CHAPTER 1: “Blown Into History”
1. Andrew M. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham’s Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: The University of Alabama Press, 1999), p. 109.
2. Ellen Levine, Freedom’s Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell Their Own Stories (New York: Puffin Books, 2000), p. 7.
3. Ibid., p. 9.
4. Manis, p. 110.
5. Lewis W. Jones, “Fred L. Shuttlesworth, Indigenous Leader” in David J. Garrow, Jr., ed., Birmingham Alabama, 1956–1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights (Brooklyn, New York: Carson Publishing, Inc., 1989), pp. 137–138.
6. Harrison E. Salisbury, “Fear and Hatred Grip Birmingham,” The New York Times, April 12, 1960, pp. 1, 28.
7. Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can’t Wait (New York: Signet Books, 2000), p. 36.
8. Howell Raines, My Soul is Rested: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), pp. 139–140.
9. Levine, p. 6.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid., p. 12.
12. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 53.
13. Manis, p. 114.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., p. 109.
16. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 115.
CHAPTER 2: The Reverend Shuttlesworth Fights On
1. Andrew M. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham’s Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: The University of Alabama Press, 1999), p. 153.
2. Ibid., p. 156.
3. Ellen Levine, Freedom’s Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell Their Own Stories (New York: Puffin Books, 2000), p. 37.
4. Fred L. Shuttlesworth, “Birmingham Revisited: Minister Returns to City to View Decade of Change,” Ebony, August 1971, p. 115.
5. Ibid.
6. Manis, p. 153.
7. Glenn T. Eskew, “The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights and the Birmingham Struggle for Civil Rights, 1956–1963” in David J. Garrow, Jr., ed., Birmingham Alabama, 1956–1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights (Brooklyn, New York: Carson Publishing, Inc., 1989), p. 16.
8. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), pp. 165–166.
9. Ibid., p. 157.
10. Shuttlesworth, p. 116.
11. Eskew, p. 157.
12. Shuttlesworth, p. 117.
CHAPTER 3: The Movement Begins
1. Howell Raines, My Soul is Rested: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), p. 156.
2. Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s (New York: Bantam Books, 1990), p. 125.
3. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Quill, 1986), p. 229.
4. Raines, p. 144.
5. Jocelyn Ulrich, “‘We Were the Heart of the Struggle:’ Women in the Birmingham Civil Rights Movement,” Senior Thesis, Russell Sage College, <http://web.archive.org/web/20030427162555/www.sage.edu/RSC/programs/globcomm/division/students/hendricks.html> (May 21, 2007).
6. Foster Hailey, “4 Negroes Jailed in Birmingham As the Integration Drive Slows,” The New York Times, April 5, 1963, p. 16.
7. Ibid.
8. Andrew M. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham’s Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: The University of Alabama Press, 1999), p. 350.
9. Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can’t Wait (New York: Signet Books, 2000), p. 63.
10. David L. Lewis, King: A Critical Biography (Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc., 1970), p. 180.
11. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 225.
12. Foster Hailey, “Police Break up Alabama March,” The New York Times, April 8, 1963, p. 31.
13. Foster Hailey, “Negroes Uniting in Birmingham,” The New York Times, April 11, 1963, p. 21.
14. Andrew Young, An Easy Burden: The Civil Rights Movement and the Transformation of America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 205.
15. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 711.
CHAPTER 4: The Arrest of Dr. King
1. Martin Luther King, Jr., “Letter From Birmingham Jail,” The King Center <http://www.thekingcenter.org/prog/non/Letter.pdf> (June 2007).
2. Foster Hailey, “Negroes Defying Birmingham Writ,” The New York Times, April 12, 1963, p. 13.
3. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 727.
4. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 341.
5. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 239.
6. Howell Raines, My Soul is Rested: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), p. 143.
7. Andrew Young, An Easy Burden: The Civil Rights Movement and the Transformation of America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 214.
8. King, p. 72.
9. Ralph Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York: Harper & Row, 1989), p. 249.
10. Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can’t Wait (New York: Signet Books, 2000), pp. 59–60.
11. Abernathy, p. 251.
12. Ibid.
13. Young, p. 216.
14. Ibid., pp. 220–221.
15. King, pp. 61–62.
16. McWhorter, p. 347.
17. “Statement by Alabama Clergymen,” The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. n.d., <http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/popular_requests/frequentdocs/clergy.pdf> (October 10, 2006).
18. King, “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid
23. Ibid.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Quill, 1986), p. 247.
27. Foster Hailey, “Dr. King Leaves Birmingham Jail,” The New York Times, April 21, 1963, p. 70.
CHAPTER 5: The Children March
1. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 366.
2. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), pp. 734–735.
3. Branch, p. 735.
4. Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s (New York: Bantam Books, 1990.), p. 132.
5. Ibid., p. 131.
6. Ibid., p. 132.
7. Sanford Wexler. The Civil Rights Movement: An Eyewitness History (New York: Facts on File, 1993), p. 172.
8. Andrew Young, An Easy Burden: The Civil Rights Movement and the Transformation of America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 236.
9. Ibid.
10. McWhorter, p. 361.
11. Andrew M. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham’s Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: The University of Alabama Press, 1999), p. 368.
12. “Robert Kennedy Warns of ‘Increasing Turmoil,’” The New York Times, May 4, 1963, p. 8.
13. McWhorter, p. 363.
14. Ibid., p. 365.
15. Ibid., p. 366.
16. Glenn T. Eskew, “The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights,” in David J. Garrow, Jr., ed., Birmingham Alabama, 1956–1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights (Brooklyn, New York: Carson Publishing, Inc., 1989), p. 82.
17. Ellen Levine, Freedom’s Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell Their Own Stories (New York: Puffin Books, 2000), pp. 78–79.
18. Foster Hailey, “500 Are Arrested in Negro Protest at Birmingham,” The New York Times, May 3, 1963, p. 1.
19. Ibid.
20. Ibid.
21. McWhorter, p. 368.
22. Ibid.
23. Ibid.
CHAPTER 6: “Fire Hoses on Those Black Girls”
1. Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s (New York: Bantam Books, 1990), p. 133.
2. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 265.
3. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 368.
4. Ellen Levine, Freedom’s Children: Young Civil Rights Activists Tell Their Own Stories (New York: Puffin Books, 2000), p. 85.
5. Eskew, p. 266.
6. Foster Hailey, “Dogs and Hoses Repulse Negroes at Birmingham,” The New York Times, May 4, 1963, p. 8.
7. McWhorter, p. 371.
8. Ibid.
9. Levine, p. 85.
10. Hailey, p. 8.
11. “Birmingham Jail Is So Crowded Breakfast Takes Four Hours,” The New York Times, May 8, 1963, p. 29.
12. Ibid.
13. Levine, p. 79.
14. Ibid., pp. 80–81.
15. Eskew, p. 266.
16. M. S. Handler, “Malcolm X Terms Dr. King’s Tactics Futile,” The New York Times, May 11, 1963, p. 9.
17. Hampton and Fayer, p. 133.
18. W. Stuart Towns, We Want our Freedom: Rhetoric of the Civil Rights Movement (Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers, 2002), p. 147.
19. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 763.
20. Towns, pp. 150–151.
21. Ibid., pp. 148–151.
22. “Tape Reveals JFK’s Frustration with Civil Rights Progress,” John F. Kennedy Library Newsletter, March 6, 2005, <http://www.cs.umb.edu/~rwhealan/jfk/newsletter_winter-spring2005_05.html> (October 14, 2006).
23. Victor Navasky, Kennedy Justice (New York: Atheneum, 1971), p. 177.
24. Foster Hailey, “Birmingham Talks Pushed; Negroes March Peacefully,” The New York Times, May 6, 1963, p. 59.
25. Foster Hailey, “U.S. Seeking a Truce in Birmingham; Hoses Again Drive Off Demonstrators,” The New York Times, May 5, 1963, p. 82.
26. Lee E. Bains, Jr., “Birmingham, 1963: Confrontation over Civil Rights,” in David J Garrow, Jr., ed., Birmingham Alabama, 1956–1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights (Brooklyn, New York: Carson Publishing, Inc., 1989), p. 271.
27. McWhorter, p. 378.
28. Hampton and Fayer, pp. 134–135.
29. Foster Hailey, “U.S. Seeking Truce in Birmingham; Hoses Again Drive off Demonstrators,” The New York Times, May 5, 1963, p. 2.
30. McWhorter, p. 386.
31. Foster Hailey, “Birmingham Talks Pushed; Negroes March Peacefully,” The New York Times, May 6, 1963, p. 1.
32. Levine, p. 88.
33. McWhorter, p. 387.
34. Ibid.
CHAPTER 7: The Children March On
1. “Birmingham, Alabama, 1963: Mass Meeting,” Folkways Record 5487, recording of May 6, 1963 mass meeting.
2. Claude Sitton “Birmingham Jails 1,000 More Negroes,” The New York Times, May 7, 1963, p. 33.
3. Ibid.
4. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 390.
5. Sitton, p. 33.
6. Dick Gregory, Nigger: An Autobiography (New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, Inc., 1964), p. 178.
7. Sitton, p. 33.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid., p. 1.
12. Ibid.
13. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 771.
14. Sitton, p. 33.
15. “Birmingham, Alabama, 1963: Mass Meeting.”
16. Ibid.
17. Andrew Young, An Easy Burden: The Civil Rights Movement and the Transformation of America (New York: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 242.
18. Claude Sitton “Rioting Negroes Routed by Police at Birmingham,” The New York Times, May 8, 1963, p. 28.
19. “The 1963 Inaugural Address of George C. Wallace,” Alabama Department of Archives and History, April 12, 2002, <http://www.archives.state.al.us/govs_list/inauguralspeech.html> (October 21, 2006).
20. Sitton, “Rioting Negroes Routed by Police at Birmingham,” p. 28.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid., p. 1.
23. Ibid.
24. McWhorter, p. 397.
25. Len Holt, “Eyewitness: The Police Terror at Birmingham,” in Reporting Civil Rights, Part One: American Journalism 1941–1963 (New York: The Library of America, 2003), p. 798.
26. Branch, 776.
27. Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can’t Wait (New York: Signet Books, 2000), pp. 93–94.
28. Sitton, “Rioting Negroes Routed by Police at Birmingham,” p. 1.
29. Holt, p. 799.
30. McWhorter, p. 404.
31. Sitton “Rioting Negroes Routed by Police at Birmingham,” p. 28.
32. Fred L. Shuttlesworth, “Birmingham Revisited: Minister Returns to City to View Decade of Change,” Ebony, August 1971, p. 118.
33. Ibid.
34. Sitton, “Rioting Negroes Routed by Police at Birmingham,” p. 28.
CHAPTER 8: A Settlement Is Reached
1. “Negro Leaders’ Statement on Birmingham Accord,” The New York Times, May 11, 1963, p. 8.
2. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 398.
3. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 780.
4. John D. Pomfret, “President Voices Birmingham Hope,” The New York Times, May 8, 1963, p. 1.
5. Claude Sitton “Peace Talks Gain at Birmingham in a Day of Truce,” The New York Times, May 9, 1963, p. 17.
6. David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: Quill, 1986), pp. 256–257.
7. Howell Raines, My Soul is Rested: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), p. 159.
8. Branch, p. 782.
9. “News Conference 55,” John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum, May 8, 1963, <http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Press+Conferences/003POF05Pressconference55_05081963.htm> (October 21, 2006).
10. “Gov. Wallace’s Statement,” The New York Times, May 9, 1963, p. 17.
11. McWhorter, p. 421.
12. Claude Sitton “Birmingham Talks Reach an Accord on Ending Crisis,” The New York Times, May 10, 1963, p. 14.
13. “Negro Leaders’ Statements on Birmingham Accord,” The New York Times, May 11, 1963, p. 8.
14. Glenn T. Eskew, “The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights,” in David J. Garrow, Jr., ed., Birmingham Alabama, 1956–1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights (Brooklyn, New York: Carson Publishing, Inc., 1989), p. 89.
15. Claude Sitton, “Birmingham Pact Sets Timetable for Integration,” The New York Times, May 11, 1963, p. 8.
16. “Dr. King’s Statement,” The New York Times, May 11, 1963, p. 8.
17. Ibid.
18. Andrew M. Manis, A Fire You Can’t Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham’s Fred Shuttlesworth (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: The University of Alabama Press, 1999), p. 388.
19. Michael Dorman, We Shall Overcome: A Reporter’s Eyewitness Account of the Year of Racial Strife and Triumph (New York: Dial Press, 1964), p. 165.
20. Eskew, p. 295.
21. Claude Sitton, “Birmingham Pact Sets Timetable for Integration,” p. 8.
22. Dorman, p. 166.
CHAPTER 9: Violence and More Violence
1. “Kennedy Statement,” The New York Times, May 13, 1963, p. 25.
2. “Freedom Now! Birmingham, Alabama, 1963,” Pacifica Radio Archive, March 24, 2005, <http://www.crmvet.org/info/bham63.htm> (October 21, 2006).
3. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 792.
4. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 425.
5. Branch, p. 793.
6. Ibid.
7. “Freedom Now! Birmingham, Alabama, 1963.”
8. “Explosion in Alabama,” Newsweek, May 20, 1963, p. 26.
9. Claude Sitton, “50 Hurt in Negro Rioting After Birmingham Blasts,” The New York Times, May 13, 1963, p. 24.
10. McWhorter, p. 429.
11. Sitton, p. 24.
12. “Freedom Now! Birmingham, Alabama, 1963.”
13. Sitton, p. 24.
14. Howell Raines, My Soul is Rested: The Story of the Civil Rights Movement in the Deep South (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977), p. 177.
15. Sitton, p. 24.
16. Branch, p. 295.
17. Ibid., p. 24.
18. Branch, p. 794.
19. Ibid., p. 795.
20. “Explosion in Alabama,” p. 26.
21. “Chief Alabama Trooper: Albert Jennings Lingo,” The New York Times, May 13, 1963, p. 25.
22. Sitton, p. 24.
23. “Explosion in Alabama,” p. 26.
24. Jonathan Rosenberg and Zachary Karabell, Kennedy, Johnson, and the Quest for Justice: The Civil Rights Tapes (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2003), p. 101.
25. “Kennedy Statement,” p. 25.
26. McWhorter, p. 440.
27. Sitton, p. 24.
28. “Telegram from Governor George Wallace of Alabama to President Kennedy,” American Experience, 2002–2003, <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/presidents/35_kennedy/psources/ps_wallgram.html> (October 21, 2006).
29. “Statement by Wallace and Boutwell,” The New York Times, May 13, 1963, p. 24.
30. Michael Dorman, We Shall Overcome: A Reporter’s Eyewitness Account of the Year of Racial Strife and Triumph (New York: Dial Press, 1964), p. 175.
31. “Freedom Now! Birmingham, Alabama, 1963.”
32. Dorman, p. 205.
33. Ibid.
34. Branch, p. 801.
35. Ibid., pp. 801–802.
CHAPTER 10: “Don’t Try to Stop Us”
1. Michael Dorman, We Shall Overcome: A Reporter’s Eyewitness Account of the Year of Racial Strife and Triumph (New York: Dial Press, 1964), p. 213.
2. Dorman, p. 212.
3. Ibid., p. 213.
4. Cliff MacKay, “Police Dogs in Ala. Spur N.C. Unrest,” in Reporting Civil Rights, Part One: American Journalism 1941–1963 (New York: The Library of America, 2003), p. 820.
5. The Associated Press, “Greensboro Protests Go On; Mass Arrests are Resumed,” The New York Times, June 7, 1963, p. 14.
6. Ibid.
7. The Associated Press, “400 Demonstrate in Savannah, GA,” The New York Times, June 19, 1963, p. 22.
8. The Associated Press, “261 Held as Savannah Negroes March on Police Headquarters,” The New York Times, June 20, 1963, p. 19.
9. R. Hart Phillips, “Tear Gas Routs Florida Negroes,” The New York Times, May 31, 1963, p. 1.
10. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), p. 864.
11. Ibid., p. 825.
12. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama: The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Touchstone, 2001), p. 447.
13. “Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights,” June 11, 1963, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum, n.d. <http://www.jfklibrary.org/Historical+Resources/Archives/Reference+Desk/Speeches/JFK/003POF03CivilRights06111963.htm> (October 21, 2006).
14. Glenn T. Eskew, But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 317.
15. Harvard Sitkoff, The Struggle for Black Equality (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), p. 149.
16. “‘I Have a Dream’ Address Delivered at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom,” The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute, July 7, 2001, <http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/publications/speeches/address_at_march_on_washington.pdf> (October 21, 2006).
17. E. W. Kenworthy, “200,000 March for Civil Rights in Orderly Washington Rally; President Sees Gain for Negroes,” The New York Times, August 29, 1963, p. 16.
18. Herb Boyd, We Shall Overcome (Naperville, Illinois: Sourcebooks, Inc, 2004), p.162.
19. Ibid.
20. Claude Sitton, “Birmingham Bomb Kills 4 Negro Girls in Church; Riots Flare; 2 Boys Slain,” Reporting Civil Rights, Part Two: American Journalism 1963–1973 (New York: The Library of America, 2003), pp. 21–22.
21. Martin Luther King, Jr., “Eulogy for the Young Victims of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church Bombing,” September 18, 1963, The Martin Luther King, Jr., Papers Project, <http://www.stanford.edu/group/king/speeches/pub/Eulogy_For_the_martyred_children.html> (October 2007).
22. Charles and Barbara Whalen, The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act (Washington, D.C.: Seven Locks Press, 1985), p. 79.
23. Eskew, p. 328.
24. Martin Luther King, Jr., “Letter From Birmingham Jail,” The King Center <http://www.thekingcenter.org/prog/non/Letter.pdf> (June 2007).
25. “Birmingham, Alabama, 1963: Mass Meeting,” Folkways Record 5487, recording of May 6, 1963, mass meeting.