical ground reaction equal to the static load on the tail wheel, in combination with a side component of equal magnitude, is assumed.

(b) If there is a swivel, the tail wheel is assumed to be swiveled 90° to the airplane longitudinal axis with the resultant load passing through the axle.

(c) If there is a lock, steering device, or shimmy damper the tail wheel is also assumed to be in the trailing position with the side load acting at the ground contact point.

§25.499 Nose-wheel yaw and steering.

(a) A vertical load factor of 1.0 at the airplane center of gravity, and a side component at the nose wheel ground contact equal to 0.8 of the vertical ground reaction at that point are assumed.

(b) With the airplane assumed to be in static equilibrium with the loads resulting from the use of brakes on one side of the main landing gear, the nose gear, its attaching structure, and the fuselage structure forward of the center of gravity must be designed for the following loads:

(1) A vertical load factor at the center of gravity of 1.0.

(2) A forward acting load at the airplane center of gravity of 0.8 times the vertical load on one main gear.

(3) Side and vertical loads at the ground contact point on the nose gear that are required for static equilibrium.

(4) A side load factor at the airplane center of gravity of zero.

(c) If the loads prescribed in paragraph (b) of this section result in a nose gear side load higher than 0.8 times the vertical nose gear load, the design nose gear side load may be limited to 0.8 times the vertical load, with unbalanced yawing moments assumed to be resisted by airplane inertia forces.

(d) For other than the nose gear, its attaching structure, and the forward fuselage structure, the loading conditions are those prescribed in paragraph (b) of this section, except that—

(1) A lower drag reaction may be used if an effective drag force of 0.8 times the vertical reaction cannot be reached under any likely loading condition; and

(2) The forward acting load at the center of gravity need not exceed the maximum drag reaction on one main gear, determined in accordance with §25.493(b).

(e) With the airplane at design ramp weight, and the nose gear in any steerable position, the combined application of full normal steering torque and vertical force equal to 1.33 times the maximum static reaction on the nose gear must be considered in designing the nose gear, its attaching structure, and the forward fuselage structure.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40705, July 29, 1997]

§25.503 Pivoting.

(a) The airplane is assumed to pivot about one side of the main gear with the brakes on that side locked. The limit vertical load factor must be 1.0 and the coefficient of friction 0.8.

(b) The airplane is assumed to be in static equilibrium, with the loads being applied at the ground contact points, in accordance with figure 8 of appendix A.

§25.507 Reversed braking.

(a) The airplane must be in a three point static ground attitude. Horizontal reactions parallel to the ground and directed forward must be applied at the ground contact point of each wheel with brakes. The limit loads must be equal to 0.55 times the vertical load at each wheel or to the load developed by 1.2 times the nominal maximum static brake torque, whichever is less.

(b) For airplanes with nose wheels, the pitching moment must be balanced by rotational inertia.

(c) For airplanes with tail wheels, the resultant of the ground reactions must pass through the center of gravity of the airplane.

§25.509 Towing loads.

(a) The towing loads specified in paragraph (d) of this section must be considered separately. These loads must be applied at the towing fittings and must act parallel to the ground. In addition—

(1) A vertical load factor equal to 1.0 must be considered acting at the center of gravity;

(2) The shock struts and tires must be in their static positions; and

(3) With WT as the design ramp weight, the towing load, FTOW, is—

(i) 0.3 WT for WT less than 30,000 pounds;

(ii) (6WT + 450,000)/70 for WT between 30,000 and 100,000 pounds; and

(iii) 0.15 WT for WT over 100,000 pounds.

(b) For towing points not on the landing gear but near the plane of symmetry of the airplane, the drag and side tow load components specified for the auxiliary gear apply. For towing points located outboard of the main gear, the drag and side tow load components specified for the main gear apply. Where the specified angle of swivel cannot be reached, the maximum obtainable angle must be used.

(c) The towing loads specified in paragraph (d) of this section must be reacted as follows:

(1) The side component of the towing load at the main gear must be reacted by a side force at the static ground line of the wheel to which the load is applied.

(2) The towing loads at the auxiliary gear and the drag components of the towing loads at the main gear must be reacted as follows:

(i) A reaction with a maximum value equal to the vertical reaction must be applied at the axle of the wheel to which the load is applied. Enough airplane inertia to achieve equilibrium must be applied.

(ii) The loads must be reacted by airplane inertia.

(d) The prescribed towing loads are as follows:

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.511 Ground load: unsymmetrical loads on multiple-wheel units.

(a) General. Multiple-wheel landing gear units are assumed to be subjected to the limit ground loads prescribed in this subpart under paragraphs (b) through (f) of this section. In addition—

(1) A tandem strut gear arrangement is a multiple-wheel unit; and

(2) In determining the total load on a gear unit with respect to the provisions of paragraphs (b) through (f) of this section, the transverse shift in the load centroid, due to unsymmetrical load distribution on the wheels, may be neglected.

(b) Distribution of limit loads to wheels; tires inflated. The distribution of the limit loads among the wheels of the landing gear must be established for each landing, taxiing, and ground handling condition, taking into account the effects of the following factors:

(1) The number of wheels and their physical arrangements. For truck type landing gear units, the effects of any seesaw motion of the truck during the landing impact must be considered in determining the maximum design loads for the fore and aft wheel pairs.

(2) Any differentials in tire diameters resulting from a combination of manufacturing tolerances, tire growth, and tire wear. A maximum tire-diameter differential equal to 2⁄3 of the most unfavorable combination of diameter variations that is obtained when taking into account manufacturing tolerances, tire growth, and tire wear, may be assumed.

(3) Any unequal tire inflation pressure, assuming the maximum variation to be ±5 percent of the nominal tire inflation pressure.

(4) A runway crown of zero and a runway crown having a convex upward shape that may be approximated by a slope of 11⁄2 percent with the horizontal. Runway crown effects must be considered with the nose gear unit on either slope of the crown.

(5) The airplane attitude.

(6) Any structural deflections.

(c) Deflated tires. The effect of deflated tires on the structure must be considered with respect to the loading conditions specified in paragraphs (d) through (f) of this section, taking into account the physical arrangement of the gear components. In addition—

(1) The deflation of any one tire for each multiple wheel landing gear unit, and the deflation of any two critical tires for each landing gear unit using four or more wheels per unit, must be considered; and

(2) The ground reactions must be applied to the wheels with inflated tires except that, for multiple-wheel gear units with more than one shock strut, a rational distribution of the ground reactions between the deflated and inflated tires, accounting for the differences in shock strut extensions resulting from a deflated tire, may be used.

(d) Landing conditions. For one and for two deflated tires, the applied load to each gear unit is assumed to be 60 percent and 50 percent, respectively, of the limit load applied to each gear for each of the prescribed landing conditions. However, for the drift landing condition of §25.485, 100 percent of the vertical load must be applied.

(e) Taxiing and ground handling conditions. For one and for two deflated tires—

(1) The applied side or drag load factor, or both factors, at the center of gravity must be the most critical value up to 50 percent and 40 percent, respectively, of the limit side or drag load factors, or both factors, corresponding to the most severe condition resulting from consideration of the prescribed taxiing and ground handling conditions;

(2) For the braked roll conditions of §25.493 (a) and (b)(2), the drag loads on each inflated tire may not be less than those at each tire for the symmetrical load distribution with no deflated tires;

(3) The vertical load factor at the center of gravity must be 60 percent and 50 percent, respectively, of the factor with no deflated tires, except that it may not be less than 1g; and

(4) Pivoting need not be considered.

(f) Towing conditions. For one and for two deflated tires, the towing load, FTOW, must be 60 percent and 50 percent, respectively, of the load prescribed.

§25.519 Jacking and tie-down provisions.

(a) General. The airplane must be designed to withstand the limit load conditions resulting from the static ground load conditions of paragraph (b) of this section and, if applicable, paragraph (c) of this section at the most critical combinations of airplane weight and center of gravity. The maximum allowable load at each jack pad must be specified.

(b) Jacking. The airplane must have provisions for jacking and must withstand the following limit loads when the airplane is supported on jacks—

(1) For jacking by the landing gear at the maximum ramp weight of the airplane, the airplane structure must be designed for a vertical load of 1.33 times the vertical static reaction at each jacking point acting singly and in combination with a horizontal load of 0.33 times the vertical static reaction applied in any direction.

(2) For jacking by other airplane structure at maximum approved jacking weight:

(i) The airplane structure must be designed for a vertical load of 1.33 times the vertical reaction at each jacking point acting singly and in combination with a horizontal load of 0.33 times the vertical static reaction applied in any direction.

(ii) The jacking pads and local structure must be designed for a vertical load of 2.0 times the vertical static reaction at each jacking point, acting singly and in combination with a horizontal load of 0.33 times the vertical static reaction applied in any direction.

(c) Tie-down. If tie-down points are provided, the main tie-down points and local structure must withstand the limit loads resulting from a 65-knot horizontal wind from any direction.

[Doc. No. 26129, 59 FR 22102, Apr. 28, 1994]

WATER LOADS

§25.521 General.

(a) Seaplanes must be designed for the water loads developed during takeoff and landing, with the seaplane in any attitude likely to occur in normal operation, and at the appropriate forward and sinking velocities under the most severe sea conditions likely to be encountered.

(b) Unless a more rational analysis of the water loads is made, or the standards in ANC-3 are used, §§25.523 through 25.537 apply.

(c) The requirements of this section and §§25.523 through 25.537 apply also to amphibians.

§25.523 Design weights and center of gravity positions.

(a) Design weights. The water load requirements must be met at each operating weight up to the design landing weight except that, for the takeoff condition prescribed in §25.531, the design water takeoff weight (the maximum weight for water taxi and takeoff run) must be used.

(b) Center of gravity positions. The critical centers of gravity within the limits for which certification is requested must be considered to reach maximum design loads for each part of the seaplane structure.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.525 Application of loads.

(a) Unless otherwise prescribed, the seaplane as a whole is assumed to be subjected to the loads corresponding to the load factors specified in §25.527.

(b) In applying the loads resulting from the load factors prescribed in §25.527, the loads may be distributed over the hull or main float bottom (in order to avoid excessive local shear loads and bending moments at the location of water load application) using pressures not less than those prescribed in §25.533(b).

(c) For twin float seaplanes, each float must be treated as an equivalent hull on a fictitious seaplane with a weight equal to one-half the weight of the twin float seaplane.

(d) Except in the takeoff condition of §25.531, the aerodynamic lift on the seaplane during the impact is assumed to be 2⁄3 of the weight of the seaplane.

§25.527 Hull and main float load factors.

(a) Water reaction load factors nW must be computed in the following manner:

(1) For the step landing case

(2) For the bow and stern landing cases

(b) The following values are used:

(1) nW = water reaction load factor (that is, the water reaction divided by seaplane weight).

(2) C1 = empirical seaplane operations factor equal to 0.012 (except that this factor may not be less than that necessary to obtain the minimum value of step load factor of 2.33).

(3) VS0 = seaplane stalling speed in knots with flaps extended in the appropriate landing position and with no slipstream effect.

(4) β = angle of dead rise at the longitudinal station at which the load factor is being determined in accordance with figure 1 of appendix B.

(5) W= seaplane design landing weight in pounds.

(6) K1 = empirical hull station weighing factor, in accordance with figure 2 of appendix B.

(7) rx = ratio of distance, measured parallel to hull reference axis, from the center of gravity of the seaplane to the hull longitudinal station at which the load factor is being computed to the radius of gyration in pitch of the seaplane, the hull reference axis being a straight line, in the plane of symmetry, tangential to the keel at the main step.

(c) For a twin float seaplane, because of the effect of flexibility of the attachment of the floats to the seaplane, the factor K1 may be reduced at the bow and stern to 0.8 of the value shown in figure 2 of appendix B. This reduction applies only to the design of the carrythrough and seaplane structure.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.529 Hull and main float landing conditions.

(a) Symmetrical step, bow, and stern landing. For symmetrical step, bow, and stern landings, the limit water reaction load factors are those computed under §25.527. In addition—

(1) For symmetrical step landings, the resultant water load must be applied at the keel, through the center of gravity, and must be directed perpendicularly to the keel line;

(2) For symmetrical bow landings, the resultant water load must be applied at the keel, one-fifth of the longitudinal distance from the bow to the step, and must be directed perpendicularly to the keel line; and

(3) For symmetrical stern landings, the resultant water load must be applied at the keel, at a point 85 percent of the longitudinal distance from the step to the stern post, and must be directed perpendicularly to the keel line.

(b) Unsymmetrical landing for hull and single float seaplanes. Unsymmetrical step, bow, and stern landing conditions must be investigated. In addition—

(1) The loading for each condition consists of an upward component and a side component equal, respectively, to 0.75 and 0.25 tan β times the resultant load in the corresponding symmetrical landing condition; and

(2) The point of application and direction of the upward component of the load is the same as that in the symmetrical condition, and the point of application of the side component is at the same longitudinal station as the upward component but is directed inward perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry at a point midway between the keel and chine lines.

(c) Unsymmetrical landing; twin float seaplanes. The unsymmetrical loading consists of an upward load at the step of each float of 0.75 and a side load of 0.25 tan β at one float times the step landing load reached under §25.527. The side load is directed inboard, perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry midway between the keel and chine lines of the float, at the same longitudinal station as the upward load.

§25.531 Hull and main float takeoff condition.

For the wing and its attachment to the hull or main float—

(a) The aerodynamic wing lift is assumed to be zero; and

(b) A downward inertia load, corresponding to a load factor computed from the following formula, must be applied:

where—

n = inertia load factor;

CTO = empirical seaplane operations factor equal to 0.004;

VS1 = seaplane stalling speed (knots) at the design takeoff weight with the flaps extended in the appropriate takeoff position;

β = angle of dead rise at the main step (degrees); and

W = design water takeoff weight in pounds.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.533 Hull and main float bottom pressures.

(a) General. The hull and main float structure, including frames and bulkheads, stringers, and bottom plating, must be designed under this section.

(b) Local pressures. For the design of the bottom plating and stringers and their attachments to the supporting structure, the following pressure distributions must be applied:

(1) For an unflared bottom, the pressure at the chine is 0.75 times the pressure at the keel, and the pressures between the keel and chine vary linearly, in accordance with figure 3 of appendix B. The pressure at the keel (psi) is computed as follows:

where—

Pk = pressure (p.s.i.) at the keel;

C2 = 0.00213;

K2 = hull station weighing factor, in accordance with figure 2 of appendix B;

VS1 = seaplane stalling speed (Knots) at the design water takeoff weight with flaps extended in the appropriate takeoff position; and

βK = angle of dead rise at keel, in accordance with figure 1 of appendix B.

(2) For a flared bottom, the pressure at the beginning of the flare is the same as that for an unflared bottom, and the pressure between the chine and the beginning of the flare varies linearly, in accordance with figure 3 of appendix B. The pressure distribution is the same as that prescribed in paragraph (b)(1) of this section for an unflared bottom except that the pressure at the chine is computed as follows:

where—

Pch = pressure (p.s.i.) at the chine;

C3 = 0.0016;

K2 = hull station weighing factor, in accordance with figure 2 of appendix B;

VS1 = seaplane stalling speed at the design water takeoff weight with flaps extended in the appropriate takeoff position; and

β = angle of dead rise at appropriate station.

The area over which these pressures are applied must simulate pressures occurring during high localized impacts on the hull or float, but need not extend over an area that would induce critical stresses in the frames or in the overall structure.

(c) Distributed pressures. For the design of the frames, keel, and chine structure, the following pressure distributions apply:

(1) Symmetrical pressures are computed as follows:

where—

P = pressure (p.s.i.);

C4 = 0.078 C1 (with C1 computed under §25.527);

K2 = hull station weighing factor, determined in accordance with figure 2 of appendix B;

VS0 = seaplane stalling speed (Knots) with landing flaps extended in the appropriate position and with no slipstream effect; and

VS0 = seaplane stalling speed with landing flaps extended in the appropriate position and with no slipstream effect; and β = angle of dead rise at appropriate station.

(2) The unsymmetrical pressure distribution consists of the pressures prescribed in paragraph (c)(1) of this section on one side of the hull or main float centerline and one-half of that pressure on the other side of the hull or main float centerline, in accordance with figure 3 of appendix B.

These pressures are uniform and must be applied simultaneously over the entire hull or main float bottom. The loads obtained must be carried into the sidewall structure of the hull proper, but need not be transmitted in a fore and aft direction as shear and bending loads.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.535 Auxiliary float loads.

(a) General. Auxiliary floats and their attachments and supporting structures must be designed for the conditions prescribed in this section. In the cases specified in paragraphs (b) through (e) of this section, the prescribed water loads may be distributed over the float bottom to avoid excessive local loads, using bottom pressures not less than those prescribed in paragraph (g) of this section.

(b) Step loading. The resultant water load must be applied in the plane of symmetry of the float at a point three-fourths of the distance from the bow to the step and must be perpendicular to the keel. The resultant limit load is computed as follows, except that the value of L need not exceed three times the weight of the displaced water when the float is completely submerged:

where—

L = limit load (lbs.);

C5 = 0.0053;

VS0 = seaplane stalling speed (knots) with landing flaps extended in the appropriate position and with no slipstream effect;

W = seaplane design landing weight in pounds;

βS = angle of dead rise at a station 3⁄4 of the distance from the bow to the step, but need not be less than 15 degrees; and

ry = ratio of the lateral distance between the center of gravity and the plane of symmetry of the float to the radius of gyration in roll.

(c) Bow loading. The resultant limit load must be applied in the plane of symmetry of the float at a point one-fourth of the distance from the bow to the step and must be perpendicular to the tangent to the keel line at that point. The magnitude of the resultant load is that specified in paragraph (b) of this section.

(d) Unsymmetrical step loading. The resultant water load consists of a component equal to 0.75 times the load specified in paragraph (a) of this section and a side component equal to 3.25 tan β times the load specified in paragraph (b) of this section. The side load must be applied perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry of the float at a point midway between the keel and the chine.

(e) Unsymmetrical bow loading. The resultant water load consists of a component equal to 0.75 times the load specified in paragraph (b) of this section and a side component equal to 0.25 tan β times the load specified in paragraph (c) of this section. The side load must be applied perpendicularly to the plane of symmetry at a point midway between the keel and the chine.

(f) Immersed float condition. The resultant load must be applied at the centroid of the cross section of the float at a point one-third of the distance from the bow to the step. The limit load components are as follows:

where—

ρ = mass density of water (slugs/ft.2);

V = volume of float (ft.2);

Cx = coefficient of drag force, equal to 0.133;

Cy = coefficient of side force, equal to 0.106;

K = 0.8, except that lower values may be used if it is shown that the floats are incapable of submerging at a speed of 0.8 VS0 in normal operations;

VS0 = seaplane stalling speed (knots) with landing flaps extended in the appropriate position and with no slipstream effect; and

g = acceleration due to gravity (ft./sec.2).

(g) Float bottom pressures. The float bottom pressures must be established under §25.533, except that the value of K2 in the formulae may be taken as 1.0. The angle of dead rise to be used in determining the float bottom pressures is set forth in paragraph (b) of this section.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.537 Seawing loads.

Seawing design loads must be based on applicable test data.

EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS

§25.561 General.

(a) The airplane, although it may be damaged in emergency landing conditions on land or water, must be designed as prescribed in this section to protect each occupant under those conditions.

(b) The structure must be designed to give each occupant every reasonable chance of escaping serious injury in a minor crash landing when—

(1) Proper use is made of seats, belts, and all other safety design provisions;

(2) The wheels are retracted (where applicable); and

(3) The occupant experiences the following ultimate inertia forces acting separately relative to the surrounding structure:

(i) Upward, 3.0g

(ii) Forward, 9.0g

(iii) Sideward, 3.0g on the airframe; and 4.0g on the seats and their attachments.

(iv) Downward, 6.0g

(v) Rearward, 1.5g

(c) For equipment, cargo in the passenger compartments and any other large masses, the following apply:

(1) Except as provided in paragraph (c)(2) of this section, these items must be positioned so that if they break loose they will be unlikely to:

(i) Cause direct injury to occupants;

(ii) Penetrate fuel tanks or lines or cause fire or explosion hazard by damage to adjacent systems; or

(iii) Nullify any of the escape facilities provided for use after an emergency landing.

(2) When such positioning is not practical (e.g. fuselage mounted engines or auxiliary power units) each such item of mass shall be restrained under all loads up to those specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this section. The local attachments for these items should be designed to withstand 1.33 times the specified loads if these items are subject to severe wear and tear through frequent removal (e.g. quick change interior items).

(d) Seats and items of mass (and their supporting structure) must not deform under any loads up to those specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this section in any manner that would impede subsequent rapid evacuation of occupants.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5673, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-64, 53 FR 17646, May 17, 1988; Amdt. 25-91, 62 FR 40706, July 29, 1997]

§25.562 Emergency landing dynamic conditions.

(a) The seat and restraint system in the airplane must be designed as prescribed in this section to protect each occupant during an emergency landing condition when—

(1) Proper use is made of seats, safety belts, and shoulder harnesses provided for in the design; and

(2) The occupant is exposed to loads resulting from the conditions prescribed in this section.

(b) Each seat type design approved for crew or passenger occupancy during takeoff and landing must successfully complete dynamic tests or be demonstrated by rational analysis based on dynamic tests of a similar type seat, in accordance with each of the following emergency landing conditions. The tests must be conducted with an occupant simulated by a 170-pound anthropomorphic test dummy, as defined by 49 CFR Part 572, Subpart B, or its equivalent, sitting in the normal upright position.

(1) A change in downward vertical velocity (Δ v) of not less than 35 feet per second, with the airplane’s longitudinal axis canted downward 30 degrees with respect to the horizontal plane and with the wings level. Peak floor deceleration must occur in not more than 0.08 seconds after impact and must reach a minimum of 14g.

(2) A change in forward longitudinal velocity (Δ v) of not less than 44 feet per second, with the airplane’s longitudinal axis horizontal and yawed 10 degrees either right or left, whichever would cause the greatest likelihood of the upper torso restraint system (where installed) moving off the occupant’s shoulder, and with the wings level. Peak floor deceleration must occur in not more than 0.09 seconds after impact and must reach a minimum of 16g. Where floor rails or floor fittings are used to attach the seating devices to the test fixture, the rails or fittings must be misaligned with respect to the adjacent set of rails or fittings by at least 10 degrees vertically (i.e., out of Parallel) with one rolled 10 degrees.

(c) The following performance measures must not be exceeded during the dynamic tests conducted in accordance with paragraph (b) of this section:

(1) Where upper torso straps are used for crewmembers, tension loads in individual straps must not exceed 1,750 pounds. If dual straps are used for restraining the upper torso, the total strap tension loads must not exceed 2,000 pounds.

(2) The maximum compressive load measured between the pelvis and the lumbar column of the anthropomorphic dummy must not exceed 1,500 pounds.

(3) The upper torso restraint straps (where installed) must remain on the occupant’s shoulder during the impact.

(4) The lap safety belt must remain on the occupant’s pelvis during the impact.

(5) Each occupant must be protected from serious head injury under the conditions prescribed in paragraph (b) of this section. Where head contact with seats or other structure can occur, protection must be provided so that the head impact does not exceed a Head Injury Criterion (HIC) of 1,000 units. The level of HIC is defined by the equation:

Where:

t1 is the initial integration time,

t2 is the final integration time, and

a(t) is the total acceleration vs. time curve for the head strike, and where

(t) is in seconds, and (a) is in units of gravity (g).

(6) Where leg injuries may result from contact with seats or other structure, protection must be provided to prevent axially compressive loads exceeding 2,250 pounds in each femur.

(7) The seat must remain attached at all points of attachment, although the structure may have yielded.

(8) Seats must not yield under the tests specified in paragraphs (b)(1) and (b)(2) of this section to the extent they would impede rapid evacuation of the airplane occupants.

[Amdt. 25-64, 53 FR 17646, May 17, 1988]

§25.563 Structural ditching provisions.

Structural strength considerations of ditching provisions must be in accordance with §25.801(e).

FATIGUE EVALUATION

§25.571 Damage—tolerance and fatigue evaluation of structure.

(a) General. An evaluation of the strength, detail design, and fabrication must show that catastrophic failure due to fatigue, corrosion, manufacturing defects, or accidental damage, will be avoided throughout the operational life of the airplane. This evaluation must be conducted in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs (b) and (e) of this section, except as specified in paragraph (c) of this section, for each part of the structure that could contribute to a catastrophic failure (such as wing, empennage, control surfaces and their systems, the fuselage, engine mounting, landing gear, and their related primary attachments). For turbojet powered airplanes, those parts that could contribute to a catastrophic failure must also be evaluated under paragraph (d) of this section. In addition, the following apply:

(1) Each evaluation required by this section must include—

(i) The typical loading spectra, temperatures, and humidities expected in service;

(ii) The identification of principal structural elements and detail design points, the failure of which could cause catastrophic failure of the airplane; and

(iii) An analysis, supported by test evidence, of the principal structural elements and detail design points identified in paragraph (a)(1)(ii) of this section.

(2) The service history of airplanes of similar structural design, taking due account of differences in operating conditions and procedures, may be used in the evaluations required by this section.

(3) Based on the evaluations required by this section, inspections or other procedures must be established, as necessary, to prevent catastrophic failure, and must be included in the Airworthiness Limitations section of the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness required by §25.1529. The limit of validity of the engineering data that supports the structural maintenance program (hereafter referred to as LOV), stated as a number of total accumulated flight cycles or flight hours or both, established by this section must also be included in the Airworthiness Limitations section of the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness required by §25.1529. Inspection thresholds for the following types of structure must be established based on crack growth analyses and/or tests, assuming the structure contains an initial flaw of the maximum probable size that could exist as a result of manufacturing or service-induced damage:

(i) Single load path structure, and

(ii) Multiple load path “fail-safe” structure and crack arrest “fail-safe” structure, where it cannot be demonstrated that load path failure, partial failure, or crack arrest will be detected and repaired during normal maintenance, inspection, or operation of an airplane prior to failure of the remaining structure.

(b) Damage-tolerance evaluation. The evaluation must include a determination of the probable locations and modes of damage due to fatigue, corrosion, or accidental damage. Repeated load and static analyses supported by test evidence and (if available) service experience must also be incorporated in the evaluation. Special consideration for widespread fatigue damage must be included where the design is such that this type of damage could occur. An LOV must be established that corresponds to the period of time, stated as a number of total accumulated flight cycles or flight hours or both, during which it is demonstrated that widespread fatigue damage will not occur in the airplane structure. This demonstration must be by full-scale fatigue test evidence. The type certificate may be issued prior to completion of full-scale fatigue testing, provided the Administrator has approved a plan for completing the required tests. In that case, the Airworthiness Limitations section of the Instructions for Continued Airworthiness required by §25.1529 must specify that no airplane may be operated beyond a number of cycles equal to 1⁄2 the number of cycles accumulated on the fatigue test article, until such testing is completed. The extent of damage for residual strength evaluation at any time within the operational life of the airplane must be consistent with the initial detectability and subsequent growth under repeated loads. The residual strength evaluation must show that the remaining structure is able to withstand loads (considered as static ultimate loads) corresponding to the following conditions:

(1) The limit symmetrical maneuvering conditions specified in §25.337 at all speeds up to Vc and in §25.345.

(2) The limit gust conditions specified in §25.341 at the specified speeds up to VC and in §25.345.

(3) The limit rolling conditions specified in §25.349 and the limit unsymmetrical conditions specified in §§25.367 and 25.427 (a) through (c), at speeds up to VC.

(4) The limit yaw maneuvering conditions specified in §25.351(a) at the specified speeds up to VC.

(5) For pressurized cabins, the following conditions:

(i) The normal operating differential pressure combined with the expected external aerodynamic pressures applied simultaneously with the flight loading conditions specified in paragraphs (b)(1) through (4) of this section, if they have a significant effect.

(ii) The maximum value of normal operating differential pressure (including the expected external aerodynamic pressures during 1 g level flight) multiplied by a factor of 1.15, omitting other loads.

(6) For landing gear and directly-affected airframe structure, the limit ground loading conditions specified in §§25.473, 25.491, and 25.493.

If significant changes in structural stiffness or geometry, or both, follow from a structural failure, or partial failure, the effect on damage tolerance must be further investigated.

(c) Fatigue (safe-life) evaluation. Compliance with the damage-tolerance requirements of paragraph (b) of this section is not required if the applicant establishes that their application for particular structure is impractical. This structure must be shown by analysis, supported by test evidence, to be able to withstand the repeated loads of variable magnitude expected during its service life without detectable cracks. Appropriate safe-life scatter factors must be applied.

(d) Sonic fatigue strength. It must be shown by analysis, supported by test evidence, or by the service history of airplanes of similar structural design and sonic excitation environment, that—

(1) Sonic fatigue cracks are not probable in any part of the flight structure subject to sonic excitation; or

(2) Catastrophic failure caused by sonic cracks is not probable assuming that the loads prescribed in paragraph (b) of this section are applied to all areas affected by those cracks.

(e) Damage-tolerance (discrete source) evaluation. The airplane must be capable of successfully completing a flight during which likely structural damage occurs as a result of—

(1) Impact with a 4-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane relative to the bird along the airplane’s flight path is equal to Vc at sea level or 0.85Vc at 8,000 feet, whichever is more critical;

(2) Uncontained fan blade impact;

(3) Uncontained engine failure; or

(4) Uncontained high energy rotating machinery failure.

The damaged structure must be able to withstand the static loads (considered as ultimate loads) which are reasonably expected to occur on the flight. Dynamic effects on these static loads need not be considered. Corrective action to be taken by the pilot following the incident, such as limiting maneuvers, avoiding turbulence, and reducing speed, must be considered. If significant changes in structural stiffness or geometry, or both, follow from a structural failure or partial failure, the effect on damage tolerance must be further investigated.

[Amdt. 25-45, 43 FR 46242, Oct. 5, 1978, as amended by Amdt. 25-54, 45 FR 60173, Sept. 11, 1980; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-86, 61 FR 5222, Feb. 9, 1996; Amdt. 25-96, 63 FR 15714, Mar. 31, 1998; 63 FR 23338, Apr. 28, 1998; Amdt. 25-132, 75 FR 69781, Nov. 15, 2010]

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

§25.581 Lightning protection.

(a) The airplane must be protected against catastrophic effects from lightning.

(b) For metallic components, compliance with paragraph (a) of this section may be shown by—

(1) Bonding the components properly to the airframe; or

(2) Designing the components so that a strike will not endanger the airplane.

(c) For nonmetallic components, compliance with paragraph (a) of this section may be shown by—

(1) Designing the components to minimize the effect of a strike; or

(2) Incorporating acceptable means of diverting the resulting electrical current so as not to endanger the airplane.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]

Subpart D—Design and Construction

GENERAL

§25.601 General.

The airplane may not have design features or details that experience has shown to be hazardous or unreliable. The suitability of each questionable design detail and part must be established by tests.

§25.603 Materials.

The suitability and durability of materials used for parts, the failure of which could adversely affect safety, must—

(a) Be established on the basis of experience or tests;

(b) Conform to approved specifications (such as industry or military specifications, or Technical Standard Orders) that ensure their having the strength and other properties assumed in the design data; and

(c) Take into account the effects of environmental conditions, such as temperature and humidity, expected in service.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976; Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978]

§25.605 Fabrication methods.

(a) The methods of fabrication used must produce a consistently sound structure. If a fabrication process (such as gluing, spot welding, or heat treating) requires close control to reach this objective, the process must be performed under an approved process specification.

(b) Each new aircraft fabrication method must be substantiated by a test program.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978]

§25.607 Fasteners.

(a) Each removable bolt, screw, nut, pin, or other removable fastener must incorporate two separate locking devices if—

(1) Its loss could preclude continued flight and landing within the design limitations of the airplane using normal pilot skill and strength; or

(2) Its loss could result in reduction in pitch, yaw, or roll control capability or response below that required by Subpart B of this chapter.

(b) The fasteners specified in paragraph (a) of this section and their locking devices may not be adversely affected by the environmental conditions associated with the particular installation.

(c) No self-locking nut may be used on any bolt subject to rotation in operation unless a nonfriction locking device is used in addition to the self-locking device.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.609 Protection of structure.

Each part of the structure must—

(a) Be suitably protected against deterioration or loss of strength in service due to any cause, including—

(1) Weathering;

(2) Corrosion; and

(3) Abrasion; and

(b) Have provisions for ventilation and drainage where necessary for protection.

§25.611 Accessibility provisions.

(a)Means must be provided to allow inspection (including inspection of principal structural elements and control systems), replacement of parts normally requiring replacement, adjustment, and lubrication as necessary for continued airworthiness. The inspection means for each item must be practicable for the inspection interval for the item. Nondestructive inspection aids may be used to inspect structural elements where it is impracticable to provide means for direct visual inspection if it is shown that the inspection is effective and the inspection procedures are specified in the maintenance manual required by §25.1529.

(b) EWIS must meet the accessibility requirements of §25.1719.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970, as amended by Amdt. 25-123, 72 FR 63404, Nov. 8, 2007]

§25.613 Material strength properties and material design values.

(a) Material strength properties must be based on enough tests of material meeting approved specifications to establish design values on a statistical basis.

(b) Material design values must be chosen to minimize the probability of structural failures due to material variability. Except as provided in paragraphs (e) and (f) of this section, compliance must be shown by selecting material design values which assure material strength with the following probability:

(1) Where applied loads are eventually distributed through a single member within an assembly, the failure of which would result in loss of structural integrity of the component, 99 percent probability with 95 percent confidence.

(2) For redundant structure, in which the failure of individual elements would result in applied loads being safely distributed to other load carrying members, 90 percent probability with 95 percent confidence.

(c) The effects of environmental conditions, such as temperature and moisture, on material design values used in an essential component or structure must be considered where these effects are significant within the airplane operating envelope.

(d) [Reserved]

(e) Greater material design values may be used if a “premium selection” of the material is made in which a specimen of each individual item is tested before use to determine that the actual strength properties of that particular item will equal or exceed those used in design.

(f) Other material design values may be used if approved by the Administrator.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-112, 68 FR 46431, Aug. 5, 2003]

§25.619 Special factors.

The factor of safety prescribed in §25.303 must be multiplied by the highest pertinent special factor of safety prescribed in §§25.621 through 25.625 for each part of the structure whose strength is—

(a) Uncertain;

(b) Likely to deteriorate in service before normal replacement; or

(c) Subject to appreciable variability because of uncertainties in manufacturing processes or inspection methods.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.621 Casting factors.

(a) General. For castings used in structural applications, the factors, tests, and inspections specified in paragraphs (b) through (d) of this section must be applied in addition to those necessary to establish foundry quality control. The inspections must meet approved specifications. Paragraphs (c) and (d) of this section apply to any structural castings, except castings that are pressure tested as parts of hydraulic or other fluid systems and do not support structural loads.

(b) Bearing stresses and surfaces. The casting factors specified in paragraphs (c) and (d) of this section—

(1) Need not exceed 1.25 with respect to bearing stresses regardless of the method of inspection used; and

(2) Need not be used with respect to the bearing surfaces of a part whose bearing factor is larger than the applicable casting factor.

(c) Critical castings. Each casting whose failure could preclude continued safe flight and landing of the airplane or could result in serious injury to occupants is a critical casting. Each critical casting must have a factor associated with it for showing compliance with strength and deformation requirements of §25.305, and must comply with the following criteria associated with that factor:

(1) A casting factor of 1.0 or greater may be used, provided that—

(i) It is demonstrated, in the form of process qualification, proof of product, and process monitoring that, for each casting design and part number, the castings produced by each foundry and process combination have coefficients of variation of the material properties that are equivalent to those of wrought alloy products of similar composition. Process monitoring must include testing of coupons cut from the prolongations of each casting (or each set of castings, if produced from a single pour into a single mold in a runner system) and, on a sampling basis, coupons cut from critical areas of production castings. The acceptance criteria for the process monitoring inspections and tests must be established and included in the process specifications to ensure the properties of the production castings are controlled to within levels used in design.

(ii) Each casting receives:

(A) Inspection of 100 percent of its surface, using visual inspection and liquid penetrant or equivalent inspection methods; and

(B) Inspection of structurally significant internal areas and areas where defects are likely to occur, using radiographic or equivalent inspection methods.

(iii) One casting undergoes a static test and is shown to meet the strength and deformation requirements of §25.305(a) and (b).

(2) A casting factor of 1.25 or greater may be used, provided that—

(i) Each casting receives:

(A) Inspection of 100 percent of its surface, using visual inspection and liquid penetrant or equivalent inspection methods; and

(B) Inspection of structurally significant internal areas and areas where defects are likely to occur, using radiographic or equivalent inspection methods.

(ii) Three castings undergo static tests and are shown to meet:

(A) The strength requirements of §25.305(b) at an ultimate load corresponding to a casting factor of 1.25; and

(B) The deformation requirements of §25.305(a) at a load of 1.15 times the limit load.

(3) A casting factor of 1.50 or greater may be used, provided that—

(i) Each casting receives:

(A) Inspection of 100 percent of its surface, using visual inspection and liquid penetrant or equivalent inspection methods; and

(B) Inspection of structurally significant internal areas and areas where defects are likely to occur, using radiographic or equivalent inspection methods.

(ii) One casting undergoes a static test and is shown to meet:

(A) The strength requirements of §25.305(b) at an ultimate load corresponding to a casting factor of 1.50; and

(B) The deformation requirements of §25.305(a) at a load of 1.15 times the limit load.

(d) Non-critical castings. For each casting other than critical castings, as specified in paragraph (c) of this section, the following apply:

(1) A casting factor of 1.0 or greater may be used, provided that the requirements of (c)(1) of this section are met, or all of the following conditions are met:

(i) Castings are manufactured to approved specifications that specify the minimum mechanical properties of the material in the casting and provides for demonstration of these properties by testing of coupons cut from the castings on a sampling basis.

(ii) Each casting receives:

(A) Inspection of 100 percent of its surface, using visual inspection and liquid penetrant or equivalent inspection methods; and

(B) Inspection of structurally significant internal areas and areas where defects are likely to occur, using radiographic or equivalent inspection methods.

(iii) Three sample castings undergo static tests and are shown to meet the strength and deformation requirements of §25.305(a) and (b).

(2) A casting factor of 1.25 or greater may be used, provided that each casting receives:

(i) Inspection of 100 percent of its surface, using visual inspection and liquid penetrant or equivalent inspection methods; and

(ii) Inspection of structurally significant internal areas and areas where defects are likely to occur, using radiographic or equivalent inspection methods.

(3) A casting factor of 1.5 or greater may be used, provided that each casting receives inspection of 100 percent of its surface using visual inspection and liquid penetrant or equivalent inspection methods.

(4) A casting factor of 2.0 or greater may be used, provided that each casting receives inspection of 100 percent of its surface using visual inspection methods.

(5) The number of castings per production batch to be inspected by non-visual methods in accordance with paragraphs (d)(2) and (3) of this section may be reduced when an approved quality control procedure is established.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-139, 79 FR 59429, Oct. 2, 2014]

§25.623 Bearing factors.

(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, each part that has clearance (free fit), and that is subject to pounding or vibration, must have a bearing factor large enough to provide for the effects of normal relative motion.

(b) No bearing factor need be used for a part for which any larger special factor is prescribed.

§25.625 Fitting factors.

For each fitting (a part or terminal used to join one structural member to another), the following apply:

(a) For each fitting whose strength is not proven by limit and ultimate load tests in which actual stress conditions are simulated in the fitting and surrounding structures, a fitting factor of at least 1.15 must be applied to each part of—

(1) The fitting;

(2) The means of attachment; and

(3) The bearing on the joined members.

(b) No fitting factor need be used—

(1) For joints made under approved practices and based on comprehensive test data (such as continuous joints in metal plating, welded joints, and scarf joints in wood); or

(2) With respect to any bearing surface for which a larger special factor is used.

(c) For each integral fitting, the part must be treated as a fitting up to the point at which the section properties become typical of the member.

(d) For each seat, berth, safety belt, and harness, the fitting factor specified in §25.785(f)(3) applies.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29776, July 20, 1990]

§25.629 Aeroelastic stability requirements.

(a) General. The aeroelastic stability evaluations required under this section include flutter, divergence, control reversal and any undue loss of stability and control as a result of structural deformation. The aeroelastic evaluation must include whirl modes associated with any propeller or rotating device that contributes significant dynamic forces. Compliance with this section must be shown by analyses, wind tunnel tests, ground vibration tests, flight tests, or other means found necessary by the Administrator.

(b) Aeroelastic stability envelopes. The airplane must be designed to be free from aeroelastic instability for all configurations and design conditions within the aeroelastic stability envelopes as follows:

(1) For normal conditions without failures, malfunctions, or adverse conditions, all combinations of altitudes and speeds encompassed by the VD/MD versus altitude envelope enlarged at all points by an increase of 15 percent in equivalent airspeed at both constant Mach number and constant altitude. In addition, a proper margin of stability must exist at all speeds up to VD/MD and, there must be no large and rapid reduction in stability as VD/MD is approached. The enlarged envelope may be limited to Mach 1.0 when MD is less than 1.0 at all design altitudes, and

(2) For the conditions described in §25.629(d) below, for all approved altitudes, any airspeed up to the greater airspeed defined by;

(i) The VD/MD envelope determined by §25.335(b); or,

(ii) An altitude-airspeed envelope defined by a 15 percent increase in equivalent airspeed above VC at constant altitude, from sea level to the altitude of the intersection of 1.15 VC with the extension of the constant cruise Mach number line, MC, then a linear variation in equivalent airspeed to MC + .05 at the altitude of the lowest VC/MC intersection; then, at higher altitudes, up to the maximum flight altitude, the boundary defined by a .05 Mach increase in MC at constant altitude.

(c) Balance weights. If concentrated balance weights are used, their effectiveness and strength, including supporting structure, must be substantiated.

(d) Failures, malfunctions, and adverse conditions. The failures, malfunctions, and adverse conditions which must be considered in showing compliance with this section are:

(1) Any critical fuel loading conditions, not shown to be extremely improbable, which may result from mismanagement of fuel.

(2) Any single failure in any flutter damper system.

(3) For airplanes not approved for operation in icing conditions, the maximum likely ice accumulation expected as a result of an inadvertent encounter.

(4) Failure of any single element of the structure supporting any engine, independently mounted propeller shaft, large auxiliary power unit, or large externally mounted aerodynamic body (such as an external fuel tank).

(5) For airplanes with engines that have propellers or large rotating devices capable of significant dynamic forces, any single failure of the engine structure that would reduce the rigidity of the rotational axis.

(6) The absence of aerodynamic or gyroscopic forces resulting from the most adverse combination of feathered propellers or other rotating devices capable of significant dynamic forces. In addition, the effect of a single feathered propeller or rotating device must be coupled with the failures of paragraphs (d)(4) and (d)(5) of this section.

(7) Any single propeller or rotating device capable of significant dynamic forces rotating at the highest likely overspeed.

(8) Any damage or failure condition, required or selected for investigation by §25.571. The single structural failures described in paragraphs (d)(4) and (d)(5) of this section need not be considered in showing compliance with this section if;

(i) The structural element could not fail due to discrete source damage resulting from the conditions described in §25.571(e), and

(ii) A damage tolerance investigation in accordance with §25.571(b) shows that the maximum extent of damage assumed for the purpose of residual strength evaluation does not involve complete failure of the structural element.

(9) Any damage, failure, or malfunction considered under §§25.631, 25.671, 25.672, and 25.1309.

(10) Any other combination of failures, malfunctions, or adverse conditions not shown to be extremely improbable.

(e) Flight flutter testing. Full scale flight flutter tests at speeds up to VDF/MDF must be conducted for new type designs and for modifications to a type design unless the modifications have been shown to have an insignificant effect on the aeroelastic stability. These tests must demonstrate that the airplane has a proper margin of damping at all speeds up to VDF/MDF, and that there is no large and rapid reduction in damping as VDF/MDF, is approached. If a failure, malfunction, or adverse condition is simulated during flight test in showing compliance with paragraph (d) of this section, the maximum speed investigated need not exceed VFC/MFC if it is shown, by correlation of the flight test data with other test data or analyses, that the airplane is free from any aeroelastic instability at all speeds within the altitude-airspeed envelope described in paragraph (b)(2) of this section.

[Doc. No. 26007, 57 FR 28949, June 29, 1992]

§25.631 Bird strike damage.

The empennage structure must be designed to assure capability of continued safe flight and landing of the airplane after impact with an 8-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane (relative to the bird along the airplane’s flight path) is equal to VC at sea level, selected under §25.335(a). Compliance with this section by provision of redundant structure and protected location of control system elements or protective devices such as splitter plates or energy absorbing material is acceptable. Where compliance is shown by analysis, tests, or both, use of data on airplanes having similar structural design is acceptable.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]

CONTROL SURFACES

§25.651 Proof of strength.

(a) Limit load tests of control surfaces are required. These tests must include the horn or fitting to which the control system is attached.

(b) Compliance with the special factors requirements of §§25.619 through 25.625 and 25.657 for control surface hinges must be shown by analysis or individual load tests.

§25.655 Installation.

(a) Movable tail surfaces must be installed so that there is no interference between any surfaces when one is held in its extreme position and the others are operated through their full angular movement.

(b) If an adjustable stabilizer is used, it must have stops that will limit its range of travel to the maximum for which the airplane is shown to meet the trim requirements of §25.161.

§25.657 Hinges.

(a) For control surface hinges, including ball, roller, and self-lubricated bearing hinges, the approved rating of the bearing may not be exceeded. For nonstandard bearing hinge configurations, the rating must be established on the basis of experience or tests and, in the absence of a rational investigation, a factor of safety of not less than 6.67 must be used with respect to the ultimate bearing strength of the softest material used as a bearing.

(b) Hinges must have enough strength and rigidity for loads parallel to the hinge line.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]

CONTROL SYSTEMS

§25.671 General.

(a) Each control and control system must operate with the ease, smoothness, and positiveness appropriate to its function.

(b) Each element of each flight control system must be designed, or distinctively and permanently marked, to minimize the probability of incorrect assembly that could result in the malfunctioning of the system.

(c) The airplane must be shown by analysis, tests, or both, to be capable of continued safe flight and landing after any of the following failures or jamming in the flight control system and surfaces (including trim, lift, drag, and feel systems), within the normal flight envelope, without requiring exceptional piloting skill or strength. Probable malfunctions must have only minor effects on control system operation and must be capable of being readily counteracted by the pilot.

(1) Any single failure, excluding jamming (for example, disconnection or failure of mechanical elements, or structural failure of hydraulic components, such as actuators, control spool housing, and valves).

(2) Any combination of failures not shown to be extremely improbable, excluding jamming (for example, dual electrical or hydraulic system failures, or any single failure in combination with any probable hydraulic or electrical failure).

(3) Any jam in a control position normally encountered during takeoff, climb, cruise, normal turns, descent, and landing unless the jam is shown to be extremely improbable, or can be alleviated. A runaway of a flight control to an adverse position and jam must be accounted for if such runaway and subsequent jamming is not extremely improbable.

(d) The airplane must be designed so that it is controllable if all engines fail. Compliance with this requirement may be shown by analysis where that method has been shown to be reliable.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5674, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.672 Stability augmentation and automatic and power-operated systems.

If the functioning of stability augmentation or other automatic or power-operated systems is necessary to show compliance with the flight characteristics requirements of this part, such systems must comply with §25.671 and the following:

(a) A warning which is clearly distinguishable to the pilot under expected flight conditions without requiring his attention must be provided for any failure in the stability augmentation system or in any other automatic or power-operated system which could result in an unsafe condition if the pilot were not aware of the failure. Warning systems must not activate the control systems.

(b) The design of the stability augmentation system or of any other automatic or power-operated system must permit initial counteraction of failures of the type specified in §25.671(c) without requiring exceptional pilot skill or strength, by either the deactivation of the system, or a failed portion thereof, or by overriding the failure by movement of the flight controls in the normal sense.

(c) It must be shown that after any single failure of the stability augmentation system or any other automatic or power-operated system—

(1) The airplane is safely controllable when the failure or malfunction occurs at any speed or altitude within the approved operating limitations that is critical for the type of failure being considered;

(2) The controllability and maneuverability requirements of this part are met within a practical operational flight envelope (for example, speed, altitude, normal acceleration, and airplane configurations) which is described in the Airplane Flight Manual; and

(3) The trim, stability, and stall characteristics are not impaired below a level needed to permit continued safe flight and landing.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5675 Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.675 Stops.

(a) Each control system must have stops that positively limit the range of motion of each movable aerodynamic surface controlled by the system.

(b) Each stop must be located so that wear, slackness, or take-up adjustments will not adversely affect the control characteristics of the airplane because of a change in the range of surface travel.

(c) Each stop must be able to withstand any loads corresponding to the design conditions for the control system.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976]

§25.677 Trim systems.

(a) Trim controls must be designed to prevent inadvertent or abrupt operation and to operate in the plane, and with the sense of motion, of the airplane.

(b) There must be means adjacent to the trim control to indicate the direction of the control movement relative to the airplane motion. In addition, there must be clearly visible means to indicate the position of the trim device with respect to the range of adjustment. The indicator must be clearly marked with the range within which it has been demonstrated that takeoff is safe for all center of gravity positions approved for takeoff.

(c) Trim control systems must be designed to prevent creeping in flight. Trim tab controls must be irreversible unless the tab is appropriately balanced and shown to be free from flutter.

(d) If an irreversible tab control system is used, the part from the tab to the attachment of the irreversible unit to the airplane structure must consist of a rigid connection.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-115, 69 FR 40527, July 2, 2004]

§25.679 Control system gust locks.

(a) There must be a device to prevent damage to the control surfaces (including tabs), and to the control system, from gusts striking the airplane while it is on the ground or water. If the device, when engaged, prevents normal operation of the control surfaces by the pilot, it must—

(1) Automatically disengage when the pilot operates the primary flight controls in a normal manner; or

(2) Limit the operation of the airplane so that the pilot receives unmistakable warning at the start of takeoff.

(b) The device must have means to preclude the possibility of it becoming inadvertently engaged in flight.

§25.681 Limit load static tests.

(a) Compliance with the limit load requirements of this Part must be shown by tests in which—

(1) The direction of the test loads produces the most severe loading in the control system; and

(2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket used in attaching the system to the main structure is included.

(b) Compliance must be shown (by analyses or individual load tests) with the special factor requirements for control system joints subject to angular motion.

§25.683 Operation tests.

(a) It must be shown by operation tests that when portions of the control system subject to pilot effort loads are loaded to 80 percent of the limit load specified for the system and the powered portions of the control system are loaded to the maximum load expected in normal operation, the system is free from—

(1) Jamming;

(2) Excessive friction; and

(3) Excessive deflection.

(b) It must be shown by analysis and, where necessary, by tests, that in the presence of deflections of the airplane structure due to the separate application of pitch, roll, and yaw limit maneuver loads, the control system, when loaded to obtain these limit loads and operated within its operational range of deflections, can be exercised about all control axes and remain free from—

(1) Jamming;

(2) Excessive friction;

(3) Disconnection; and

(4) Any form of permanent damage.

(c) It must be shown that under vibration loads in the normal flight and ground operating conditions, no hazard can result from interference or contact with adjacent elements.

[Amdt. 25-139, 79 FR 59430, Oct. 2, 2014]

§25.685 Control system details.

(a) Each detail of each control system must be designed and installed to prevent jamming, chafing, and interference from cargo, passengers, loose objects, or the freezing of moisture.

(b) There must be means in the cockpit to prevent the entry of foreign objects into places where they would jam the system.

(c) There must be means to prevent the slapping of cables or tubes against other parts.

(d) Sections 25.689 and 25.693 apply to cable systems and joints.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976]

§25.689 Cable systems.

(a) Each cable, cable fitting, turnbuckle, splice, and pulley must be approved. In addition—

(1) No cable smaller than 1⁄8 inch in diameter may be used in the aileron, elevator, or rudder systems; and

(2) Each cable system must be designed so that there will be no hazardous change in cable tension throughout the range of travel under operating conditions and temperature variations.

(b) Each kind and size of pulley must correspond to the cable with which it is used. Pulleys and sprockets must have closely fitted guards to prevent the cables and chains from being displaced or fouled. Each pulley must lie in the plane passing through the cable so that the cable does not rub against the pulley flange.

(c) Fairleads must be installed so that they do not cause a change in cable direction of more than three degrees.

(d) Clevis pins subject to load or motion and retained only by cotter pins may not be used in the control system.

(e) Turnbuckles must be attached to parts having angular motion in a manner that will positively prevent binding throughout the range of travel.

(f) There must be provisions for visual inspection of fairleads, pulleys, terminals, and turnbuckles.

§25.693 Joints.

Control system joints (in push-pull systems) that are subject to angular motion, except those in ball and roller bearing systems, must have a special factor of safety of not less than 3.33 with respect to the ultimate bearing strength of the softest material used as a bearing. This factor may be reduced to 2.0 for joints in cable control systems. For ball or roller bearings, the approved ratings may not be exceeded.

[Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990]

§25.697 Lift and drag devices, controls.

(a) Each lift device control must be designed so that the pilots can place the device in any takeoff, en route, approach, or landing position established under §25.101(d). Lift and drag devices must maintain the selected positions, except for movement produced by an automatic positioning or load limiting device, without further attention by the pilots.

(b) Each lift and drag device control must be designed and located to make inadvertent operation improbable. Lift and drag devices intended for ground operation only must have means to prevent the inadvertant operation of their controls in flight if that operation could be hazardous.

(c) The rate of motion of the surfaces in response to the operation of the control and the characteristics of the automatic positioning or load limiting device must give satisfactory flight and performance characteristics under steady or changing conditions of airspeed, engine power, and airplane attitude.

(d) The lift device control must be designed to retract the surfaces from the fully extended position, during steady flight at maximum continuous engine power at any speed below VF + 9.0 (knots).

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8, 1970, as amended by Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 25-57, 49 FR 6848, Feb. 23, 1984]

§25.699 Lift and drag device indicator.

(a) There must be means to indicate to the pilots the position of each lift or drag device having a separate control in the cockpit to adjust its position. In addition, an indication of unsymmetrical operation or other malfunction in the lift or drag device systems must be provided when such indication is necessary to enable the pilots to prevent or counteract an unsafe flight or ground condition, considering the effects on flight characteristics and performance.

(b) There must be means to indicate to the pilots the takeoff, en route, approach, and landing lift device positions.

(c) If any extension of the lift and drag devices beyond the landing position is possible, the controls must be clearly marked to identify this range of extension.

[Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5675, Apr. 8, 1970]

§25.701 Flap and slat interconnection.

(a) Unless the airplane has safe flight characteristics with the flaps or slats retracted on one side and extended on the other, the motion of flaps or slats on opposite sides of the plane of symmetry must be synchronized by a mechanical interconnection or approved equivalent means.

(b) If a wing flap or slat interconnection or equivalent means is used, it must be designed to account for the applicable unsymmetrical loads, including those resulting from flight with the engines on one side of the plane of symmetry inoperative and the remaining engines at takeoff power.

(c) For airplanes with flaps or slats that are not subjected to slipstream conditions, the structure must be designed for the loads imposed when the wing flaps or slats on one side are carrying the most severe load occurring in the prescribed symmetrical conditions and those on the other side are carrying not more than 80 percent of that load.

(d) The interconnection must be designed for the loads resulting when interconnected flap or slat surfaces on one side of the plane of symmetry are jammed and immovable while the surfaces on the other side are free to move and the full power of the surface actuating system is applied.

[Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990]

§25.703 Takeoff warning system.

A takeoff warning system must be installed and must meet the following requirements:

(a) The system must provide to the pilots an aural warning that is automatically activated during the initial portion of the takeoff roll if the airplane is in a configuration, including any of the following, that would not allow a safe takeoff:

(1) The wing flaps or leading edge devices are not within the approved range of takeoff positions.

(2) Wing spoilers (except lateral control spoilers meeting the requirements of §25.671), speed brakes, or longitudinal trim devices are in a position that would not allow a safe takeoff.

(b) The warning required by paragraph (a) of this section must continue until—

(1) The configuration is changed to allow a safe takeoff;

(2) Action is taken by the pilot to terminate the takeoff roll;

(3) The airplane is rotated for takeoff; or

(4) The warning is manually deactivated by the pilot.

(c) The means used to activate the system must function properly throughout the ranges of takeoff weights, altitudes, and temperatures for which certification is requested.

[Amdt. 25-42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978]

LANDING GEAR

§25.721 General.

(a) The landing gear system must be designed so that when it fails due to overloads during takeoff and landing, the failure mode is not likely to cause spillage of enough fuel to constitute a fire hazard. The overloads must be assumed to act in the upward and aft directions in combination with side loads acting inboard and outboard. In the absence of a more rational analysis, the side loads must be assumed to be up to 20 percent of the vertical load or 20 percent of the drag load, whichever is greater.

(b) The airplane must be designed to avoid any rupture leading to the spillage of enough fuel to constitute a fire hazard as a result of a wheels-up landing on a paved runway, under the following minor crash landing conditions:

(1) Impact at 5 feet-per-second vertical velocity, with the airplane under control, at Maximum Design Landing Weight—

(i) With the landing gear fully retracted; and

(ii) With any one or more landing gear legs not extended.

(2) Sliding on the ground, with—

(i) The landing gear fully retracted and with up to a 20° yaw angle; and

(ii) Any one or more landing gear legs not extended and with 0° yaw angle.

(c) For configurations where the engine nacelle is likely to come into contact with the ground, the engine pylon or engine mounting must be designed so that when it fails due to overloads (assuming the overloads to act predominantly in the upward direction and separately, predominantly in the aft direction), the failure mode is not likely to cause the spillage of enough fuel to constitute a fire hazard.

[Amdt. 25-139, 79 FR 59430, Oct. 2, 2014]

§25.723 Shock absorption tests.

(a) The analytical representation of the landing gear dynamic characteristics that is used in determining the landing loads must be validated by energy absorption tests. A range of tests must be conducted to ensure that the analytical representation is valid for the design conditions specified in §25.473.

(1) The configurations subjected to energy absorption tests at limit design conditions must include at least the design landing weight or the design takeoff weight, whichever produces the greater value of landing impact energy.

(2) The test attitude of the landing gear unit and the application of appropriate drag loads during the test must simulate the airplane landing conditions in a manner consistent with the development of rational or conservative limit loads.

(b) The landing gear may not fail in a test, demonstrating its reserve energy absorption capacity, simulating a descent velocity of 12 f.p.s. at design landing weight, assuming airplane lift not greater than airplane weight acting during the landing impact.

(c) In lieu of the tests prescribed in this section, changes in previously approved design weights and minor changes in design may be substantiated by analyses based on previous tests conducted on the same basic landing gear system that has similar energy absorption characteristics.

[Doc. No. 1999-5835, 66 FR 27394, May 16, 2001]

§§25.725-25.727 [Reserved]

§25.729 Retracting mechanism.

(a) General. For airplanes with retractable landing gear, the following apply:

(1) The landing gear retracting mechanism, wheel well doors, and supporting structure, must be designed for—

(i) The loads occurring in the flight conditions when the gear is in the retracted position,

(ii) The combination of friction loads, inertia loads, brake torque loads, air loads, and gyroscopic loads resulting from the wheels rotating at a peripheral speed equal to 1.23VSR (with the wing-flaps in take-off position at design take-off weight), occurring during retraction and extension at any airspeed up to 1.5 VSR1 (with the wing-flaps in the approach position at design landing weight), and

(iii) Any load factor up to those specified in §25.345(a) for the wing-flaps extended condition.

(2) Unless there are other means to decelerate the airplane in flight at this speed, the landing gear, the retracting mechanism, and the airplane structure (including wheel well doors) must be designed to withstand the flight loads occurring with the landing gear in the extended position at any speed up to 0.67 VC.

(3) Landing gear doors, their operating mechanism, and their supporting structures must be designed for the yawing maneuvers prescribed for the airplane in addition to the conditions of airspeed and load factor prescribed in paragraphs (a)(1) and (2) of this section.

(b) Landing gear lock. There must be positive means to keep the landing gear extended in flight and on the ground. There must be positive means to keep the landing gear and doors in the correct retracted position in flight, unless it can be shown that lowering of the landing gear or doors, or flight with the landing gear or doors extended, at any speed, is not hazardous.

(c) Emergency operation. There must be an emergency means for extending the landing gear in the event of—

(1) Any reasonably probable failure in the normal retraction system; or

(2) The failure of any single source of hydraulic, electric, or equivalent energy supply.

(d) Operation test. The proper functioning of the retracting mechanism must be shown by operation tests.

(e) Position indicator and warning device. If a retractable landing gear is used, there must be a landing gear position indicator easily visible to the pilot or to the appropriate crew members (as well as necessary devices to actuate the indicator) to indicate without ambiguity that the retractable units and their associated doors are secured in the extended (or retracted) position. The means must be designed as follows:

(1) If switches are used, they must be located and coupled to the landing gear mechanical systems in a manner that prevents an erroneous indication of “down and locked” if the landing gear is not in a fully extended position, or of “up and locked” if the landing gear is not in the fully retracted position. The switches may be located where they are operated by the actual landing gear locking latch or device.

(2) The flightcrew must be given an aural warning that functions continuously, or is periodically repeated, if a landing is attempted when the landing gear is not locked down.

(3) The warning must be given in sufficient time to allow the landing gear to be locked down or a go-around to be made.

(4) There must not be a manual shut-off means readily available to the flightcrew for the warning required by paragraph (e)(2) of this section such that it could be operated instinctively, inadvertently, or by habitual reflexive action.

(5) The system used to generate the aural warning must be designed to minimize false or inappropriate alerts.

(6) Failures of systems used to inhibit the landing gear aural warning, that would prevent the warning system from operating, must be improbable.

(7) A flightcrew alert must be provided whenever the landing gear position is not consistent with the landing gear selector lever position.

(f) Protection of equipment on landing gear and in wheel wells. Equipment that is essential to the safe operation of the airplane and that is located on the landing gear and in wheel wells must be protected from the damaging effects of—

(1) A bursting tire;

(2) A loose tire tread, unless it is shown that a loose tire tread cannot cause damage.

(3) Possible wheel brake temperatures.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-42, 43 FR 2323, Jan. 16, 1978; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-75, 56 FR 63762, Dec. 5, 1991; Amdt. 25-136, 77 FR 1617, Jan. 11, 2012]

§25.731 Wheels.

(a) Each main and nose wheel must be approved.

(b) The maximum static load rating of each wheel may not be less than the corresponding static ground reaction with—

(1) Design maximum weight; and

(2) Critical center of gravity.

(c) The maximum limit load rating of each wheel must equal or exceed the maximum radial limit load determined under the applicable ground load requirements of this part.

(d) Overpressure burst prevention. Means must be provided in each wheel to prevent wheel failure and tire burst that may result from excessive pressurization of the wheel and tire assembly.

(e) Braked wheels. Each braked wheel must meet the applicable requirements of §25.735.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-107, 67 FR 20420, Apr. 24, 2002]

§25.733 Tires.

(a) When a landing gear axle is fitted with a single wheel and tire assembly, the wheel must be fitted with a suitable tire of proper fit with a speed rating approved by the Administrator that is not exceeded under critical conditions and with a load rating approved by the Administrator that is not exceeded under—

(1) The loads on the main wheel tire, corresponding to the most critical combination of airplane weight (up to maximum weight) and center of gravity position, and

(2) The loads corresponding to the ground reactions in paragraph (b) of this section, on the nose wheel tire, except as provided in paragraphs (b)(2) and (b)(3) of this section.

(b) The applicable ground reactions for nose wheel tires are as follows:

(1) The static ground reaction for the tire corresponding to the most critical combination of airplane weight (up to maximum ramp weight) and center of gravity position with a force of 1.0g acting downward at the center of gravity. This load may not exceed the load rating of the tire.

(2) The ground reaction of the tire corresponding to the most critical combination of airplane weight (up to maximum landing weight) and center of gravity position combined with forces of 1.0g downward and 0.31g forward acting at the center of gravity. The reactions in this case must be distributed to the nose and main wheels by the principles of statics with a drag reaction equal to 0.31 times the vertical load at each wheel with brakes capable of producing this ground reaction. This nose tire load may not exceed 1.5 times the load rating of the tire.

(3) The ground reaction of the tire corresponding to the most critical combination of airplane weight (up to maximum ramp weight) and center of gravity position combined with forces of 1.0g downward and 0.20g forward acting at the center of gravity. The reactions in this case must be distributed to the nose and main wheels by the principles of statics with a drag reaction equal to 0.20 times the vertical load at each wheel with brakes capable of producing this ground reaction. This nose tire load may not exceed 1.5 times the load rating of the tire.

(c) When a landing gear axle is fitted with more than one wheel and tire assembly, such as dual or dual-tandem, each wheel must be fitted with a suitable tire of proper fit with a speed rating approved by the Administrator that is not exceeded under critical conditions, and with a load rating approved by the Administrator that is not exceeded by—

(1) The loads on each main wheel tire, corresponding to the most critical combination of airplane weight (up to maximum weight) and center of gravity position, when multiplied by a factor of 1.07; and

(2) Loads specified in paragraphs (a)(2), (b)(1), (b)(2), and (b)(3) of this section on each nose wheel tire.

(d) Each tire installed on a retractable landing gear system must, at the maximum size of the tire type expected in service, have a clearance to surrounding structure and systems that is adequate to prevent unintended contact between the tire and any part of the structure or systems.

(e) For an airplane with a maximum certificated takeoff weight of more than 75,000 pounds, tires mounted on braked wheels must be inflated with dry nitrogen or other gases shown to be inert so that the gas mixture in the tire does not contain oxygen in excess of 5 percent by volume, unless it can be shown that the tire liner material will not produce a volatile gas when heated or that means are provided to prevent tire temperatures from reaching unsafe levels.

[Amdt. 25-48, 44 FR 68752, Nov. 29, 1979; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990, as amended by Amdt. 25-78, 58 FR 11781, Feb. 26, 1993]

§25.735 Brakes and braking systems.

(a) Approval. Each assembly consisting of a wheel(s) and brake(s) must be approved.

(b) Brake system capability. The brake system, associated systems and components must be designed and constructed so that:

(1) If any electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, or mechanical connecting or transmitting element fails, or if any single source of hydraulic or other brake operating energy supply is lost, it is possible to bring the airplane to rest with a braked roll stopping distance of not more than two times that obtained in determining the landing distance as prescribed in §25.125.

(2) Fluid lost from a brake hydraulic system following a failure in, or in the vicinity of, the brakes is insufficient to cause or support a hazardous fire on the ground or in flight.

(c) Brake controls. The brake controls must be designed and constructed so that:

(1) Excessive control force is not required for their operation.

(2) If an automatic braking system is installed, means are provided to:

(i) Arm and disarm the system, and

(ii) Allow the pilot(s) to override the system by use of manual braking.

(d) Parking brake. The airplane must have a parking brake control that, when selected on, will, without further attention, prevent the airplane from rolling on a dry and level paved runway when the most adverse combination of maximum thrust on one engine and up to maximum ground idle thrust on any, or all, other engine(s) is applied. The control must be suitably located or be adequately protected to prevent inadvertent operation. There must be indication in the cockpit when the parking brake is not fully released.

(e) Antiskid system. If an antiskid system is installed:

(1) It must operate satisfactorily over the range of expected runway conditions, without external adjustment.

(2) It must, at all times, have priority over the automatic braking system, if installed.

(f) Kinetic energy capacity—(1) Design landing stop. The design landing stop is an operational landing stop at maximum landing weight. The design landing stop brake kinetic energy absorption requirement of each wheel, brake, and tire assembly must be determined. It must be substantiated by dynamometer testing that the wheel, brake and tire assembly is capable of absorbing not less than this level of kinetic energy throughout the defined wear range of the brake. The energy absorption rate derived from the airplane manufacturer’s braking requirements must be achieved. The mean deceleration must not be less than 10 fps2.

(2) Maximum kinetic energy accelerate-stop. The maximum kinetic energy accelerate-stop is a rejected takeoff for the most critical combination of airplane takeoff weight and speed. The accelerate-stop brake kinetic energy absorption requirement of each wheel, brake, and tire assembly must be determined. It must be substantiated by dynamometer testing that the wheel, brake, and tire assembly is capable of absorbing not less than this level of kinetic energy throughout the defined wear range of the brake. The energy absorption rate derived from the airplane manufacturer’s braking requirements must be achieved. The mean deceleration must not be less than 6 fps2.

(3) Most severe landing stop. The most severe landing stop is a stop at the most critical combination of airplane landing weight and speed. The most severe landing stop brake kinetic energy absorption requirement of each wheel, brake, and tire assembly must be determined. It must be substantiated by dynamometer testing that, at the declared fully worn limit(s) of the brake heat sink, the wheel, brake and tire assembly is capable of absorbing not less than this level of kinetic energy. The most severe landing stop need not be considered for extremely improbable failure conditions or if the maximum kinetic energy accelerate-stop energy is more severe.

(g) Brake condition after high kinetic energy dynamometer stop(s). Following the high kinetic energy stop demonstration(s) required by paragraph (f) of this section, with the parking brake promptly and fully applied for at least 3 minutes, it must be demonstrated that for at least 5 minutes from application of the parking brake, no condition occurs (or has occurred during the stop), including fire associated with the tire or wheel and brake assembly, that could prejudice the safe and complete evacuation of the airplane.

(h) Stored energy systems. An indication to the flightcrew of the usable stored energy must be provided if a stored energy system is used to show compliance with paragraph (b)(1) of this section. The available stored energy must be sufficient for:

(1) At least 6 full applications of the brakes when an antiskid system is not operating; and

(2) Bringing the airplane to a complete stop when an antiskid system is operating, under all runway surface conditions for which the airplane is certificated.

(i) Brake wear indicators. Means must be provided for each brake assembly to indicate when the heat sink is worn to the permissible limit. The means must be reliable and readily visible.

(j) Overtemperature burst prevention. Means must be provided in each braked wheel to prevent a wheel failure, a tire burst, or both, that may result from elevated brake temperatures. Additionally, all wheels must meet the requirements of §25.731(d).

(k) Compatibility. Compatibility of the wheel and brake assemblies with the airplane and its systems must be substantiated.

[Doc. No. FAA-1999-6063, 67 FR 20420, Apr. 24, 2002, as amended by Amdt. 25-108, 67 FR 70827, Nov. 26, 2002; 68 FR 1955, Jan. 15, 2003]

§25.737 Skis.

Each ski must be approved. The maximum limit load rating of each ski must equal or exceed the maximum limit load determined under the applicable ground load requirements of this part.

FLOATS AND HULLS

§25.751 Main float buoyancy.

Each main float must have—

(a) A buoyancy of 80 percent in excess of that required to support the maximum weight of the seaplane or amphibian in fresh water; and

(b) Not less than five watertight compartments approximately equal in volume.

§25.753 Main float design.

Each main float must be approved and must meet the requirements of §25.521.

§25.755 Hulls.

(a) Each hull must have enough watertight compartments so that, with any two adjacent compartments flooded, the buoyancy of the hull and auxiliary floats (and wheel tires, if used) provides a margin of positive stability great enough to minimize the probability of capsizing in rough, fresh water.

(b) Bulkheads with watertight doors may be used for communication between compartments.

PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS

§25.771 Pilot compartment.

(a) Each pilot compartment and its equipment must allow the minimum flight crew (established under §25.1523) to perform their duties without unreasonable concentration or fatigue.

(b) The primary controls listed in §25.779(a), excluding cables and control rods, must be located with respect to the propellers so that no member of the minimum flight crew (established under §25.1523), or part of the controls, lies in the region between the plane of rotation of any inboard propeller and the surface generated by a line passing through the center of the propeller hub making an angle of five degrees forward or aft of the plane of rotation of the propeller.

(c) If provision is made for a second pilot, the airplane must be controllable with equal safety from either pilot seat.

(d) The pilot compartment must be constructed so that, when flying in rain or snow, it will not leak in a manner that will distract the crew or harm the structure.

(e) Vibration and noise characteristics of cockpit equipment may not interfere with safe operation of the airplane.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-4, 30 FR 6113, Apr. 30, 1965]

§25.772 Pilot compartment doors.

For an airplane that has a lockable door installed between the pilot compartment and the passenger compartment:

(a) For airplanes with a maximum passenger seating configuration of more than 20 seats, the emergency exit configuration must be designed so that neither crewmembers nor passengers require use of the flightdeck door in order to reach the emergency exits provided for them; and

(b) Means must be provided to enable flight crewmembers to directly enter the passenger compartment from the pilot compartment if the cockpit door becomes jammed.

(c) There must be an emergency means to enable a flight attendant to enter the pilot compartment in the event that the flightcrew becomes incapacitated.

[Doc. No. 24344, 55 FR 29777, July 20, 1990, as amended by Amdt. 25-106, 67 FR 2127, Jan. 15, 2002]

§25.773 Pilot compartment view.

(a) Nonprecipitation conditions. For nonprecipitation conditions, the following apply:

(1) Each pilot compartment must be arranged to give the pilots a sufficiently extensive, clear, and undistorted view, to enable them to safely perform any maneuvers within the operating limitations of the airplane, including taxiing takeoff, approach, and landing.

(2) Each pilot compartment must be free of glare and reflection that could interfere with the normal duties of the minimum flight crew (established under §25.1523). This must be shown in day and night flight tests under nonprecipitation conditions.

(b) Precipitation conditions. For precipitation conditions, the following apply:

(1) The airplane must have a means to maintain a clear portion of the windshield, during precipitation conditions, sufficient for both pilots to have a sufficiently extensive view along the flight path in normal flight attitudes of the airplane. This means must be designed to function, without continuous attention on the part of the crew, in—

(i) Heavy rain at speeds up to 1.5 VSR1 with lift and drag devices retracted; and

(ii) The icing conditions specified in Appendix C of this part and the following icing conditions specified in Appendix O of this part, if certification for flight in icing conditions is sought:

(A) For airplanes certificated in accordance with §25.1420(a)(1), the icing conditions that the airplane is certified to safely exit following detection.

(B) For airplanes certificated in accordance with §25.1420(a)(2), the icing conditions that the airplane is certified to safely operate in and the icing conditions that the airplane is certified to safely exit following detection.

(C) For airplanes certificated in accordance with §25.1420(a)(3) and for airplanes not subject to §25.1420, all icing conditions.

(2) No single failure of the systems used to provide the view required by paragraph (b)(1) of this section must cause the loss of that view by both pilots in the specified precipitation conditions.

(3) The first pilot must have a window that—

(i) Is openable under the conditions prescribed in paragraph (b)(1) of this section when the cabin is not pressurized;

(ii) Provides the view specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this section; and

(iii) Provides sufficient protection from the elements against impairment of the pilot’s vision.

(4) The openable window specified in paragraph (b)(3) of this section need not be provided if it is shown that an area of the transparent surface will remain clear sufficient for at least one pilot to land the airplane safely in the event of—

(i) Any system failure or combination of failures which is not extremely improbable, in accordance with §25.1309, under the precipitation conditions specified in paragraph (b)(1) of this section.

(ii) An encounter with severe hail, birds, or insects.

(c) Internal windshield and window fogging. The airplane must have a means to prevent fogging of the internal portions of the windshield and window panels over an area which would provide the visibility specified in paragraph (a) of this section under all internal and external ambient conditions, including precipitation conditions, in which the airplane is intended to be operated.

(d) Fixed markers or other guides must be installed at each pilot station to enable the pilots to position themselves in their seats for an optimum combination of outside visibility and instrument scan. If lighted markers or guides are used they must comply with the requirements specified in §25.1381.

(e) Vision systems with transparent displays. A vision system with a transparent display surface located in the pilot’s outside field of view, such as a head up-display, head mounted display, or other equivalent display, must meet the following requirements in nonprecipitation and precipitation conditions:

(1) While the vision system display is in operation, it must compensate for interference with the pilot’s outside field of view such that the combination of what is visible in the display and what remains visible through and around it, enables the pilot to perform the maneuvers and normal duties of paragraph (a) of this section.

(2) The pilot’s view of the external scene may not be distorted by the transparent display surface or by the vision system imagery. When the vision system displays imagery or any symbology that is referenced to the imagery and outside scene topography, including attitude symbology, flight path vector, and flight path angle reference cue, that imagery and symbology must be aligned with, and scaled to, the external scene.

(3) The vision system must provide a means to allow the pilot using the display to immediately deactivate and reactivate the vision system imagery, on demand, without removing the pilot’s hands from the primary flight controls or thrust controls.

(4) When the vision system is not in operation it may not restrict the pilot from performing the maneuvers specified in paragraph (a)(1) of this section or the pilot compartment from meeting the provisions of paragraph (a)(2) of this section.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50595, Oct. 30, 1978; Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29778, July 20, 1990; Amdt. 25-108, 67 FR 70827, Nov. 26, 2002; Amdt. 25-121, 72 FR 44669, Aug. 8, 2007; Amdt. 25-136, 77 FR 1618, Jan. 11, 2012; Amdt. 25-140, 79 FR 65525, Nov. 4, 2014; Docket FAA-2013-0485, Amdt. 25-144, 81 FR 90169, Dec. 13, 2016]

§25.775 Windshields and windows.

(a) Internal panes must be made of nonsplintering material.

(b) Windshield panes directly in front of the pilots in the normal conduct of their duties, and the supporting structures for these panes, must withstand, without penetration, the impact of a four-pound bird when the velocity of the airplane (relative to the bird along the airplane’s flight path) is equal to the value of VC, at sea level, selected under §25.335(a).

(c) Unless it can be shown by analysis or tests that the probability of occurrence of a critical windshield fragmentation condition is of a low order, the airplane must have a means to minimize the danger to the pilots from flying windshield fragments due to bird impact. This must be shown for each transparent pane in the cockpit that—

(1) Appears in the front view of the airplane;

(2) Is inclined 15 degrees or more to the longitudinal axis of the airplane; and

(3) Has any part of the pane located where its fragmentation will constitute a hazard to the pilots.

(d) The design of windshields and windows in pressurized airplanes must be based on factors peculiar to high altitude operation, including the effects of continuous and cyclic pressurization loadings, the inherent characteristics of the material used, and the effects of temperatures and temperature differentials. The windshield and window panels must be capable of withstanding the maximum cabin pressure differential loads combined with critical aerodynamic pressure and temperature effects after any single failure in the installation or associated systems. It may be assumed that, after a single failure that is obvious to the flight crew (established under §25.1523), the cabin pressure differential is reduced from the maximum, in accordance with appropriate operating limitations, to allow continued safe flight of the airplane with a cabin pressure altitude of not more than 15,000 feet.

(e) The windshield panels in front of the pilots must be arranged so that, assuming the loss of vision through any one panel, one or more panels remain available for use by a pilot seated at a pilot station to permit continued safe flight and landing.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-23, 35 FR 5676, Apr. 8, 1970; Amdt. 25-38, 41 FR 55466, Dec. 20, 1976]

§25.777 Cockpit controls.

(a) Each cockpit control must be located to provide convenient operation and to prevent confusion and inadvertent operation.

(b) The direction of movement of cockpit controls must meet the requirements of §25.779. Wherever practicable, the sense of motion involved in the operation of other controls must correspond to the sense of the effect of the operation upon the airplane or upon the part operated. Controls of a variable nature using a rotary motion must move clockwise from the off position, through an increasing range, to the full on position.

(c) The controls must be located and arranged, with respect to the pilots’ seats, so that there is full and unrestricted movement of each control without interference from the cockpit structure or the clothing of the minimum flight crew (established under §25.1523) when any member of this flight crew, from 5’2’ to 6’3’ in height, is seated with the seat belt and shoulder harness (if provided) fastened.

(d) Identical powerplant controls for each engine must be located to prevent confusion as to the engines they control.

(e) Wing flap controls and other auxiliary lift device controls must be located on top of the pedestal, aft of the throttles, centrally or to the right of the pedestal centerline, and not less than 10 inches aft of the landing gear control.

(f) The landing gear control must be located forward of the throttles and must be operable by each pilot when seated with seat belt and shoulder harness (if provided) fastened.

(g) Control knobs must be shaped in accordance with §25.781. In addition, the knobs must be of the same color, and this color must contrast with the color of control knobs for other purposes and the surrounding cockpit.

(h) If a flight engineer is required as part of the minimum flight crew (established under §25.1523), the airplane must have a flight engineer station located and arranged so that the flight crewmembers can perform their functions efficiently and without interfering with each other.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-46, 43 FR 50596, Oct. 30, 1978]

§25.779 Motion and effect of cockpit controls.

Cockpit controls must be designed so that they operate in accordance with the following movement and actuation:

(a) Aerodynamic controls:

(1) Primary.

Control	Motion and effect
Aileron	Right (clockwise) for right wing down.
Elevator	Rearward for nose up.
Rudder	Right pedal forward for nose right.

(2) Secondary.

Control	Motion and effect
Flaps (or auxiliary lift devices)	Forward for flaps up; rearward for flaps down.
Trim tabs (or equivalent)	Rotate to produce similar rotation of the airplane about an axis parallel to the axis of the control.

(b) Powerplant and auxiliary controls:

(1) Powerplant.

Control	Motion and effect
Power or thrust	Forward to increase forward thrust and rearward to increase rearward thrust.
Propellers	Forward to increase rpm.
Mixture	Forward or upward for rich.
Carburetor air heat	Forward or upward for cold.
Supercharger	Forward or upward for low blower. For turbosuperchargers, forward, upward, or clockwise, to increase pressure.

(2) Auxiliary.

Control	Motion and effect
Landing gear	Down to extend.

[Doc. No. 5066, 29 FR 18291, Dec. 24, 1964, as amended by Amdt. 25-72, 55 FR 29778, July 20, 1990]