REFERENCES

PROLOGUE

    1  Quoted in David Anthony Bello, Opium and the Limits of Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2005), p. 155, full text pp. 313–15.

    2  Ibid., p. 121; Jonathan Spence, ‘Opium Smoking in Ch’ing China’, in Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China, ed. Frederic Wakeman and Carolyn Grant (Berkeley, CA, 1975), p. 158; Wang Hongbin, Jindu shijan (Beijing, 1997), p. 43.

    3  Bello, Opium, p. 117. The timing of certain anti-opium provisions on trafficking and, by extension, imports, is disputed. Wang attributes key measures to the late 1790s, while Bello believes the Qing court only launched its campaign in 1813. What is not disputed is that possession became criminalized in 1813. See Wang, Jindu shijan, pp. 34–6; and Bello, Opium, pp. 307–8.

    4  Based on Wang’s imports for 1812–14 divided by average use based on Imperial Customs data. Wang, Jindu shijan, pp. 53–4; China Imperial Maritime Customs Reports on Opium (Shanghai, 1864–1909), vol. IV, pp. 60–63. For the method, which for reasons of comparability excludes dross, see Appendix I.

    5  The earliest available English estimates are for 1827–30. For these numbers, see Virginia Berridge, Opium and the People, 2nd edn (London, 1999), p. 274.

    6  ‘President Launches Drive on Narcotics’, New York Times, 28 November 1954, quoted in Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History, ed. Steven Belenko (Westport, CT, 2000), p. 197. For a critique of American-centric views, see James Windle, ‘How the East Influenced Drug Prohibition’, International History Review, 35 (2013), pp. 1185–99.

    7  UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2019, vol. I, p. 29.

    8  Ibid., p. 7.

    9  Including Ecstasy: ibid., pp. 29–30.

  10  Ibid. (2017), vol. IV, p. 16.

  11  Ronald Renard, ‘The Making of a Problem: Narcotics in Mainland Southeast Asia’, in Development or Domestication? Indigenous Peoples of Southeast Asia, ed. Don McCaskill and Ken Kampe (Chiang Mai, 1997), p. 310; Windle, ‘How the East Influenced Drug Prohibition’, p. 1189.

  12  Renard, ‘Narcotics in Mainland Southeast Asia’, pp. 309–10.

  13  Patrick Jory, ‘The Vesantara Jataka, Barami, and the Bodhisatta-Kings: The Origin and Spread of a Thai Concept of Power’, Crossroads, 16 (2002), pp. 36–78.

  14  Windle, ‘How the East Influenced Drug Prohibition’, p. 1190.

  15  The source, perhaps not altogether reliable, is a Dutch East India Company report dated 1671: Hans Derks, History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, ca. 1600–1950 (Leiden, 2012), p. 214.

  16  James Rush, Opium to Java: Revenue Farming and Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Indonesia, 1860–1910 (London, 1990), pp. 4–5.

  17  Rudolph Matthee, The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900 (Princeton, NJ, 2005), pp. 114–16 and 207.

  18  Joseph Gagliano, Coca Prohibition in Peru (Tucson, AZ, 1994), pp. 25–8 and 37–45.

  19  Ibid., pp. 48–75.

  20  Stephen Platt, Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China’s Last Golden Age (London, 2018), pp. 210–11.

  21  Bello, Opium, pp. 116–18.

  22  Fu Lo-shu, A Documentary Chronicle of Sino-Western Relations (1644–1820), 2 vols (Tucson, AZ, 1966), vol. I, pp. 162–3.

  23  Bello, Opium, p. 120.

  24  Fu, A Documentary Chronicle, p. 380; Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 211.

1 FORBIDDEN CITIES

    1  Rudolph Matthee, The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900 (Princeton, NJ, 2005), p. 97.

    2  David Anthony Bello, Opium and the Limits of Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2005), p. 142; Zheng Yangwen, The Social Life of Opium in China (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 11–12.

    3  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, p. 26; Frank Dikötter, Lars Laamann and Zhou Xun, Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China (London, 2004), pp. 25–6.

    4  Dikötter et al., Narcotic Culture, pp. 32–3.

    5  Ibid., pp. 58–9.

    6  Ibid., pp. 60–61.

    7  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, pp. 72–7.

    8  Ibid., pp. 49–52.

    9  Dikötter et al., Narcotic Culture, pp. 58–60.

  10  Ibid., p. 36.

  11  Wang Hongbin, Jindu shijan (Beijing, 1997), pp. 53–4.

  12  Bello, Opium, pp. 124–5 and 177–80.

  13  The existence of a Mughal monopoly seems to have been disproved: Emdad-ul Haq, Drugs in South Asia: From the Opium Trade to the Present Day (Basingstoke, 2000), pp. 15–19.

  14  David Edward Owen, British Opium Policy in China and India (London, 1934), pp. 22–7 and 44–5.

  15  Haq, Drugs in South Asia, p. 22; Peter Ward Fay, The Opium War, 1840–1842 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1975), pp. 12–13.

  16  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 13–14; Carl Trocki, Opium, Empire, and the Global Political Economy (London, 1999), p. 70; Brian Inglis, The Opium War, 2nd edn (London, 1979), p. 92.

  17  Owen, British Opium Policy, pp. 61–2; Inglis, The Opium War, p. 71; Fay, The Opium War, p. 47; Stephen Platt, Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China’s Last Golden Age (London, 2018), pp. xvii–xxi.

  18  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 49–54.

  19  Owen, British Opium Policy, p. 74.

  20  Inglis, The Opium War, pp. 68–70.

  21  Chang Hsin-pao, Commissioner Lin and the Opium War (Cambridge, MA, 1964), p. 21.

  22  Fay, The Opium War, p. 49; Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 216–17.

  23  Jonathan Spence, ‘Opium Smoking in Ch’ing China’, in Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China, ed. Frederic Wakeman and Carolyn Grant (Berkeley, CA, 1975), p. 166.

  24  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 201–2.

  25  Melissa Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks: Opium, Migrants, and the War on Drugs in China, 1819–1860’, Late Imperial China, 30 (2009), pp. 1–47, at p. 32.

  26  Chang, Commissioner Lin, p. 33.

  27  Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks’, p. 21.

  28  Ibid., p. 20.

  29  Ibid., p. 36.

  30  Ibid., pp. 1–2.

  31  Wang, Jindu shijan, pp. 53–4; Michael Greenberg, British Trade and the Opening of China, 1800–42 (Cambridge, 1951), p. 221.

  32  Greenberg, British Trade, p. 221.

  33  Calculated as follows: 40,000 chests = 5.28 million lb, less 37.5 per cent for boiling, divided by 400 million people. Population reference in John Fairbank, The Cambridge History of China: Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1978), vol. I, pp. 108–9.

  34  Virginia Berridge, Opium and the People, 2nd edn (London, 1999), p. 274.

  35  Bello, Opium, pp. 122–3.

  36  For dollar values at the time, from which prices are derived, see Chang, Commissioner Lin, p. 223. Prices presented here are an average between Bengal and Malwa. They are expressed in Spanish silver dollars, about equal to a U.S. dollar at the time. One tael was worth approximately 1.3 silver dollars.

  37  Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks’, p. 19.

  38  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, pp. 67–70.

  39  Fairbank, Cambridge History of China, vol. I, pp. 108–9.

  40  Ibid., p. 12; Julia Lovell, The Opium War (London, 2011), p. 42.

  41  Philippe Le Failler, Monopole et prohibition de l’opium en Indochine: le pilori des chimères (Paris, 2000), p. 13; Chantal Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation en Indochine (Paris, 1992), pp. 31–3.

  42  Richard Newman, ‘Early British Encounters with the Indian Opium Eater’, in Drugs and Empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication, 1500–1930, ed. Patricia Barton and James Mills (Basingstoke, 2007), pp. 67–9.

  43  Data derived from Chang, Commissioner Lin, p. 223.

  44  Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 211, whose source is Da Qing Renzong Rui (Jiaqing) huangdi shilu, juan 270, p. 12a. I am indebted to Professor Wang Li of Jilin University for the translation of this preamble.

  45  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, pp. 56–7; Jiang Qiuming and Zhu Qingbao, Zhongguo jidu licheng (Tianjin, 1996), p. 20.

  46  Charles Gutzlaff, Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China in 1831, 1832, and 1833 (London, 1834), p. 113.

  47  Bello, Opium, p. 159.

  48  Dikötter, Narcotic Culture, pp. 105–6.

  49  Gutzlaff, Journal of Three Voyages, pp. 127–9; Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 334.

  50  Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 211.

  51  Fairbank, Cambridge History of China, vol. I, pp. 13–21; R. Bin Wong, ‘Opium and Modern Chinese State-Making’, in Opium Regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952, ed. Timothy Brook and Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (Berkeley, CA, 2000), p. 191.

  52  Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks’, pp. 10–16.

  53  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 205–8.

  54  Fairbank, Cambridge History of China, vol. I, p. 21.

  55  Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks’, pp. 12–14.

  56  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 215–16.

  57  Ibid.; Bello, Opium, pp. 124–5.

  58  Bello, Opium, pp. 125–7.

  59  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 293–4.

  60  James Polachek, The Inner Opium War (Cambridge, MA, 1992), pp. 103–5.

  61  ‘Memorial on Legalizing Opium, June 10, 1836’, in The Search for Modern China: A Documentary Collection, ed. Jonathan Spence (New York, 1999), pp. 111–14.

  62  ‘Memorial on Banning Opium, October 1836’, ibid., pp. 114–19.

  63  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 311 and 334.

  64  Bello, Opium, pp. 135–6; ‘Annexed Laws on Banning Opium, July 1839’, in Documentary Collection, ed. Spence, pp. 120–21.

  65  Wang, Jindu shijan, pp. 101–6; Bello, Opium, p. 137.

  66  Inglis, The Opium War, pp. 75–80; Owen, British Opium Policy, pp. 83–9.

  67  Greenberg, British Trade, pp. 220–21.

  68  Ibid.

  69  Chang, Commissioner Lin, pp. 22–3; Inglis, The Opium War, pp. 66–82.

  70  Owen, British Opium Policy, pp. 114–15; Jesse Palsetia, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy of Bombay (New Delhi, 2015), pp. 32–6; Anonymous, The Rupture with China and Its Causes (London, 1840), p. 8.

  71  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 131–2.

  72  Ibid., p. 62.

  73  Ibid., pp. 32–7.

  74  Ibid., pp. 132–5.

  75  Greenberg, British Trade, p. 30.

  76  Fay, The Opium War, p. 120.

  77  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 258–63.

  78  Fay, The Opium War, p. 61; Janin Hunt, The India–China Opium Trade in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1999), pp. 92–4.

  79  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 44–5.

  80  Alain Le Pichon, China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827–1843 (Oxford, 2006), p. 35.

  81  H.C.G. Matthew, ed., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 60 vols (Oxford, 2004), vol. XV, p. 841.

  82  Palsetia, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, pp. 12–22.

  83  Fay, The Opium War, p. 138.

  84  Anonymous, The Rupture with China, p. 59.

  85  Ibid., pp. 20–31.

  86  Ibid., pp. 34–5.

  87  James Matheson, The Present Position and Prospects of the British Trade with China (London, 1836), p. 1.

  88  Ibid., pp. 3 and 33–8.

  89  Palsetia, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, p. 41.

  90  Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 238.

  91  Ibid., pp. 297–304.

  92  H. Hamilton Lindsay, Letter to the Right Honourable Viscount Palmerston on British Relations with China (London, 1836), pp. 12–13.

  93  Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 318.

  94  Ibid., p. 421.

  95  Chang, Commissioner Lin, pp. 121–6.

  96  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 336–8.

  97  Chang, Commissioner Lin, p. 104.

  98  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 118–20.

  99  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 323–4.

100  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 124–5.

101  Bello, Opium, pp. 177–80 and 211–12.

102  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 129–31.

103  Ibid., pp. 135–6.

104  Ibid., pp. 140–41.

105  Ibid., p. 172; Lovell, Opium War, p. 59.

106  Fay, The Opium War, p. 144; Lovell, Opium War, pp. 59–60. Lin’s order may be found in Jehu Lewis Shuck, Portfolio Chinensis (Macao, 1840), pp. 84–99.

107  Fay, The Opium War, p. 145.

108  Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 351.

109  James Matheson to William Jardine, 1 May 1839, in Le Pichon, Jardine, Matheson, pp. 358–68.

110  Data drawn from Fay, The Opium War, p. 375; and Parliamentary Papers: Papers Relative to the Opium Trade in China, 1842–1856 (London, 1857), p. 50.

111  ‘Chinese Letter to the Queen of England’, The Times, 19 November 1839, p. 6.

112  Canton Press, 16 November 1839, p. 2.

113  Matthew, ed., National Biography, vol. XV, p. 841.

114  Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 7 and 351–2.

115  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 146–7.

116  Ibid., pp. 147–50.

117  Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 355.

118  Ibid., pp. 355–6.

119  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 153–66.

120  Ibid., pp. 158–76.

121  Ibid., p. 161.

122  Lovell, Opium War, pp. 69–70.

2 OPIUM WARS

    1  Peter Ward Fay, The Opium War, 1840–1842 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1975), pp. 207–8 and 261–4.

    2  Ibid., p. 345; Julia Lovell, The Opium War (London, 2011), pp. 111–15.

    3  Lovell, Opium War, pp. 130–33.

    4  As Lovell points out, the notion originated in the 1836 legalization debate: ibid., pp. 51–2.

    5  Fay, The Opium War, pp. 194–5; or Stephen Platt, Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China’s Last Golden Age (London, 2018), p. 371.

    6  Quoted in Platt, Imperial Twilight, p. 411.

    7  Roundell Palmer, Statement of Claims of the British Subjects Interested in Opium (London, 1840), p. 3.

    8  See www.ukpublicspending.co.uk/uk_year1840_0.html, last accessed on 1 November 2018.

    9  In the 1830s: Parliamentary Papers, Papers Relative to the Opium Trade in China, 1842–1856 (London, 1857), p. 50.

  10  Brian Inglis, The Opium War, 2nd edn (London, 1979), p. 223.

  11  Lovell, Opium War, pp. 109–11. The account that follows is chiefly derived from Lovell’s book.

  12  Fay, The Opium War, p. 341.

  13  Granville Loch, Closing Events of the Campaign in China (London, 1843), p. 113.

  14  Ibid., p. 107.

  15  Ibid., pp. 108–10.

  16  Fay, The Opium War, p. 362.

  17  Loch, Closing Events, pp. 170–71.

  18  Ibid., pp. 173–4.

  19  David Anthony Bello, Opium and the Limits of Empire (Cambridge, MA, 2005), pp. 138–40.

  20  Melissa Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks: Opium, Migrants, and the War on Drugs in China, 1819–1860’, Late Imperial China, 30 (2009), pp. 37–9.

  21  Bello, Opium, p. 163.

  22  Fay, The Opium War, p. 368.

  23  Ibid., p. 370; Platt, Imperial Twilight, pp. 412–13; Jesse Palsetia, Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy of Bombay (New Delhi, 2015), pp. 107–34.

  24  The Record, 30 July 1840, p. 4.

  25  Morning Herald, 1 January 1840, p. 4, and 7 April 1840, p. 4; ‘The Opium War’, Northern Star, 15 February 1840, p. 4.

  26  Quoted for example in T. H. Bullock, The Chinese Vindicated (London, 1840), pp. 94–5; for the war’s reception, see more broadly P. E. Caquet, ‘Notions of Addiction in the Time of the First Opium War’, Historical Journal, 58 (2015), pp. 1009–29.

  27  Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates (London, 1803–), Third Series, vol. LIII, House of Commons, 9 April 1840, c. 950.

  28  Ibid., vol. LIV, House of Lords, 12 May 1840, cc. 34–43.

  29  James Matheson to William Jardine, 1 May 1839, in Alain Le Pichon, China Trade and Empire: Jardine, Matheson & Co. and the Origins of British Rule in Hong Kong, 1827–1843 (Oxford, 2006), p. 369.

  30  H. Hamilton Lindsay, Is the War with China a Just One? (London, 1840); Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Third Series, vol. LXVIII, House of Commons, 4 April 1843, cc. 453–7.

  31  The Rupture with China and Its Causes (London, 1840), pp. 3–4; a key tract written to order was Samuel Warren, The Opium Question (London, 1840).

  32  A. S. Thelwall, The Iniquities of the Opium Trade with China (London, 1839), pp. 9–10.

  33  The Record, 2 March 1840, p. 4.

  34  ‘Iniquities of the Opium Trade with China’, The Times, 15 August 1839, p. 6.

  35  Morning Chronicle, 27 March 1840, p. 4.

  36  Hosea Ballou Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 3 vols (London, 1910–18), vol. I, p. 556.

  37  David Edward Owen, British Opium Policy in China and India (London, 1934), p. 211.

  38  J. Y. Wong, Deadly Dreams: Opium, Imperialism and the Arrow War (Cambridge, 1998), pp. 262–7.

  39  For the incident: ibid., pp. 43–79; and Jack Beeching, The Chinese Opium Wars (London, 1975), pp. 213–18.

  40  Wong, Deadly Dreams, pp. 157–73 and 223–40; Lovell, Opium War, pp. 253–5.

  41  Account taken from Beeching, Chinese Opium Wars, pp. 248–93; and Lovell, Opium War, pp. 258–62.

  42  Beeching, Chinese Opium Wars, pp. 296–327.

  43  Ibid., pp. 263–4; Wong, Deadly Dreams, pp. 413–15.

  44  Beeching, Chinese Opium Wars, pp. 181–93; Morse, International Relations of the Chinese Empire, vol. II, p. 111.

  45  Owen, British Opium Policy, pp. 221–2.

  46  Ibid., pp. 222–3.

  47  John Fairbank, The Cambridge History of China: Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1978), vol. I, pp. 285–309.

  48  Owen, British Opium Policy, pp. 242–73.

  49  ‘Memorandum on Opium from China’, International Opium Commission, Report of the International Opium Commission, Shanghai China, February 1 to February 26 1909 (Shanghai, 1909), p. 53.

  50  Bello, Opium, p. 294.

  51  Jiang Qiuming and Zhu Qingbao, Zhongguo jidu licheng (Tianjin, 1996), p. 84.

  52  Jonathan Spence, ‘Opium Smoking in Ch’ing China’, in Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China, ed. Frederic Wakeman and Carolyn Grant (Berkeley, CA, 1975), p. 161.

  53  Wang Hongbin, Jindu shijan (Beijing, 1997), pp. 225–6.

  54  Bello, Opium, pp. 222–3.

  55  The customs inspector general estimated them to be about equal in 1881: China Imperial Maritime Customs Reports on Opium (Shanghai, 1864–1909), vol. IV, pp. 1–4.

  56  ‘Memorandum on Opium from China’, International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 48–57.

  57  Zheng Yangwen, The Social Life of Opium in China (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 114–17.

  58  Ibid., p. 148.

  59  Ibid., pp. 156–7.

  60  Frank Dikötter, Lars Laamann and Zhou Xun, Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China (London, 2004), pp. 64–5.

  61  Ibid., pp. 62–3.

  62  R. K. Newman, ‘Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China: A Reconsideration’, Modern Asian Studies, 29 (1995), pp. 765–94, at pp. 777–8.

  63  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, p. 125.

  64  Justus Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, 2 vols, 2nd edn (New York, 1876), vol. II, p. 355.

  65  Final Report of the Royal Commission on Opium, 6 vols (London, 1893–5), vol. I, p. 42.

  66  See for example Elizabeth Chang, British Travel Writing from China, 1798–1901, 4 vols (London, 2010), vols III and IV.

  67  Newman, ‘Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China’, p. 777; Dikötter, Narcotic Culture, pp. 61–2.

  68  William Hector Park, ed., Opinions of over 100 Physicians on the Use of Opium in China (Shanghai, 1899), pp. 30–31.

  69  Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, pp. 351–2.

  70  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, p. 193.

  71  Dikötter, Narcotic Culture, p. 120.

  72  Kathleen Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874–1917 (Lexington, KY, 1996), p. 135.

  73  Ibid., p. 136.

  74  Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks’, p. 17.

  75  Newman, ‘Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China’, p. 781.

  76  Park, Opinions of over 100 Physicians, pp. 30–31.

  77  Alexander Des Forges, ‘Opium/Leisure/Shanghai’, in Opium Regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952, ed. Timothy Brook and Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (Berkeley, CA, 2000), pp. 176–9.

  78  An early example of this approach, also followed by Newman, is Frederick Storrs Turner, British Opium Policy and Its Results to India and China (London, 1876), pp. 248–53.

  79  ‘Memorandum on Opium from China’, International Opium Commission, Report, p. 57.

  80  China Imperial Maritime Customs, pp. 60–63.

  81  UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2017, vol. II, p. 32.

  82  Ibid., vol. I, p. 9.

  83  Lovell makes this very point in her book: Lovell, Opium War, pp. 333–60. For a balanced assessment of perhaps overenthusiastic attempts at rehabilitation, see Macauley, ‘Small Time Crooks’, p. 17.

  84  National Institute on Drug Abuse Online Database, Number of National Drug Overdose Deaths Involving Select Prescription and Illicit Drugs, 1999–2018, www.drugabuse.gov, accessed on 22 May 2020.

  85  Final Report of the Royal Commission, vol. I, pp. 109–10.

  86  Ibid.

  87  Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium, pp. 130–32.

  88  Final Report of the Royal Commission, vol. I, p. 41, italics in original.

  89  Hans Derks, History of the Opium Problem: The Assault on the East, CA. 1600–1950 (Leiden, 2012), pp. 164–70 and 213–37; George Bryan Souza, ‘Opium and Tobacco in the Indonesian Archipelago, 1619–1794’, in Drugs and Empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication, 1500–1930, ed. Patricia Barton and James Mills (Basingstoke, 2007), pp. 42–6.

  90  James Rush, Opium to Java: Revenue Farming and Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Indonesia, 1860–1910 (London, 1990), pp. 30–31.

  91  Ibid., pp. 24–5.

  92  Ibid., p. 58.

  93  Richard Newman, ‘Early British Encounters with the Indian Opium Eater’, in Drugs and Empires, ed. Barton and Mills, pp. 62–7.

  94  Ibid., p. 66; Final Report of the Royal Commission, vol. VI, pp. 7–8; John Richards, ‘The Moral Economy of Opium in Colonial India’, in Drugs and Empires, ed. Barton and Mills, p. 78.

  95  Use of Opium and Traffic Therein: Message from the President of the United States (Washington, DC, 1906), pp. 35–7; Cheng U. Wen, ‘Opium in the Straits Settlements, 1867–1910’, Journal of Southeast Asian History, 2 (1961), pp. 52–75, at p. 52.

  96  Ashley Wright, Opium and Empire in Southeast Asia: Regulating Consumption in British Burma (Basingstoke, 2014), pp. 23–33 and 45–9.

  97  Chantal Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation en Indochine (Paris, 1992), pp. 20–21.

  98  ‘Statement by the Siamese delegates to the International Opium Commission’, International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 329–30.

  99  Rush, Opium to Java, pp. 83–5.

100  Alexander Barton Woodside, Vietnam and the Chinese Model (Cambridge, MA, 1971), pp. 269–70.

101  Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation, pp. 42–52.

102  Ibid., p. 23.

103  Philippe Le Failler, Monopole et prohibition de l’opium en Indochine: le pilori des chimères (Paris, 2000), p. 66.

104  Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation, pp. 91–7.

105  Ibid., pp. 145–8 and 197.

106  Rush, Opium to Java, pp. 213–22.

107  Wright, Opium and Empire, pp. 97–8.

108  ‘Statement by the Siamese Delegates’, International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 329–30.

109  ‘Regulations and Restrictions Regarding Opium in Great Britain and Its Possession’, ibid., pp. 162–7.

110  Cheng, ‘Opium in the Straits Settlements’, p. 74; Proceedings of the Committee to Inquire into Matters Relating to the Use of Opium in British Malaya (Singapore, 1924), pp. 22–3.

111  Calculations based on International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 162–7, 193, 300 and 330; Wright, Opium and Empire, p. 98; and Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation, pp. 210–11.

112  Final Report of the Royal Commission, vol. II, pp. 87.

113  Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation, pp. 38–9.

114  Rush, Opium to Java, pp. 140–43.

115  Ibid., pp. 166–7.

116  Ibid., pp. 199–208.

117  Wright, Opium and Empire, pp. 37–9.

118  Ibid., pp. 49 and 59–60.

119  Cheng, ‘Opium in the Straits Settlements’, pp. 61–74.

120  Wright, Opium and Empire, pp. 110–11; Emdad-ul Haq, Drugs in South Asia: From the Opium Trade to the Present Day (Basingstoke, 2000), p. 56.

121  ‘Statement by the Siamese Delegates’, International Opium Commission, Report, p. 330.

122  Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, ‘From Peril to Profit: Opium in Late-Edo to Meiji Eyes’, in Opium Regimes, ed. Brook and Wakabayashi, pp. 58–64.

123  Ibid., pp. 66–7; ‘Control of Opium in Japan’, International Opium Commission, Report, p. 250.

124  ‘Control of Opium in Japan’, International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 250–52; Miriam Kingsberg, Moral Nation: Modern Japan and Narcotics in Global History (Berkeley, CA, 2014), p. 11; Use of Opium and Traffic Therein, p. 220.

125  Use of Opium and Traffic Therein, pp. 24–5; Kingsberg, Moral Nation, pp. 20–21.

126  Kingsberg, Moral Nation, pp. 21–2.

127  Ibid., pp, 22–3.

128  Ibid., pp. 23–4.

129  ‘Control of Opium in Japan’, International Opium Commission, Report, p. 278.

130  Ibid., p. 275.

131  Kingsberg, Moral Nation, pp. 26–7.

132  ‘Control of Opium in Japan’, International Opium Commission, Report, p. 280.

133  Alma Bamero, ‘Opium: The Evolution of Policies, the Tolerance of the Vice, and the Proliferation of Contraband Trade in the Philippines, 1843–1908’, Social Science Dilman, 3 (2006), pp. 49–83, at p. 59.

134  Kingsberg, Moral Nation, p. 27.

3 PARADISE LOST?

    1  Théophile Gautier, ‘Club des hachichins’, La Revue des deux mondes, 1 February 1846, pp. 520–35. What follows is taken from this fictionalized account.

    2  Arnould de Liedekerke, ed., La Belle époque de l’opium, 2nd edn (Paris, 2001), pp. 62–5.

    3  James Mills, Cannabis Britannica: Empire, Trade, and Prohibition, 1800–1928 (Oxford, 2003), p. 19.

    4  Ibid., pp. x–xi and 52–5.

    5  Ibid., pp. 25–30.

    6  Howard Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History, 1800–1980 (Syracuse, NY, 1981), p. 20.

    7  Mills, Cannabis Britannica, p. 33.

    8  Ibid., pp. 43–6.

    9  Description de l’Egypte, 23 vols (Paris, 1809–28), vol. V, p. 220.

  10  Ibid., p. 226.

  11  Ibid., p. 220.

  12  Gautier, ‘Club des hachichins’, pp. 523–4; Alethea Hayter, Opium and the Romantic Imagination (London, 1968), p. 21.

  13  Jean-Jacques Yvorel, Les Poisons de l’esprit (Paris, 1992), p. 10.

  14  Morgan, Drugs in America, pp. 3–4; Virginia Berridge, Opium and the People, 2nd edn (London, 1999), p. 66.

  15  Virginia Berridge, Demons: Our Changing Attitudes to Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drugs (Oxford, 2013), pp. 15–16.

  16  Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 38–48.

  17  William Howitt, ‘Nooks of the World – a Visit to the Whitworth Doctors’, Tait’s Edinburgh Magazine (April 1839), p. 239.

  18  Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 4 and 11–17; Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), p. 4.

  19  Quoted in Samuel Crumpe, An Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium (London, 1793), pp. 52–3.

  20  Thomas De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, 2nd edn (London, 1856), pp. 267–8.

  21  ‘Confessions of an English Opium-Eater’, Lady’s Monthly Museum (April 1823), p. 96.

  22  ‘Confessions of an English Opium-Eater’, British Review and London Critical Journal (December 1822), p. 475.

  23  ‘Confessions of an English Opium Eater’, Eclectic Review (April 1823), p. 371.

  24  Liedekerke, La Belle époque de l’opium, p. 55.

  25  Fitz Hugh Ludlow, The Hasheesh Eater (New York, 1857).

  26  Barry Milligan, Pleasures and Pains: Opium and the Orient in Nineteenth-Century British Culture (Charlottesville, VA, 1995), pp. 10–11.

  27  Charles Baudelaire, Les Paradis artificiels, opium et haschisch (Paris, 1860), p. 74.

  28  Ibid., p. 26.

  29  Heinrich Laehr, ‘Ueber Missbrauch mit Morphium-Injektionen’, Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie (1872), pp. 349–53.

  30  Ibid., pp. 351–2.

  31  Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 136–7; David Musto, Drugs in America: A Documentary History (New York, 2002), pp. 200–201.

  32  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, p. 4.

  33  Berridge, Demons, p. 111; Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 139–40.

  34  John Chardin, Travels in Persia, 1673–1677 (New York, 1988), p. 245.

  35  A. S. Thelwall, The Iniquities of the Opium Trade with China (London, 1839), pp. 4–5; ‘British Opium Trade with China’, Leeds Mercury, 7 September 1839, p. 3.

  36  ‘On the Preparation of Opium for the Chinese market’, Foreign Quarterly Review (October 1839), pp. 120 and 138.

  37  John Jones, The Mysteries of Opium Reveal’d (London, 1700), p. 32.

  38  Crumpe, An Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium, p. 217.

  39  Terry Parssinen, Secret Passions, Secret Remedies: Narcotic Drugs in British Society, 1820–1930 (Manchester, 1983), p. 85.

  40  See Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 150–69; and Louise Foxcroft, The Making of Addiction: The ‘Use and Abuse’ of Opium in Nineteenth-Century Britain (Aldershot, 2007).

  41  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 26–7; David Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, MA, 2001), pp.87–9.

  42  Johan Edman and Börje Olsson, ‘The Swedish Drug Problem: Conceptual Understanding and Problem Handling, 1839–2011’, Nordic Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 31 (2014), pp. 503–26.

  43  Virginia Berridge et al., ‘Addiction in Europe, 1860s–1960s: Concepts and Responses in Italy, Poland, Austria, and the United Kingdom’, Contemporary Drug Problems, 41 (2014), pp. 551–66.

  44  Albrecht Erlenmeyer, Die Morphiumsucht und ihre Behandlung, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1883), p. 7.

  45  Ibid., pp. 12–13.

  46  See for example ‘A Remarkable Case of Morphia Addiction’, British Medical Journal, 11 May 1889, pp. 1051–2; Robert Jones, ‘Notes on Some Cases of Morphinomania’, Journal of Mental Science (July 1902), pp. 478–95; ‘Morphine Habit Treated by Gradual Withdrawal’, Medical and Surgical Reporter, 18 April 1891, p. 446.

  47  Eduard Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia (London, 1878), pp. 6–7.

  48  R. Burkart, Die chronische Morphiumvergiftung und deren Behandlung (Bonn, 1880), p. 23.

  49  Benjamin Ball, La Morphinomanie, 2nd edn (Paris, 1888), pp. 10 and 18; Henri Guimbail, Les Morphinomanes (Paris, 1891), pp. 11–12.

  50  Ernest Chambard, Les Morphinomanes, étude clinique, médico-légale et thérapeutique (Paris, 1890), pp. ix–xi; Daniel Jouet, Etude sur le morphinisme chronique (Paris, 1883); Maurice Notta, ‘La Morphine et la morphinomanie’, Archives générales de médecine (November 1884), pp. 561–83.

  51  Erlenmeyer, Die Morphiumsucht, p. 8.

  52  Eduard Levinstein, Die Morphiumsucht (Berlin, 1877), p. 4.

  53  Norman Shanks Kerr, Inebriety or Narcomania, 3rd edn (London, 1894), pp. 5–8. See also Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 151–60.

  54  Ibid., p. 12.

  55  Ibid., pp. 41 and 117.

  56  T. D. Crothers, ‘The Disease of Inebriety and Its Treatment’, The Lancet, 19 November 1887, p. 1011.

  57  ‘Section on Nervous and Mental Diseases’, Medical News, 29 July 1905, p. 236.

  58  ‘Morphine Addiction’, Journal of the American Medical Association, 16 November 1907, p. 1708.

  59  Paul Rodet, Morphinomanie et morphinisme (Paris, 1897).

  60  ‘Aus der Gesellschaften’, Zentralblatt für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 1 September 1884, p. 403; Schröder, ‘Über Behandlung der Morphinisten’, Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, 68 (1911), pp. 276–7.

  61  Rodet, Morphinomanie et morphinisme, pp. 35–43.

  62  Ibid., pp. 201–3; Paul Garnier, ‘De l’état mental et de la responsabilité pénale dans le morphinisme chronique’, Annales médico-psychologiques (January 1886), pp. 351–78; Otto Remertz, ‘Morphinismus und Entmündigung’, Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankenheiten, 53 (1914); ‘Schmidbauer, Einfluss des Morphinismus auf die civil- und strafrechtliche Zurechnungsfähigkeit’, Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie (1887), pp. 160–61.

  63  The Times, ‘The Alleged Poisoning Case at Wimbledon’, 9 December 1881, p. 8; ‘George Henry Lamson Was Yesterday Convicted’, 15 March 1882, p. 9; ‘The Case of Dr. Lamson’, 15 April 1882, p. 13; ‘The Lamson Case’, 17 April 1882, p. 6; ‘The Plea of Insanity in the Lamson Case’, 21 April 1882, p. 4; ‘The Convict Lamson’, 28 April 1882, p. 7; and Benjamin Ball, ‘L’Empoisonneur Lamson’, L’Encéphale (1882), pp. 209–13.

  64  Quoted in ‘The Plea of Insanity in the Lamson Case’, The Times, 21 April 1882, p. 4.

  65  Ball, ‘L’Empoisonneur Lamson’, p. 213.

  66  Richard Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion: A Global History of Narcotics, 1500–2000 (London, 2001), p. 95; H. Richard Friman, ‘Germany and the Transformations of Cocaine, 1860–1920’, in Cocaine: Global Histories, ed. Paul Gootenberg (London, 1999), p. 84.

  67  Joseph Spillane, Cocaine: from Medical Marvel to Modern Menace in the United States, 1884–1920 (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 7–15.

  68  Ibid., p. 22.

  69  Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, pp. 113–17.

  70  Albrecht Erlenmeyer, ‘Über Cocainsucht’, Deutsche Medizinal-Zeitung, 7 (1886), p. 483.

  71  Michael Gossop, Living with Drugs, 6th edn (Aldershot, 2007), pp. 147–9.

  72  J. B. Mattison, ‘Cocaine Dosage and Cocaine Addiction’, The Lancet, 21 May 1887, p. 1026.

  73  ‘The Cocaine Habit’, Medical and Surgical Reporter, 31 October 1891, p. 710. See also Spillane, Cocaine, pp. 33–6.

  74  Spillane, Cocaine, pp. 41–2.

  75  Ibid., pp. 82–7.

  76  Ibid., pp. 71–3.

  77  Samuel Hopkins Adams, The Great American Fraud (Chicago, IL, 1906), p. 43.

  78  Paul Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug (Chapel Hill, NC, 2008), p. 21.

  79  William H. Hefland, ‘Mariani et le vin de coca’, Revue d’histoire de la pharmacie, 68 (1980), pp. 227–34.

  80  Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine, p. 28.

  81  Joseph Spillane, ‘The Manufacture, Sale and Control of Cocaine in the United States, 1880–1920’, in Cocaine: Global Histories, ed. Gootenberg, pp. 23–7.

  82  Friman, ‘Germany and the Transformations of Cocaine’, pp. 84–6.

  83  Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine, pp. 31–44 and 63–4.

  84  Ibid., pp. 125–8.

  85  Marcel de Kort, ‘Conflicting Interests in the Netherlands and Dutch East Indies, 1860–1950’, in Cocaine: Global Histories, ed. Gootenberg, p. 132.

  86  Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, pp. 112–13; Mark Pendergrast, For God, Country and Coca-Cola: The Definitive History of the World’s Most Popular Soft Drink (London, 2000), pp. 21–5.

  87  Pendergrast, For God, Country and Coca-Cola, pp. 41–4.

  88  Ibid., p. 87.

  89  Ibid., p. 88.

  90  Ibid., pp. 63–4 and 88.

  91  P. E. Caquet, ‘France, Germany, and the Origins of Drug Prohibition’, International History Review, 43 (2021), pp. 207–25, at p. 211.

  92  Obersteiner, ‘Der chronische Morphinismus’, Deutsche Medizinal-Zeitung (1883), pp. 288–9.

  93  Emil Bihler, ‘Ein Fall von tödlicher Opiumvergiftung’, Deutsches Archiv für klinische Medizin (1899), pp. 483–91.

  94  As suggested, for example, in Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, p. 84.

  95  Morgan, Drugs in America, pp. 29–30.

  96  Courtwright, Dark Paradise, pp. 9–28.

  97  Ibid. Using the same method and data, but with an 0.67 gram per day morphine use, or 5.6 grams opium, and a one-third discount for medical use, yields 120,000 users.

  98  Spillane, Cocaine, pp. 59–64 and 115.

  99  Ibid., pp. 91–2.

100  Parssinen, Secret Passions, pp. 71–3.

101  David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1987), pp. 21–2 and 91.

102  Spillane, Cocaine, pp. 144–5.

103  James Broh, ed., Gesetze und Verordnungen betreffend den Drogen-, Gift- und Farbenhandel (Berlin, 1899), pp. 9–10; ‘No 2676 – Loi contenant Organisation des Ecoles de pharmacie’, Bulletin des Lois de la République, iiie Série, vol. VIII (October 1803), pp. 121–9; Friedrich Ludwig Augustin, Die königlich Preußische Medicinalverfassung (Potsdam, 1818), pp. 494–6; ‘No 12,115 – Loi sur la vente des substances vénéneuses’, Bulletin des Lois du Royaume de France, ixe Série, vol. XXXI (February 1846), p. 302.

104  Broh, Gesetze und Verordnungen, pp. 39–53; Levinstein, Die Morphiumsucht, pp. 154–5.

105  Alfred Adlung, Grundriss der Geschichte der deutschen Pharmazie (Berlin, 1935), p. 86.

106  ‘France et Indochine’, International Opium Commission, Report of the International Opium Commission, Shanghai China, February 1 to February 26 1909 (Shanghai, 1909), p. 122.

107  It is always difficult to prove a negative, but neither the academic literature nor keyword searches in databases covering the main newspapers yield more than a tiny number of drug-related articles for the period.

108  Roger Dupouy, Les Opiomanes, mangeurs, buveurs, et fumeurs d’opium (Paris, 1912), pp. 287–92; Liedekerke, La Belle époque de l’opium, pp. 126–31 and 266–310.

109  Docteur Ox, ‘Si vous aimez la vie, craignez la morphine’, Le Matin, 9 July 1912, p. 1.

110  ‘Après le drame de la morphine, UN drame de la cocaïne’, Le Petit Parisien, 25 December 1912, pp. 1–2.

111  Yvorel, Les Poisons de l’esprit, pp. 217–20.

112  Paul Bonnetain, L’Opium (Paris, 1886).

113  Dupouy, Les Opiomanes, pp. ii–iii.

114  ‘Negro Cocaine Evil’, New York Times, 20 March 1905, p. 14.

115  Spillane, Cocaine, pp. 94–5; Musto, Drugs in America, pp. 360–61.

116  Musto, American Disease, p. 8.

117  ‘6,000 Opium Users Here’, New York Times, 1 August 1908, p. 6.

118  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 14–15.

119  ‘The Opium Habit in San Francisco’, Medical and Surgical Reporter, 10 December 1887, p. 684.

120  New York Times, in Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, p. 24.

121  ‘The Female Drug Drunkard: Health in the Household’, Current Literature (December 1889), p. 480.

122  ‘Women Using Narcotics’, New York Times, 10 January 1897, p. 13.

123  Yvorel, Les Poisons de l’esprit, pp. 107–8.

124  William Rosser Cobbe, Doctor Judas (Chicago, IL, 1895), pp. 12–13.

125  Ibid., p. 27.

126  Marcel Mallat de Bassilan, La Comtesse morphine (Paris, 1885), pp. 278–9.

4 SHANGHAI AND THE HAGUE

    1  Hosea Ballou Morse, The International Relations of the Chinese Empire, 3 vols (London, 1910–18), vol. III, pp. 347–59.

    2  Frank Dikötter, Lars Laamann and Zhou Xun, Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China (London, 2004), p. 109.

    3  Zhou Yongming, Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth-Century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building (Lanham, MD, 1999), pp. 20–21.

    4  Dikötter et al., Narcotic Culture, p. 108.

    5  John Fairbank, The Cambridge History of China: Late Ch’ing, 1800–1911, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1978), vol. II, pp. 375–411.

    6  Carnegie to Grey, 21 July 1906, The National Archives [TNA], FO 371/37/30586, ff. 345–6.

    7  J. B. Brown, ‘The Politics of the Poppy: The Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade, 1874–1916’, Journal of Contemporary History, 8 (1973), pp. 97–111; Virginia Berridge, Opium and the People, 2nd edn (London, 1999), pp. 176–82.

    8  Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates (London, 1803–), Third Series, vol. CCXXV, House of Commons, 25 June 1875, c. 571.

    9  Dated 1876, 1886, 1889, 1891, 1893, 1895 and 1906. The SSOT also intervened on questions over the opium tariff at various dates.

  10  Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Third Series, vol. CCCXXXV, House of Commons, 3 May 1889, cc. 1143–92.

  11  Ibid., vol. CCCLII, 10 April 1891, cc. 285–304.

  12  Ibid., cc. 309–15.

  13  Ibid., c. 344; Kathleen Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China, 1874–1917 (Lexington, MD, 1996), p. 57.

  14  Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Fourth Series, vol. XIV, House of Commons, 30 June 1893, cc. 591–601.

  15  Ibid., cc. 615–20.

  16  Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 183–4.

  17  Wu Wen-Tsao, The Chinese Opium Question and British Opinion and Action (New York, 1928), pp. 101–2.

  18  Final Report of the Royal Commission on Opium, 6 vols (London, 1893–5), vol. VI, pp. 93–7. For a balanced critique of the commission’s work, see Richard Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion: A Global History of Narcotics, 1500–2000 (London, 2001), pp. 136–9.

  19  Joshua Rowntree, The Opium Habit in the East: A Study of the Evidence Given to the Royal Commission on Opium, 1893–4 (London, 1895); Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Fourth Series, vol. XXXIV, House of Commons, 24 May 1895, cc. 278 and 324.

  20  Brown, ‘The Politics of the Poppy’, p. 109; Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium, pp. 122–3; R. K. Newman, ‘India and the Anglo-Chinese Opium Agreements, 1907–14’, Modern Asian Studies, 23 (1989), pp. 525–60, at pp. 533–4.

  21  Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Fourth Series, vol. CLVIII, House of Commons, 30 May 1906, cc. 494–500.

  22  Ibid., cc. 500–505.

  23  Ibid., cc. 505–15.

  24  Wang Hongbin, Jindu shijan (Beijing, 1997), pp. 269–77.

  25  Joseph Gundry Alexander, Interviews with Chinese Statesmen with Regard to the Opium Traffic (London, 1894), pp. 5–20.

  26  Wang, Jindu shijan, pp. 269–77.

  27  Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium, pp. 52–3.

  28  Ibid., pp. 30–32.

  29  Alan Baumler, ed., Modern China and Opium (Ann Arbor, mi, 2001), pp. 66–71; Jiang Qiuming and Zhu Qingbao, Zhongguo jidu licheng (Tianjin, 1996), pp. 185–7; Newman, ‘India and the Anglo-Chinese Opium Agreements’, p. 531.

  30  Newman, ‘India and the Anglo-Chinese Opium Agreements’, p. 535; ‘Sir J. Jordan to Sir Edward Grey’, 30 November 1906, TNA, FO 371/37/40331, ff. 379–81.

  31  Newman, ‘India and the Anglo-Chinese Opium Agreements’, pp. 547–56.

  32  Hamilton Wright, ‘The International Opium Commission’, American Journal of International Law, 3 (1909), pp. 828–68, at pp. 842–3.

  33  ‘Sir Edward Grey to Sir M. Durand’, 17 October 1906, TNA, FO 371/22/35165, f. 110.

  34  Elizabeth Kelly-Gray, ‘The Trade-Off: Chinese Opium Traders and Antebellum Reform in the United States, 1815–1860’, in Drugs and Empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication, 1500–1930, ed. Patricia Barton and James Mills (Basingstoke, 2007), pp. 220–28.

  35  Ibid., p. 228.

  36  Ibid., p. 229.

  37  Stephen Platt, Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China’s Last Golden Age (London, 2018), p. 416.

  38  Ibid., pp. 417–20; Arnold Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900–1939 (Durham, NC, 1969), p. 16.

  39  Michael Hunt, The Making of a Special Relationship: The United States and China to 1914 (New York, 1983), pp. 171–97.

  40  Ibid., pp. 88–94 and 232–41.

  41  Alma Bamero, ‘Opium: The Evolution of Policies, the Tolerance of the Vice, and the Proliferation of Contraband Trade in the Philippines, 1843–1908’, Social Science Dilman, 3 (2006), pp. 49–83, p. 68; David Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, MA, 2001), pp. 80–81; Ian Tyrrell, Reforming the World: The Creation of America’s Moral Empire (Princeton, NJ, 2010), p. 147.

  42  Wilbur Crafts, Protection of Native Races against Intoxicants and Opium (New York, 1900).

  43  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 34–40; Tyrrell, Reforming the World, pp. 150–51.

  44  Tyrrell, Reforming the World, pp. 152–3.

  45  Alexander Zabriskie, Bishop Brent (Philadelphia, PA, 1948), pp. 67–70.

  46  David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1987), p. 25.

  47  Zabriskie, Bishop Brent, pp. 98–9.

  48  Use of Opium and Traffic Therein: Message from the President of the United States (Washington, DC, 1906), pp. 11–18.

  49  Ibid., p. 31.

  50  Ibid., pp. 51–2.

  51  Bamero, ‘Opium: The Evolution of Policies’, p. 69; Tyrrell, Reforming the World, p. 154.

  52  Tyrrell, Reforming the World, pp. 156–7.

  53  ‘Opium Traffic between India and China’, 8 January 1906, TNA, FO 371/22/1026, ff. 1–3.

  54  Zhou, Anti-Drug Crusades, p. 24.

  55  Hansard’s Parliamentary Debates, Fourth Series, vol. CLVIII, House of Commons, 30 May 1906, cc. 494–515.

  56  ‘Question Asked in the House of Commons’, 18 June 1906, TNA, FO 371/37/31748, f. 302; ‘Importation of Opium into China’, 11 April 1906, TNA, FO 371/22/12455, ff. 16–20; ‘The Archbishop of Canterbury to Sir Edward Grey’, 25 September 1906, TNA, FO 371/22/32438, ff. 90–91.

  57  Tyrrell, Reforming the World, p. 159.

  58  ‘India Office to Foreign Office’, 2 November 1906, TNA, FO 371/22/36924, f. 152.

  59  The United States, Austria–Hungary, China, France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Russia and Siam; William McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (London, 2000), p. 28.

  60  International Opium Commission, Report of the International Opium Commission, Shanghai China, February 1 to February 26 1909 (Shanghai, 1909), p. 9.

  61  Ibid., pp. 27–30.

  62  Ibid., p. 10.

  63  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 53–4.

  64  International Opium Commission, Report, p. 46.

  65  Ibid., pp. 46–7.

  66  Ibid., p. 48.

  67  Ibid., pp. 49–50.

  68  Ibid., pp. 51–2.

  69  Ibid., p. 84.

  70  Ibid., pp. 61–2.

  71  Ibid., p. 51.

  72  Jacques Dumarest, Les Monopoles de l’opium et du sel en Indochine (Lyon, 1938), pp. 79–81.

  73  International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 62–5.

  74  Marcel de Kort, ‘Conflicting Interests in the Netherlands and Dutch East Indies, 1860–1950’, in Cocaine: Global Histories, ed. Paul Gootenberg (London, 1999), pp. 141–2.

  75  International Opium Commission, Report, pp. 51–2.

  76  Ibid., p. 84.

  77  William J. Collins, ‘An Address on the Ethics and Law of Drug and Alcohol Addiction’, The Lancet, 16 October 1915, pp. 847–50.

  78  Paul Jennings, ‘Policing Drunkenness in England and Wales from the Late Eighteenth Century to the First World War’, Social History of Alcohol and Drugs, 26 (2012), pp. 69–92.

  79  Virginia Berridge, Demons: Our Changing Attitudes to Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drugs (Oxford, 2013), p. 63.

  80  Berridge, Opium and the People, pp. 165–9.

  81  Samuel Hopkins Adams, The Great American Fraud (Chicago, IL, 1906), p. 3.

  82  Norman Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition (New York, 1976), pp. 50–118.

  83  Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), pp. 30–31.

  84  Musto, American Disease, pp. 38–9.

  85  ‘Memorandum by Mr. Brunyate’, 21 July 1910, TNA, FO 371/22/29029, ff. 67–79.

  86  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 86–9.

  87  International Opium Conference, The Hague, December 1, 1911–January 23, 1912: Summary of the Minutes (Unofficial) (The Hague, 1912), pp. 1–17.

  88  The International Opium Convention, 1912, and Subsequent Relative Papers (London, 1921), pp. 236–7.

  89  Ibid., p. 237.

  90  Ibid., p. 238.

  91  International Opium Conference, Summary of the Minutes, pp. 44–6.

  92  H.C.G. Matthew, ed., Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, 60 vols (Oxford, 2004), vol. XII, pp. 23–4.

  93  International Opium Convention, p. 240.

  94  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 107–13; Deuxième conférence internationale de l’opium, La Haye, 1–9 juillet 1913 (The Hague, 1913), pp. 1–51.

  95  Troisième conférence internationale de l’opium, La Haye, 15–25 juin 1914 (The Hague, 1914), pp. 18–19.

  96  Ibid., pp. 42–3.

  97  David Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, 1909–1997 (London, 1999), p. 165.

  98  Joseph Spillane, Cocaine: From Medical Marvel to Modern Menace in the United States, 1884–1920 (Baltimore, MD, 2000), pp. 112–13.

  99  Ibid., pp. 135–8.

100  Musto, American Disease, pp. 32–5.

101  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 35–7.

102  ‘Say Drug Habit Grips the Nation’, New York Times, 5 December 1913, p. 8.

103  David Musto, Drugs in America: A Documentary History (New York, 2002), pp. 375–8.

104  Howard Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History, 1800–1980 (Syracuse, NY, 1981), p. 106.

105  Musto, American Disease, p. 46.

106  Ibid., pp. 47–8.

107  Ibid., pp. 17–21 and 54–7.

108  Courtwright, Dark Paradise, pp. 103–6.

109  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 49–53.

110  Zhou, Anti-Drug Crusades, pp. 34–5.

111  Xavier Paulès, ‘Anti-Opium Visual Propaganda and the Deglamorisation of Opium in China, 1895–1937’, European Journal of East Asian Studies, 7 (2008), pp. 229–62.

112  James Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production: Successful Intervention in Asia and the Middle East (London, 2016), pp. 18–19.

113  Alexander Hosie, On the Trail of the Opium Poppy, 2 vols (London, 1914), vol. II, pp. 266–7.

114  Ibid., pp. 287–8.

115  Paul Brouardel, Cours de médecine légale de la Faculté de médecine de Paris, 14 vols (Paris, 1895–1909), vol. XII, p. 58.

116  ‘La Vente de l’opium’, Journal de pharmacie et de chimie (1908), p. xlvi.

117  Howard Padwa, Social Poison (Baltimore, MD, 2012), p. 116.

118  Jean-Jacques Yvorel, Les Poisons de l’esprit (Paris, 1992), pp. 237–8; ‘Projet de décret, Conseil d’état’, Archives Nationales [AN]/BB/18/2488/2.

119  Virginia Berridge, ‘War Conditions and Narcotics Control: The Passing of Defence of the Realm Act Regulation 40B’, Journal of Social Policy, 7 (1978), pp. 285–304, at pp. 287–91.

120  Yvorel, Les Poisons de l’esprit, pp. 238–40; ‘Opium – Dossier de principe’, AN/BB/18/2488/2.

121  Berridge, ‘War Conditions and Narcotics Control’, pp. 291–2.

122  Journal Officiel, Débats parlementaires, Sénat, 27 January 1916, p. 25. See also Yvorel, Les Poisons de l’esprit, pp. 255–7.

123  Journal Officiel, Documents parlementaires, Sénat, 22 July 1915, doc. 250, p. 141.

124  Berridge, ‘War Conditions and Narcotics Control’, pp. 296–8.

125  Ibid., p. 299.

126  Terry Parssinen, Secret Passions, Secret Remedies: Narcotic Drugs in British Society, 1820–1930 (Manchester, 1983), p. 137.

127  Hugh N. Linstead, Poisons Law (London, 1936), pp. 149–50.

128  Ibid., p. 134.

129  Taylor, American Diplomacy, p. 119.

130  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 36–7; Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 143–4.

131  De Kort, ‘Conflicting Interests in the Netherlands’, p. 124.

132  ‘Résumé des réponses au questionnaire sur l’opium’, League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Procès Verbal of Sessions (Geneva, 1921–40), Second Session, 1922, pp. 26–7.

133  Ibid., p. 24; League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (Geneva, 1926–40), 1931, pp. 17–18.

5 GANGSTERS

    1  The affair is detailed in ‘Illicit Drug Traffic, Report of the Trial at the Basle Court of Justice’, TNA/FO 7403/965/87, reproduced in The Opium Trade, 1910–1941, 6 vols (Wilmington, de, 1974), vol. VI, pp. 42–6.

    2  William McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (London, 2000), pp. 44–5; Arnold Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900–1939 (Durham, NC, 1969), pp. 148–9.

    3  League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Procès Verbal of Sessions (Geneva, 1921–40), First session (1921), p. 17.

    4  Ibid., pp. 44–8.

    5  Alan A. Block, ‘European Drug Traffic and Traffickers between the Wars: The Policy of Suppression and Its Consequences’, Journal of Social History, 23 (1989), pp. 315–37, at p. 319.

    6  Ibid., pp. 319–20.

    7  Kathryn Meyer and Terry Parssinen, Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade (Lanham, MD, 1998), pp. 24–5.

    8  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Ninth session (1927), pp. 105–6.

    9  Ibid., Twelfth session (1929), pp. 16–19.

  10  Ibid., Fifth session (1923), p. 215.

  11  Thomas Pietschmann, ‘A Century of International Drug Control’, Bulletin on Narcotics, LIX (2007), pp. 70–71.

  12  James Mills, Cannabis Nation: Control and Consumption in Britain, 1928–2008 (Oxford, 2013), pp. 24–5.

  13  Tilmann Holzer, Die Geburt der Drogenpolitik aus dem Geist der Rassenhygiene: Deutsche Drogenpolitik von 1933 bis 1972 (Norderstedt, 2007), pp. 163–4; Jonathan Lewy, Drugs in Germany and the United States, 1819–1945 (Baden-Baden, 2017), pp. 142–3.

  14  Mills, Cannabis Nation, pp. 36–8.

  15  Harry Jacob Anslinger, The Murderers: The Story of the Narcotic Gangs (London, 1962), pp. 141–2.

  16  David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1987), pp. 146–7.

  17  Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), pp. 173–5; John McWilliams, The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 1930–1962 (Newark, NJ, 1990), pp. 46–7.

  18  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Twelfth session (1929), p. 6.

  19  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 288–91; Conference on the Limitation of the Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs, Geneva 27 May–13 July 1931 (Lake Success, NY, 1947), p. 16.

  20  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 294–8.

  21  Conference for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs (Geneva, June 8th–26th, 1936) (Geneva, 1936), pp. 2–3.

  22  Anslinger, The Murderers, p. 60.

  23  Ibid., pp. 62–3.

  24  Ibid., pp. 60–62; Harry D’Erlanger, The Last Plague of Egypt (London, 1936), pp. 265–6.

  25  Meyer and Parssinen, Webs of Smoke, pp. 118–19.

  26  Anslinger, The Murderers, pp. 62–3.

  27  Meyer and Parssinen, Webs of Smoke, p. 119; Block, ‘European Drug Traffic’, p. 327.

  28  Anslinger, The Murderers, p. 64.

  29  D’Erlanger, The Last Plague of Egypt, pp. 253–4.

  30  Thomas Russell, Egyptian Service, 1902–1946 (London, 1949), pp. 241–2 and 246–7.

  31  Ibid., pp. 243–4; Anslinger, The Murderers, pp. 66–9.

  32  D’Erlanger, The Last Plague of Egypt, pp. 255–61; Russell, Egyptian Service, p. 245.

  33  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Ninth session (1927), pp. 2–6.

  34  Ibid., Tenth session (1927), pp. 109–17, and Eleventh session (1928), pp. 275–339.

  35  Ibid., Twelfth session (1929), pp. 149–60, and Thirteenth session (1930), pp. 143–8; Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 231–2.

  36  Taylor, American Diplomacy, p. 235; Conference on the Limitation of the Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs, pp. 7–16. Imports and exports also became subject to quotas, in addition to the certificates.

  37  ‘Rapport au Conseil’, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Sixteenth session (1933), pp. 8–9.

  38  Ibid., pp. 9–10.

  39  League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (Geneva, 1926–40), 1931, p. 26.

  40  Statistics collated ibid., 1926–36.

  41  Pietschmann, ‘A Century of Drug Control’, p. 77.

  42  Anslinger, The Murderers, p. 64.

  43  Meyer and Parssinen, Webs of Smoke, pp. 132–5.

  44  Ibid., p. 117.

  45  Ibid., pp. 235–7.

  46  McWilliams, The Protectors, p. 132.

  47  Meyer and Parssinen, Webs of Smoke, pp. 254–8.

  48  McWilliams, The Protectors, pp. 133–4.

  49  Ibid., p. 135; Alfred McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (New York, 1991), pp. 26–8.

  50  Russell, Egyptian Service, pp. 245–9; D’Erlanger, The Last Plague of Egypt, pp. 266–8.

  51  Anslinger, The Murderers, p. 74.

  52  Ibid., pp. 74–6; McWilliams, The Protectors, pp. 132–3.

  53  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, First session (1921), pp. 22–3.

  54  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 47–53.

  55  An added twist was that the United States did not ratify the treaty on which the PCOB was reliant, but New Zealand helpfully agreed to nominate an American to that committee.

  56  Taylor, American Diplomacy, pp. 158–60.

  57  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Fifth session (1923), pp. 17–18.

  58  Ibid., pp. 10–17.

  59  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 65–6.

  60  Ibid., pp. 58–9.

  61  Première conférence de l’opium, Procès-verbaux et annexes (Geneva, 1924–5), pp. 7–9.

  62  Ibid., pp. 19–22.

  63  Ibid., pp. 50–55 and 61–8.

  64  Ibid., pp. 115–16.

  65  Actes de la deuxième conférence de l’opium, Séances plénières, compte-rendu des débats, 2 vols (Geneva, 1924–5), vol. I, pp. 35–6 and 425–45.

  66  Ibid., pp. 74–7.

  67  Ibid., pp. 77–83.

  68  Ibid., pp. 132–3; McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 69–70.

  69  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, p. 75.

  70  Ibid., p. 76; ‘Compte-rendu des séances de la délégation des seize’, Actes de la deuxième conférence de l’opium, vol. II; Première conférence de l’opium, Procès-verbaux et annexes, p. 117.

  71  Première conférence de l’opium, Procès-verbaux et annexes, pp. 120–21.

  72  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 80–81; Emdad-ul Haq, Drugs in South Asia: From the Opium Trade to the Present Day (Basingstoke, 2000), p. 95.

  73  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Eighth session (1926), p. 36; Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1928), pp. 18–21.

  74  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Fifteenth session (1932), p. 4.

  75  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments series, 1926–35.

  76  Ibid.; Commission d’enquête sur le contrôle de l’opium à fumer en Extrême Orient (Geneva, 1930–31), pp. 22–3 and 173; Proceedings of the Committee to Inquire into Matters Relating to the Use of Opium in British Malaya (Singapore, 1924), pp. 16–18.

  77  John Jennings, The Opium Empire: Japanese Imperialism and Drug Trafficking in Asia, 1895–1945 (Westport, CT, 1997), pp. 23–5.

  78  Proceedings of the Committee to Inquire into the Use of Opium in British Malaya, pp. 45–6.

  79  Ibid., pp. 47–65.

  80  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1929–30), pp. 62–3.

  81  Haq, Drugs in South Asia, pp. 100–102.

  82  Commission d’enquête sur le contrôle de l’opium à fumer en Extrême Orient, pp. 62–111.

  83  Data drawn from the Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions and Summary of Annual Reports of Governments series, 1926–37.

  84  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Twenty-second session (1937), pp. 26–7.

  85  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1935), pp. 24–5.

  86  Ibid., 1926–37; Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Twenty-second session (1937), p. 30.

  87  Jacques Dumarest, Les Monopoles de l’opium et du sel en Indochine (Lyon, 1938), p. 154; Philippe Le Failler, Monopole et prohibition de l’opium en Indochine: le pilori des chimères (Paris, 2000), p. 317.

  88  Dumarest, Les Monopoles de l’opium et du sel, p. 122; Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments, 1932–7.

  89  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments, 1926–37.

  90  Edward Slack, Opium, State, and Society: China’s Narco-economy and the Guomindang, 1924–1937 (Honolulu, HI, 2001), pp. 63–9.

  91  Jennings, The Opium Empire, pp. 47–9. 92 Ibid., pp. 32–7.

  93  Ibid., pp. 54–6.

  94  Ibid., pp. 56–9.

  95  Ibid., p. 107.

  96  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, p. 105.

  97  Jennings, The Opium Empire, pp. 77–89 and 101–2.

  98  Ibid., pp. 92–8; McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 114–15; Timothy Brook, ‘Opium and Collaboration in Central China, 1938–1940’, in Opium Regimes: China, Britain, and Japan, 1839–1952, ed. Timothy Brook and Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi (Berkeley, CA, 2000), pp. 329–37.

  99  Zheng Yangwen, The Social Life of Opium in China (Cambridge, 2005), pp. 188–9.

100  Brian Martin, The Shanghai Green Gang: Politics and Organized Crime, 1919–1937 (New York, 1996), pp. 67–77.

101  Ibid., pp. 114–31.

102  Ibid., pp. 178–80.

103  Ibid., pp. 145–6; Meyer and Parssinen, Webs of Smoke, p. 157.

104  Slack, Opium, State, and Society, pp. 71–2.

105  Alan Baumler, ed., Modern China and Opium (Ann Arbor, MI, 2001), p. 135; Jiang Qiuming and Zhu Qingbao, Zhongguo jidu licheng (Tianjin, 1996), p. 255.

106  Frank Dikötter, Lars Laamann and Zhou Xun, Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China (London, 2004), pp. 126–7.

107  Ibid., pp. 130–32.

108  Alan Baumler, ‘Opium Control versus Opium Suppression’, in Opium Regimes, ed. Brook and Wakabayashi, pp. 273–81; Zhou Yongming, Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth-Century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building (Lanham, MD, 1999), pp. 78–80.

109  Zhou, Anti-Drug Crusades, pp. 80–84; Slack, Opium, State, and Society, pp. 106–9.

110  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Second session (1922), p. 7.

111  Assuming a 7–8 per cent morphine content. The Qing-era data are provided in Appendix I. Morphine data based on the Summary of Annual Reports of Governments series.

112  Zheng, Social Life of Opium, p. 186.

113  Xavier Paulès, ‘Anti-Opium Visual Propaganda and the Deglamorisation of Opium in China, 1895–1937’, European Journal of East Asian Studies, VII (2008), pp. 229–62, at p. 236; Edward Slack, ‘The National Anti-Opium Association and the Guomindang State, 1924–1937’, in Opium Regimes, ed. Brook and Wakabayashi, pp. 249–58.

114  Paulès, ‘The Deglamorisation of Opium in China’, pp. 261–2.

115  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Procès Verbal of Sessions, Twenty-third session (1938), p. 15.

116  Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia, Report to the Council (Geneva, 1926), p. 42; Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments, 1936–7.

117  This takes the difference between estimated production in 1924, when Turkey had yet to ratify any of the opium treaties, and legitimate production calculated as of the late 1930s, with data drawn from the Summary of Annual Reports of Governments series.

6  DRUG PROHIBITION AT ITS ZENITH

    1  James Mills, Cannabis Britannica: Empire, Trade, and Prohibition, 1800–1928 (Oxford, 2003), p. 167; Records of the Second Opium Conference, Plenary Meetings, Text of the Debates, 2 vols (Geneva, 1924–5), vol. I, pp. 39–40.

    2  Actes de la deuxième conférence de l’opium, Séances plénières, compte-rendu des débats, 2 vols (Geneva, 1924–5), vol. I, p. 140.

    3  Ibid., pp. 140–42; Mills, Cannabis Britannica, pp. 49–50.

    4  James Mills, Cannabis Nation: Control and Consumption in Britain, 1928–2008 (Oxford, 2013), p. 10.

    5  Sebastian Scheerer, Die Genese der Betäubungsmittelgesetze in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und in den Niederlanden (Göttingen, 1982), pp. 75–6; Andreas Siebel, Drogenstrafrecht in Deutschland und Frankreich (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), pp. 31–2.

    6  Liat Kozma, ‘Cannabis Prohibition in Egypt, 1880–1939: From Local Ban to League of Nations Diplomacy’, Middle Eastern Studies, XLVII (2011), pp. 443–60, at p. 445.

    7  Mills, Cannabis Britannica, pp. 180–81; James Mills, ‘Colonial Africa and the International Politics of Cannabis: Egypt, South Africa and the Origins of Global Control’, in Drugs and Empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication, 1500–1930, ed. Patricia Barton and James Mills (Basingstoke, 2007), p. 178.

    8  Ahmad M. Khalifa, ‘Traditional Patterns of Hashish Use in Egypt’, in Cannabis and Culture, ed. Vera Rubin (The Hague, 1975), pp. 198–203.

    9  Marinos Sariyannis, ‘Law and Morality in Ottoman Society: The Case of Narcotic Substances’, in The Ottoman Empire, the Balkans, the Greek Lands: Towards a Social and Economic History, ed. Elias Kolovos (Istanbul, 2007), pp. 315–17. I am indebted to Dr Haggai Ram for these references and for his considerations on the subject.

  10  Pall Mall Gazette, 19 May 1876, p. 4; House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, Reports from Her Majesty’s Representatives in Egypt, Greece, and Turkey on Regulations Affecting the Importation and Sale of Haschisch (London, 1893), pp. 19–22.

  11  Reports from Her Majesty’s Representatives in Egypt, Greece, and Turkey, pp. 2–3; Kozma, ‘Cannabis Prohibition in Egypt’, p. 445. I am indebted to Dr Liat Kozma for her help and considerations on the subject.

  12  Kozma, ‘Cannabis Prohibition in Egypt’, pp. 455–7.

  13  Mills, Cannabis Britannica, pp. 183–4.

  14  Ibid., p. 184.

  15  Ibid., pp. 82–4.

  16  Ibid., pp. 85–90.

  17  Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94, 7 vols (Simla, 1894), vol. II, p. 1.

  18  Ibid., vol. I, p. 239.

  19  Ibid., vol. I, pp. 225–6.

  20  Mills, Cannabis Britannica, pp. 140–44.

  21  Records of the Second Opium Conference, vol. I, p. 133.

  22  Jacques-Joseph Moreau de Tours, Du Hachisch et de l’aliénation mentale, études psychologiques (Paris, 1845), p. 34.

  23  Bénédict-Augustin Morel, Traité des dégénérescences physiques, intellectuelles et morales (Paris, 1857), pp. 148–53.

  24  Ibid., p. 154.

  25  Ibid., p. 38.

  26  Ernest Bosc, Traité théorique et pratique du haschich et autres substances psychiques: cannabis, herbes magiques, opium, morphine, éther, cocaïne (Paris, 1895), pp. 75–6.

  27  Pall Mall Gazette, 19 May 1876, p. 4.

  28  Emile Deschanel, ‘Des excitans’, Le Journal des débats politiques et littéraires, 12 July 1860, p. 1.

  29  Quoted in Isaac Campos, Home Grown: Marijuana and the Origins of Mexico’s War on Drugs (Chapel Hill, NC, 2012), p. 81.

  30  Ibid., pp. 52–4.

  31  Ibid., pp. 58–73 and 82.

  32  Ibid., pp. 119–25.

  33  Ibid., pp. 90–98.

  34  UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2019, vol. I, p. 29.

  35  Mitch Earleywine, Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence (Oxford, 2002), pp. 144–8.

  36  Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, vol. I, p. 225.

  37  Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), pp. 137–8.

  38  Ibid., p. 133.

  39  Ibid., p. 143.

  40  Jerome Himmelstein, The Strange Career of Marihuana (Westport, CT, 1983), p. 38.

  41  Ibid., pp. 38–43.

  42  David Courtwright, ed., Addicts Who Survived: An Oral History of Narcotic Use in America before 1965 (Knoxville, TN, 1989), pp. 11–12.

  43  Harry Jacob Anslinger, The Murderers: The Story of the Narcotic Gangs (London, 1962), pp. 17–18.

  44  ‘Marijuana: Assassin of Youth’, American Magazine, July 1937, quoted in Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, p. 145.

  45  Ibid., pp. 148–50.

  46  John McWilliams, ‘Through the Past Darkly: The Politics and Policies of America’s Drug War’, Journal of Policy History, III (1999), pp. 5–41, at p. 16.

  47  John McWilliams, The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 1930–1962 (Newark, NJ, 1990), pp. 31–2; David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1987), pp. 210–11.

  48  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, p. 147.

  49  Himmelstein, The Strange Career of Marihuana, pp. 56–8.

  50  Ibid., p. 89.

  51  McWilliams, The Protectors, pp. 88–9.

  52  Mills, Cannabis Britannica, pp. 118–21.

  53  Ibid., p. 133.

  54  Ibid., pp. 180–81.

  55  James Mills, ‘Colonial Africa and the International Politics of Cannabis’, pp. 168–72.

  56  Ibid., pp. 166–7.

  57  League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Procès Verbal of Sessions (Geneva, 1921–40), Eighteenth session (1934), p. 16.

  58  Permanent Central Opium Board, Report of the Permanent Central Opium Board (Geneva, 1946–65), 1955, pp. 11–12.

  59  William McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (London, 2000), pp. 138–41 and 154–5; David Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, 1909–1997 (London, 1999), pp. 115–17.

  60  David Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, MA, 2001), pp. 119–22.

  61  Henry Richard Friman, Narco-Diplomacy: Exporting the U.S. War on Drugs (Ithaca, NY, 1996), pp. 67–71.

  62  Terry Parssinen, Secret Passions, Secret Remedies: Narcotic Drugs in British Society 1820–1930 (Manchester, 1983), pp. 164–6.

  63  Scheerer, Die Genese der Betäubungsmittelgesetze, p. 72.

  64  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (Lake Success, NY, 1944–86), 1949, pp. 16–19.

  65  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 150–52.

  66  Zhou Yongming, Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth-Century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building (Lanham, MD, 1999), pp. 95–6.

  67  Ibid., p. 100.

  68  Ibid., p. 107.

  69  Ibid., pp. 105–9.

  70  Issue dated 5 May 1954, quoted in Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 186–7.

  71  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, pp. 109–10.

  72  ‘Illicit Traffic in Opium’, The Times, 6 May 1952, p. 5.

  73  Alfred McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (New York, 1991), pp. 108–9; Ashley Wright, Opium and Empire in Southeast Asia: Regulating Consumption in British Burma (Basingstoke, 2014), pp. 7–8.

  74  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 162–73; Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions (New York, 1946–), Fifth session (1950), p. 77.

  75  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 174–5.

  76  Ibid., pp. 38–9.

  77  Ibid., pp. 40–45.

  78  Ibid., pp. 30–38; McWilliams, The Protectors, pp. 135–6.

  79  Kathleen Frydl, The Drug Wars in America, 1940–1973 (New York, 2013), p. 101.

  80  McWilliams, The Protectors, pp. 136–8; Kathryn Meyer and Terry Parssinen, Webs of Smoke: Smugglers, Warlords, Spies, and the History of the International Drug Trade (Lanham, MD, 1998), pp. 283–6.

  81  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Nineteenth session (1964), p. 11.

  82  Ibid.

  83  UNODC, World Drug Report (2017), vol. I, p. 15.

  84  Bureau of Narcotics, Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs (Washington, DC, 1928–67), 1929, p. 27, and 1950, pp. 16–18.

  85  Ibid., 1929, p. 25, and 1950, p. 33.

  86  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 195–6.

  87  Bureau of Narcotics, Traffic in Dangerous Drugs, 1958, pp. 20–31 and 39.

  88  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 203–6; Himmelstein, The Strange Career of Marihuana, pp. 90–91.

  89  Courtwright, Addicts Who Survived, p. 19.

  90  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 207–8.

  91  Ibid., pp. 199–201.

  92  Harry Jacob Anslinger, The Traffic in Narcotics (New York, 1953), p. 21.

  93  Ibid., pp. 267–8.

  94  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 202–3; McWilliams, The Protectors, pp. 111–16.

  95  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1955), p. 39, and 1955 ADD, pp. 15–17; Permanent Central Opium Board, Report of the Permanent Central Opium Board (1955), pp. 26–7; Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Seventh session (1952), pp. 4–5, and Twelfth session (1957), p. 13.

  96  Contemporary estimates were that Iran may have actually produced in excess of 700 tons of opium annually: Permanent Central Opium Board, Report of the Permanent Central Opium Board (1955), pp. 9–10. Conversely, however, the figure of 905 tons for Turkey may be overstated, judging from pre-war data: Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1926), pp. 13–24, has an estimate of 565 tons for 1924, a date at which no reason existed to under-report.

  97  Permanent Central Opium Board, Report of the Permanent Central Opium Board (1956), p. 31.

  98  Ibid., 1955, p. 11.

  99  Calculations based on historical UNODC leaf/cocaine conversion rates and on Joseph Spillane, Cocaine: From Medical Marvel to Modern Menace in the United States, 1884–1920 (Baltimore, MD, 2000), p. 115, for average use.

100  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1950–59).

101  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Twelfth session (1957), p. 18.

102  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 176–82.

103  Ibid., p. 196.

104  Paul Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug (Chapel Hill, NC, 2008), pp. 213–16.

105  Joseph Gagliano, Coca Prohibition in Peru (Tucson, AZ, 1994), pp. 126–31.

106  Ibid., pp. 152–4; Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine, pp. 232–3.

107  United Nations, Report of the Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf (Lake Success, NY, 1950), pp. 7–8 and 23–30.

108  Ibid., p. 31.

109  Ibid., p. 32.

110  Ibid., p. 96.

111  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 157–8 and 167–8.

112  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, p. 75.

113  Rudolph Matthee, The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900 (Princeton, NJ, 2005), pp. 106–7.

114  Ibid., p. 222.

115  Commission of Enquiry into the Production of Opium in Persia, Report to the Council (Geneva, 1926), pp. 54–6.

116  League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (Geneva, 1926–40).

117  Anthony Neligan, The Opium Question with Special Reference to Persia (London, 1927), p. 28.

118  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Fifth session (1950), p. 79.

119  Anslinger, The Murderers, pp. 203–4.

120  James Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production: Successful Intervention in Asia and the Middle East (London, 2016), pp. 40–41.

121  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Twelfth session (1957), p. 12.

122  Ibid., Fifteenth session (1960), p. 17.

123  Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (1929–30), p. 54, 1932, p. 33, and 1933, pp. 29–30.

124  Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production, pp. 50–51.

125  United Nations, Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 (New York, 1972), p. 39.

126  Ibid., pp. 50–54.

127  Ibid., pp. 20–37. National agencies had a supervisory role only over the collection of coca or cannabis.

128  Ibid., p. 39.

129  McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 205–7.

130  Gagliano, Coca Prohibition in Peru, pp. 157–8.

131  United Nations, Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, pp. 46–7.

132  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, pp. 148–9; McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 216–17.

133  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, p. 155; McAllister, Drug Diplomacy, pp. 217–18.

134  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, pp. 136–7 and 166–8.

135  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Sixteenth session (1961), p. 21.

136  Bureau of Narcotics, Traffic in Dangerous Drugs (1962), p. 21.

7 OVERREACH

    1  Story told in Timothy Leary, Flashbacks: An Autobiography (London, 1983), pp. 291–6.

    2  Jay Stevens, Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream (London, 1987), pp. 126–9.

    3  Ibid., p. 138.

    4  Ibid., p. 160.

    5  Ibid., p. 162; David Black, Acid: The Secret History of LSD (London, 1998), pp. 59–61.

    6  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 4–5.

    7  Ibid., pp. 11–12 and 64–6.

    8  Black, Acid, p. 65.

    9  Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), pp. 270–71.

  10  Ibid., p. 271; Stevens, Storming Heaven, p. 173.

  11  Lewis Yablonsky, The Hippie Trip (New York, 1968), p. 252.

  12  Dessa K. Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs: The Role of Military Conflict in the Development of Substance Abuse (Boulder, CO, 2012), pp. 67–8.

  13  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 82–3; Black, Acid, pp. 37–8.

  14  John McWilliams, The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 1930–1962 (Newark, NJ, 1990), pp. 165–73.

  15  Richard Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion: A Global History of Narcotics, 1500–2000 (London, 2001), p. 262.

  16  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 208–9.

  17  Ibid., pp. 216–19.

  18  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 271–2.

  19  Stevens, Storming Heaven, p. 146.

  20  Ibid., p. 192.

  21  Stevens, Storming Heaven, p. xvii.

  22  Timothy Leary and Ralph Metzner, ‘Editorial’, Psychedelic Review (1967), p. 3.

  23  ‘On Programming Psychedelic Experiences’, ibid., p. 16.

  24  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 280–81 and 291.

  25  Ibid., pp. 326–7.

  26  Ibid., pp. 284–5.

  27  Ibid., pp. 240–48.

  28  Ibid., p. 313.

  29  Ibid., pp. 309–18.

  30  Ibid., pp. 351–2; Black, Acid, p. 112.

  31  Black, Acid, p. 131.

  32  Ibid., pp. 136–47; Lyn Ebenezer, Operation Julie: The World’s Greatest LSD Bust (Talybont, 2010), pp. 14–16, 38–9 and 122–4.

  33  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 345–51.

  34  Black, Acid, pp. 132–4.

  35  In 1977: Ebenezer, Operation Julie, pp. 112–14.

  36  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 267–8.

  37  Ibid., pp. 352–5.

  38  Ibid., p. 356; Black, Acid, pp. 112–13.

  39  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 291–2.

  40  Humberto Fernandez and Therissa Libby, Heroin: Its History, Pharmacology, and Treatment (Center City, MN, 2011), pp. 236–7; Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, p. 282.

  41  Fernandez and Libby, Heroin, p. 238.

  42  Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, p. 331.

  43  Kathleen Frydl, The Drug Wars in America, 1940–1973 (New York, 2013), p. 345.

  44  Yablonsky, Hippie Trip, pp. 119–21.

  45  Ibid., p. 141.

  46  Ibid., p. 281.

  47  William S. Burroughs, Junky (London, 2008), p. 39.

  48  David Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, MA, 2001), p. 113.

  49  Burroughs, Junky, p. 104.

  50  Ibid., p. 106.

  51  Thomas Bewley, ‘Drug Dependence in the USA’, Bulletin on Narcotics (1969), pp. 13–30.

  52  Jock Young, The Drugtakers: The Social Meaning of Drug Use (London, 1971), pp. 148–68.

  53  As of 1985: Andreas Siebel, Drogenstrafrecht in Deutschland und Frankreich (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), p. 162.

  54  Ibid., p. 167.

  55  John Strang and Michael Gossop, eds, Heroin Addiction and the British System, 2 vols (Milton Park, 2005), vol. I, pp. 81–7; John Giggs, ‘Epidemiology of Contemporary Drug Abuse’, in Policing and Prescribing: The British System of Drug Control, ed. David Whynes and Philip Bean (Basingstoke, 1991), pp. 167–8.

  56  State-level arrests: Drug Abuse Council, The Facts about ‘Drug Abuse’ (New York, 1980), p. 159.

  57  Past-year data: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Detailed Tables (Rockville, MD, 1998–), 1998, Table 104A.

  58  Ibid.

  59  Blended rate based on two population categories: National Institute on Drug Abuse, Cocaine Use in America: Epidemiologic and Clinical Perspectives (Rockville, MD, 1985), p. 40.

  60  SAMHSA, National Household Survey, 1998, Table 104A.

  61  Bewley, ‘Drug Dependence in the USA’, pp. 13–30; David Musto, The Quest for Drug Control: Politics and Federal Policy in a Period of Increasing Substance Abuse, 1963–1981 (New Haven, CT, 2002), pp. 38–9.

  62  SAMHSA, National Household Survey, 1998, Table 104A.

  63  Bruce Johnson, ‘Understanding British Addiction Statistics’, Bulletin on Narcotics (1975), pp. 49–66.

  64  Strang and Gossop, Heroin Addiction and the British System, p. 80.

  65  Advisory Committee on Drug Dependence, Cannabis (London, 1968), p. 8.

  66  Based on CND and INCB series: see Appendix III for sources.

  67  Tilmann Holzer, Die Geburt der Drogenpolitik aus dem Geist der Rassenhygiene: Deutsche Drogenpolitik von 1933 bis 1972 (Norderstedt, 2007), p. 355; Henry Richard Friman, Narco-Diplomacy: Exporting the U.S. War on Drugs (Ithaca, NY, 1996), p. 95.

  68  Detlef Briesen, Drogenkonsum und Drogenpolitik in Deutschland und den USA: Ein historischer Vergleich (Frankfurt am Main, 2005), p. 306.

  69  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions (New York, 1946–), Twenty-fourth session (1971), pp. 64–9; Alfred McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (New York, 1991), pp. 468–9.

  70  Fariborz Raisdana, ‘The Drug Market in Iran’, American Academy of Political and Social Science, DLXXXII (2002), pp. 149–66, at pp. 153–60.

  71  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends (New York, 1999–2003), 1999, pp. 14–15, 40 and 51.

  72  For data and sources, see Appendix III.

  73  Nicholas Parsons, Meth Mania: A History of Methamphetamine (Boulder, CO, 2014), pp. 1–4.

  74  Ibid., pp. 46–7; Nicolas Rasmussen, On Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine (New York, 2008), p. 22.

  75  Rasmussen, On Speed, p. 6.

  76  Ibid., pp. 16–17.

  77  Ibid., pp. 21–3 and 40–41.

  78  Ibid., pp. 54–5.

  79  Ibid., pp. 65–84.

  80  Bert Edström, ‘The Forgotten Success Story: Japan and the Methampheta-mine Problem’, Japan Forum, XXVII (2015), pp. 519–34, at pp. 522–6.

  81  Miriam Kingsberg, Moral Nation: Modern Japan and Narcotics in Global History (Berkeley, CA, 2014), pp. 183–4.

  82  Edström, ‘Japan and the Methamphetamine Problem’, p. 526.

  83  Kingsberg, Moral Nation, pp. 190–91.

  84  Ibid., pp. 191–8; Edström, ‘Japan and the Methamphetamine Problem’, pp. 527–8.

  85  Rasmussen, On Speed, pp. 114–15.

  86  Ibid., pp. 116–19 and 130–31.

  87  Ibid., p. 163.

  88  Ibid., p. 172.

  89  Ibid., p. 101; David Herzberg, Happy Pills in America: From Miltown to Prozac (Baltimore, MD, 2009), p. 91.

  90  Lester Grinspoon, The Speed Culture: Amphetamine Use and Abuse in America (Cambridge, MA, 1975), pp. 4–5.

  91  Rasmussen, On Speed, pp. 183–8.

  92  Ibid., pp. 91–2.

  93  Parsons, Meth Mania, pp. 52–3.

  94  Grinspoon, Speed Culture, pp. 34–5.

  95  Ibid., p. 35.

  96  Max Glatt, The Drug Scene in Great Britain (London, 1967), pp. 45–52.

  97  Grinspoon, Speed Culture, pp. 97–9.

  98  Quoted in Rasmussen, On Speed, p. 180.

  99  Vladimir Kusevic, ‘Drug Abuse Control and International Treaties’, Journal of Drug Issues, 1 (1977), pp. 35–53, at p. 37.

100  Ibid., p. 35.

101  Parsons, Meth Mania, pp. 49–50.

102  Rasmussen, On Speed, p. 178.

103  Ibid., p. 163.

104  Herzberg, Happy Pills, pp. 25–6.

105  Ibid., p. 29.

106  Ibid., pp. 175–6.

107  Ibid., p. 31.

108  Ibid., pp. 83 and 107–9.

109  Ibid., p. 39.

110  Rasmussen, On Speed, pp. 137–8.

111  Ibid., p. 139.

112  Grinspoon, Speed Culture, pp. 23–4.

113  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Summary Record of Sessions (New York, 1946–), Tenth session (5 May 1955), p. 9.

114  Ibid., pp. 9–10.

115  Ibid., p. 11.

116  Ibid., pp. 11–12.

117  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Twentieth session (1965), p. 16.

118  Ibid., pp. 40–44.

119  Ibid.

120  Ibid., Twenty-third session (1969), pp. 62–9; William McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (London, 2000), pp. 227–8.

121  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Twenty-first session (1966), p. 35.

122  Ibid., p. 38.

123  Ibid., p. 46.

124  United Nations, Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1971 (New York, 1971), pp. 17–18.

125  United Nations, Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 (New York, 1972), p. 13.

126  Thomas Dormandy, Opium: Reality’s Dark Dream (New Haven, CT, 2012), pp. 198–9.

127  Grinspoon, Speed Culture, p. 156.

128  Michael Gossop, Living with Drugs, 6th edn (Aldershot, 2007), p. 152.

129  Parsons, Meth Mania, p. 9; UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2012, p. 25.

130  Stevens, Storming Heaven, pp. 84–5; Gossop, Living with Drugs, pp. 117–30.

131  Advisory Committee on Drug Dependence, Cannabis, p. 75.

132  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Sixth session (1951), p. 22.

133  Virginia Berridge et al., eds, Concepts of Addictive Substances and Behaviours across Time and Place (Oxford, 2016), pp. 67–9.

134  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Nineteenth session (1964), pp. 7–8.

135  Ibid., p. 8.

136  Advisory Committee on Drug Dependence, Cannabis, p. 76.

137  Roy Reed, ‘President Urges a National Drive on Narcotics Use’, New York Times, 15 July 1969, pp. 1 and 18.

138  Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, p. 339.

139  David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1987), p. 252.

140  Brain Committee Report, Drug Addiction: Second Report of the Interdepartmental Committee (London, 1965), p. 6.

141  Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion, p. 254.

142  Ibid., p. 269.

143  Advisory Committee on Drug Dependence, Cannabis, p. 14.

144  Ibid., pp. 17–21; James Mills, Cannabis Nation: Control and Consumption in Britain, 1928–2008 (Oxford, 2013), pp. 141–50.

145  Mills, Cannabis Nation, pp. 150–56.

146  Siebel, Drogenstrafrecht, pp. 33–5.

147  Ibid., pp. 182–3.

148  Ibid., pp. 40–41.

149  Ibid., pp. 44–5.

150  Kusevic, ‘Drug Abuse Control’, pp. 39–41.

151  United Nations, Convention on Psychotropic Substances, pp. 17–20; Gossop, Living with Drugs, p. 157.

152  United Nations, Convention on Psychotropic Substances, pp. 3–9.

153  Rasmussen, On Speed, pp. 219–20.

154  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 278–83.

155  Musto, Quest for Drug Control, pp. 90–98 and 107–13; Musto, American Disease, p. 257.

156  Musto, Quest for Drug Control, p. 73.

157  Frydl, The Drug Wars in America, p. 361.

158  Musto, Quest for Drug Control, pp. 97–8; Musto, American Disease, pp. 258–9.

159  Nasuh Uslu, The Turkish–American Relationship between 1947 and 2003 (New York, 2003), p. 236.

160  Ibid., pp. 231–2.

161  Ibid., pp. 236–7.

162  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 390.

163  Uslu, The Turkish–American Relationship, pp. 233–4 and 244–5.

8 DRUG LORDS

    1  Bureau of Narcotics, Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs (Washington, DC, 1928–67), 1967, pp. 2–8; Richard Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion: A Global History of Narcotics, 1500–2000 (London, 2001), pp. 342–6.

    2  Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (Cambridge, MA, 2010), p. 107.

    3  Newsday, ed., The Heroin Trail (London, 1975), pp. 11–26 and 44–9.

    4  Ibid., pp. 58–61.

    5  Ibid., pp. 74, 92–6 and 136–7; Henrik Krüger, The Great Heroin Coup (Walterville, OR, 1980), pp. 37–9; Alfred McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (New York, 1991), pp. 61–6.

    6  Newsday, The Heroin Trail, pp. 78–84 and 135–40.

    7  Ibid., pp. 85–6 and 130–31.

    8  Ibid., pp. 119–20; Krüger, The Great Heroin Coup, pp. 92–6.

    9  Krüger, The Great Heroin Coup, pp. 97–9.

  10  Ibid., p. 41.

  11  Ibid., p. 100.

  12  Newsday, The Heroin Trail, pp. 75–7.

  13  Ibid., p. 88.

  14  Krüger, The Great Heroin Coup, p. 114.

  15  Ibid., pp. 110–12.

  16  Newsday, The Heroin Trail, pp. 143–7.

  17  Ibid., pp. 135–6.

  18  ‘Marcel Francisci Shot Dead; Tied to “French Connection”’, New York Times, 16 January 1982, p. 23.

  19  Cornelius Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy and the War on Drugs: Displacing the Cocaine and Heroin Industry (London, 2007), pp. 46–7 and 53–4.

  20  James Spain, ‘The United States, Turkey and the Poppy’, Middle East Journal, 29 (1975), pp. 295–309, at p. 304.

  21  Ibid., pp. 299–302.

  22  Ibid., p. 308; James Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production: Successful Intervention in Asia and the Middle East (London, 2016), pp. 58–9.

  23  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, p. 23.

  24  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 74–6.

  25  For estimates in various periods: UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends (New York, 1999–2003), 2001, p. 49; Ronald Renard, The Burmese Connection: Illegal Drugs and the Making of the Golden Triangle (Boulder, co, 1996), p. 105; McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 222–3. For a warning on output estimates: Yawnghwe Chao Tzang, The Shan of Burma: Memoirs of a Shan Exile (Singapore, 2010), pp. 56–7.

  26  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 132–3.

  27  Ibid., pp. 134–8.

  28  Ibid., pp. 154–5, 203–15 and 299–304.

  29  Ibid., pp. 268–79; Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, pp. 66–7.

  30  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 287.

  31  Ibid., p. 299.

  32  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, p. 25; Yawnghwe, The Shan of Burma, pp. 18–24; Renard, Burmese Connection, p. 59.

  33  Yawnghwe, The Shan of Burma, p. 176.

  34  Ibid., pp. 176–7; McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 355–63; Renard, Burmese Connection, pp. 59–60.

  35  Renard, Burmese Connection, p. 60; Bertil Lintner, Burma in Revolt: Opium and Insurgency since 1948 (Boulder, CO, 1994), p. 245.

  36  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 49.

  37  Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. 244.

  38  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, p. 111.

  39  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 55.

  40  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 418–19; Lintner, Burma in Revolt, pp. 261–3.

  41  Lintner, Burma in Revolt, pp. 264–5.

  42  Ibid., pp. 246–51; McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 430.

  43  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2001, p. 47; McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 431.

  44  Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. 306.

  45  Ibid., p. 305; McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 434.

  46  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 435–6.

  47  Lintner, Burma in Revolt, pp. 326–7.

  48  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 438–9.

  49  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, pp. 25–7; Renard, Burmese Connection, pp. 61–2 and 69–70; Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. 307.

  50  Martin Jelsma et al., ed., Trouble in the Triangle: Opium and Conflict in Burma (Chiang Mai, 2005), pp. 9–12.

  51  Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. 254.

  52  Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production, pp. 102–19.

  53  Ronald Renard, Opium Reduction in Thailand, 1970–2000: A Thirty-Year Journey (Bangkok, 2001), pp. 69–111.

  54  Ibid., p. 7.

  55  Ibid., pp. 36–7; Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production, p. 64.

  56  Lintner, Burma in Revolt, p. 317.

  57  Renard, Burmese Connection, p. 105; UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2001, p. 49.

  58  Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production, pp. 81–2; James Windle, ‘Insights for Contemporary Drug Policy: A Historical Account of Opium Control in India and Pakistan’, Asian Journal of Criminology, VII (2012), pp. 55–74, at p. 65.

  59  Windle, ‘Insights for Contemporary Drug Policy’, pp. 65–6; Amir Zada Asad, The Politics and Economics of Drug Production on the Pakistan– Afghanistan Border (Aldershot, 2003), p. 37; Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions (New York, 1946–), Sixth special session, 1980, pp. 30–31.

  60  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, p. 29.

  61  Asad, Drug Production, p. 31.

  62  International Narcotics Control Board, Report of the International Narcotics Control Board (Geneva, 1969–), 1979, pp. 21–2.

  63  Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production, pp. 87–8.

  64  Windle, ‘Insights for Contemporary Drug Policy’, p. 85; Asad, Drug Production, pp. 37–8.

  65  Dessa K. Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs: The Role of Military Conflict in the Development of Substance Abuse (Boulder, co, 2012), p. 109.

  66  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 481–2.

  67  Asad, Drug Production, pp. 48–9.

  68  Ibid., pp. 46–7, emphasis in original.

  69  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 23.

  70  Asad, Drug Production, p. 50.

  71  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 477–80; UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2001, p. 33; Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs, pp. 108–9.

  72  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 475–6; Asad, Drug Production, pp. 52–3.

  73  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, p. 33.

  74  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 505.

  75  Ibid., pp. 508–20; UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2001, p. 35, and 2002, pp. 5–6.

  76  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 502–4.

  77  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 1999, p. 21.

  78  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Fortieth session, 1997, p. 3.

  79  Windle, Suppressing Illicit Opium Production, p. 140; UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2001, pp. 32–3.

  80  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2002, p. 16.

  81  Jelsma, Trouble in the Triangle, p. 178.

  82  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 287–304.

  83  Ibid., pp. 489–91.

  84  Ibid., pp. 493–6; Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs, pp. 54–9.

  85  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 2001, pp. 32–3.

  86  Chouvy, Politics of the Poppy, p. xiii.

  87  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 15.

  88  Jean-Pierre Minaudier, Histoire de la Colombie de la conquête à nos jours (Paris, 1997), pp. 298–9.

  89  Ibid., pp. 295–8.

  90  On Peru, see Paul Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global Drug (Chapel Hill, NC, 2008), pp. 292–300.

  91  Clare Hargreaves, Snowfields: The War on Cocaine in the Andes (London, 1992), pp. 28–39.

  92  Ibid., pp. 60–65.

  93  Ibid., pp. 71–3 and 107–8.

  94  Ibid., pp. 108–10.

  95  Ibid., pp. 112–18.

  96  Ibid., p. 67.

  97  Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine, p. 305; Mark Bowden, Killing Pablo, 2nd edn (London, 2016), pp. 19–26.

  98  Bowden, Killing Pablo, pp. 26–7.

  99  Gootenberg, Andean Cocaine, pp. 305–6.

100  Bowden, Killing Pablo, pp. 30–32.

101  Ibid., pp. 32–3.

102  Ibid., p. 36.

103  Mary Roldán, ‘Cocaine and the “Miracle” of Modernity in Medellín’, in Cocaine: Global Histories, ed. Paul Gootenberg (London, 1999), pp. 168–70.

104  Bowden, Killing Pablo, pp. 36–40.

105  Ibid., p. 33; United States Attorney General, Drug Trafficking: A Report to the President of the United States, 3 August 1989 (Washington, DC, 1989), p. 18.

106  United States Attorney General, Drug Trafficking, pp. 18–19.

107  Ibid., p. 19.

108  Robert Bunker, ed., Narcos over the Border: Gangs, Cartels, Mercenaries, and the Invasion of America (London, 2010), p. 40.

109  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 80.

110  Ibid., pp. 81–2.

111  United States Attorney General, Drug Trafficking, pp. 18–21; Bowden, Killing Pablo, p. 73.

112  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 443.

113  David Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, 1909–1997 (London, 1999), pp. 188–9.

114  Hargreaves, Snowfields, pp. 156–7; Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 93–6.

115  Hargreaves, Snowfields, pp. 152–4.

116  Ibid., pp. 154–5.

117  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 84.

118  Ibid., p. 85; McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 446.

119  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 487–8.

120  Bowden, Killing Pablo, pp. 41–59.

121  Ibid., pp. 60–72.

122  Ibid., pp. 72–80.

123  Ibid., p. 112.

124  Ibid., p. 74.

125  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 84–5.

126  Minaudier, Histoire de la Colombie, pp. 305–6.

127  Bowden, Killing Pablo, p. 125.

128  Ibid., p. 39.

129  Roldán, ‘Cocaine and the “Miracle” of Modernity’, p. 175.

130  Bowden, Killing Pablo, pp. 19–20.

131  Ibid., pp. 125–6.

132  Ibid., pp. 129–31; Minaudier, Histoire de la Colombie, pp. 309–10.

133  Bowden, Killing Pablo, pp. 108–9.

134  Ibid., pp. 144–5.

135  Ibid., pp. 155–76.

136  Ibid., pp. 109–10.

137  Ibid., pp. 86–8.

138  Ibid., p. 223.

139  Ibid., pp. 232–49.

140  Ibid., pp. 291–7 and 327–31; Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 85–6.

141  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Forty-third session, 2000, p. 16.

142  Davidde Corran, ‘Colombians Grapple with a Big Problem: Wandering Hippos’, Associated Press, 23 February 2020, accessed on www.apnews.com.

143  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 1999, p. 42, and 2001, p. 67.

144  Ibid., 1999, p. 43, and 2001, p. 72.

145  Ibid., 2000, p. 6.

146  Ibid., 2001, p. 136.

147  Ibid., 2000, pp. 50–51.

148  Ibid., 1999, p. 45, and 2001, p. 67.

149  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, p. 20.

150  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 17; UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 1999, p. 15, and 2000, p. 23.

151  John McWilliams, ‘Through the Past Darkly: The Politics and Policies of America’s Drug War’, Journal of Policy History, III (1999), pp. 5–41, at p. 27.

152  Ibid., p. 7.

153  McCoy, The Politics of Heroin, pp. 449–53; Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 90–91 and 99–100.

154  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 12–13.

155  UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2005, vol. I, p. 16.

156  Andreas Siebel, Drogenstrafrecht in Deutschland und Frankreich (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), p. 181.

157  Newsday, The Heroin Trail, p. xiii.

158  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 108.

159  Bunker, Narcos over the Border, pp. 64–5.

160  Ibid., p. 56; Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs, p. 98.

161  Ethan Nadelmann, Cops across Borders: The Internationalization of U.S. Criminal Law Enforcement (University Park, PA, 1993), pp. 273–7.

162  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, pp. 202–3.

163  Bunker, Narcos over the Border, p. 100.

164  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, p. 109.

165  Bunker, Narcos over the Border, pp. 100–101.

166  Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs, p. 64.

167  Bunker, Narcos over the Border, pp. 4–6.

168  Hargreaves, Snowfields, pp. 61–2.

169  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 140–41.

170  Ibid., p. 149.

171  UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends, 1999, p. 42, and 2001, p. 67.

172  Ibid., 2001, p. 18.

173  Nicholas Parsons, Meth Mania: A History of Methamphetamine (Boulder, CO, 2014), pp. 173–9; Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Fortieth session, 1997, p. 1.

174  Friesendorf, U.S. Foreign Policy, pp. 58–9; Malcolm Beith, The Last Narco (London, 2010), pp. 36–7.

175  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2017, vol. II, pp. 50–53.

176  Beith, The Last Narco, p. 38; Anabel Hernández, Narcolands: The Mexican Drug Lords and Their Godfathers (London, 2014), pp. 16–17 and 67–70.

177  Beith, The Last Narco, pp. 43–54.

178  Ibid., pp. 73–7; Hernández, Narcolands, pp. 39–40.

179  Bergen-Cico, War and Drugs, pp. 99–101; Bunker, Narcos over the Border, pp. 65–7.

180  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Forty-third session, 2000, p. 16.

181  Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, p. 1; ‘Secretary-General Calls on All Nations to Say “Yes” to Challenge of Working towards Drug-Free World’, 8 June 1998, United Nations, Press Release GA/9411.

182  United Nations/General Assembly/A/RES/S-20/1, f. 2.

183  Ibid., f. 4.

9 THE CONSENSUS CRUMBLES

    1  Drug Policy Alliance, ‘Public Letter to Kofi Annan’, 1 June 1998, f. 1, accessed on www.drugpolicy.org.

    2  Ibid., f. 2.

    3  Virginia Berridge, Demons: Our Changing Attitudes to Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drugs (Oxford, 2013), p. 131.

    4  Ibid., pp. 131–2; Virginia Berridge, ‘Drugs and Social Policy: The Establishment of Drug Control in Britain, 1900–30’, Addiction, LXXIX/4 (1984), pp. 17–29, at pp. 26–7; John Strang and Michael Gossop, eds, Heroin Addiction and the British System (Milton Park, 2005), p. 13.

    5  Berridge, ‘Drugs and Social Policy’, p. 27; Strang and Gossop, The British System, p. 19.

    6  David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 2nd edn (Oxford, 1987), pp. 97–8 and 167–82.

    7  Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), pp. 71–81.

    8  Howard Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History, 1800–1980 (Syracuse, NY, 1981), p. 134.

    9  Humberto Fernandez and Therissa Libby, Heroin: Its History, Pharmacology, and Treatment (Center City, PA, 2011), pp. 91–4.

  10  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 167–72.

  11  William S. Burroughs, Junky (London, 2008), pp. 56–7.

  12  Musto, American Disease, pp. 232–3.

  13  David Courtwright, ed., Addicts Who Survived: An Oral History of Narcotic Use in America before 1965 (Knoxville, TN, 1989), pp. 22–5.

  14  Virginia Berridge, ‘AIDS, Drugs, and History’, in Drugs and Narcotics in History, ed. Roy Porter and Mikuláš Teich (Cambridge, 1995), p. 191.

  15  Brain Committee Report, Drug Addiction: Second Report of the Interdepartmental Committee (London, 1965), p. 3; Berridge, Demons, p. 192; Strang and Gossop, The British System, pp. 31–3.

  16  Brain Committee Report, Drug Addiction, pp. 4–5.

  17  Strang and Gossop, The British System, p. 39; Suzanne MacGregor, ed., Drugs and British Society: Responses to a Social Problem in the Eighties (London, 1989), pp. 170–71.

  18  MacGregor, Drugs and British Society, p. 171.

  19  James Inciardi, ed., The Drug Legalization Debate, 2nd edn (London, 1999), p. 5; Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 353–4.

  20  Milton Friedman, ‘Prohibition and Drugs’, Newsweek, 1 May 1972, p. 104.

  21  Ibid.

  22  Thomas Szasz, Our Right to Drugs: The Case for a Free Market (New York, 1992), p. xxiv.

  23  Ibid., pp. 44–7 and 149.

  24  James Ostrowski, ‘The Moral and Practical Case for Drug Legalization’, Hofstra Law Review, XVIII/3 (1990), pp. 607–702, at p. 616.

  25  Inciardi, The Drug Legalization Debate, p. 35; David Courtwright, ‘Drug Legalization, the Drug War, and Drug Treatment in Historical Perspective’, Journal of Policy History, III (1999), pp. 42–63, at pp. 47–52.

  26  Inciardi, The Drug Legalization Debate, pp. 5–6 and 17–18; David Bewley-Taylor and Martin Jelsma, ‘The UN Drug Control Conventions: The Limits of Latitude’, Transnational Institute Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies, 18 (2012), pp. 1–24, at p. 4.

  27  Ethan Nadelmann, ‘The Case for Legalization’, Public Interest, 92 (1988), pp. 3–31, at p. 14.

  28  Trebach, ‘Rethinking American Policy’, in Policing and Prescribing: The British System of Drug Control, ed. David Whynes and Philip Bean (Basingstoke, 1991), pp. 268–9.

  29  UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2019, vol. I, p. 7.

  30  Tim Boekhout van Solinge, Dealing with Drugs in Europe (The Hague, 2004), p. 5.

  31  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 353–4.

  32  Nadelmann, ‘The Case for Legalization’, p. 17.

  33  Ibid., p. 19.

  34  Alyson Martin and Nushin Rashidian, A New Leaf: The End of Cannabis Prohibition (New York, 2014), pp. 172–3.

  35  Andreas Siebel, Drogenstrafrecht in Deutschland und Frankreich (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), pp. 186–7.

  36  Ostrowski, ‘The Moral and Practical Case for Drug Legalization’, pp. 658–63; Nadelmann, ‘The Case for Legalization’, pp. 15–16.

  37  Steven Jonas, ‘Why the Drug War Will Never End’, in The Drug Legalization Debate, ed. Inciardi, pp. 132–4.

  38  Jamie Fellner, ‘Punishment and Prejudice: Racial Disparities in the War on Drugs’, Human Rights Watch, 12 (2000), pp. 1–31, at p. 22.

  39  Doris Marie Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs (Chicago, IL, 2007), pp. 97–9 and 127–8.

  40  Ibid., p. 16.

  41  Szasz, Our Right to Drugs, pp. 117–24; Steven Jonas, ‘Why the Drug War Will Never End’, p. 126; Martin, A New Leaf, p. 160.

  42  James Wilson, ‘Against the Legalization of Drugs’, Commentary (February 1990), accessed on www.commentarymagazine.com.

  43  Thomas Babor, ed., Drug Policy and the Public Good, 2nd edn (Oxford, 2018), pp. 253–64.

  44  Courtwright, ‘Drug Legalization’, pp. 44–5; Robert MacCoun and Peter Reuter, ‘Assessing Drug Prohibition and Its Alternatives: A Guide for Agnostics’, Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 7 (2011), pp. 61–78, at pp. 72–3. Nadelmann nevertheless wrote that the illicit drugs, unlike alcoholic drugs, did not naturally belong in American culture and would therefore always enjoy limited use: Nadelmann, ‘The Case for Legalization’, p. 29.

  45  Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 35.

  46  Gordon Graham, ‘Criminalisation and Control’, in Policing and Prescribing, ed. Whynes and Bean, pp. 247–52.

  47  Alfred McCoy, The Politics of Heroin: CIA Complicity in the Global Drug Trade (New York, 1991), pp. 256–8; Norman Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use (New Haven, CT, 1984), p. 12; Lee N. Robins, ‘Vietnam Veterans’ Rapid Recovery from Heroin Addiction: A Fluke or Normal Expectation?’, Addiction, LXXXVIII/8 (1993), pp. 1041–54, at pp. 1044–5.

  48  Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, National Household Survey on Drug Abuse: Detailed Tables (Rockville, 1998–), 1998, Table 104A and Table 105A.

  49  Zinberg, Drug, Set, and Setting, p. 57.

  50  Ibid., p. 157.

  51  Ibid., pp. 69–70.

  52  Ibid., pp. 194–5.

  53  Ibid., pp. 125–6.

  54  Ibid., pp. 17–18.

  55  Ibid., pp. 154–5.

  56  Cited in Mitch Earleywine, Understanding Marijuana: A New Look at the Scientific Evidence (Oxford, 2002), p. 32.

  57  Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 40; Dirk Lachenmeier and Jürgen Rehm, ‘Comparative Risk Assessment of Alcohol, Tobacco, Cannabis and Other Illicit Drugs Using the Margin of Exposure Approach’, Scientific Reports, 5 (2015), pp. 1–7.

  58  David Nutt et al., ‘Development of a Rational Scale to Assess the Harm of Drugs of Potential Misuse’, The Lancet, CCCLXIX/9566 (2007), pp. 1047–53.

  59  Peter Anderson, ed., New Governance of Addictive Substances and Behaviours (Oxford, 2017), p. 6.

  60  Ibid., pp. 30–32.

  61  Fernandez and Libby, Heroin, pp. 48–9.

  62  Jarred Younger et al., ‘Prescription Opioid Analgesics Rapidly Change the Human Brain’, Pain, CLII/8 (2011), pp. 1803–10, at p. 1803.

  63  Nora Volkow et al., ‘Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction’, New England Journal of Medicine, 28 January 2016, pp. 368–9.

  64  National Institute on Drug Abuse, Drugs, Brain and Behavior: The Science of Addictions, 5th edn (Bethesda, MD, 2018), p. 22.

  65  Interview, Dr Michel Reynaud, 26 April 2018; Nancy Campbell, Discovering Addiction (Ann Arbor, MI, 2007), pp. 219–20.

  66  Volkow, ‘Neurobiologic Advances’, p. 364.

  67  Ibid., p. 366.

  68  Ibid., p. 367.

  69  Interview, Dr Michel Reynaud, 26 April 2018.

  70  NIDA, Drugs, Brain and Behavior, pp. 7–9; Volkow et al., ‘Neurobiologic Advances’, p. 367.

  71  NIDA, Drugs, Brain and Behavior, p. 17.

  72  Campbell, Discovering Addiction, p. 201.

  73  David Bewley-Taylor and Christopher Hallam, ‘The 2014 Commission on Narcotic Drugs and Its High-Level Segment: Report of Proceedings’, International Drug Policy Consortium (2014), pp 1–44, at p. 8, accessed on www.idpc.net.

  74  See www.drugpolicy.org, consulted on 4 June 2020.

  75  See www.beckleyfoundation.org; www.tni.org; and www.release.org.uk, last consulted on 4 June 2020.

  76  Sandra Lane et al., ‘The Coming of Age of Needle Exchange’, in Harm Reduction: National and International Perspectives, ed. Lana Harrison and James Inciardi (London, 2000), pp. 49–56; Richard Davenport-Hines, The Pursuit of Oblivion: A Global History of Narcotics, 1500–2000 (London, 2001), p. 378.

  77  Diane Riley and Pat O’Hare, ‘Harm Reduction: History, Definition, and Practice’, in Harm Reduction, ed. Harrison and Inciardi, p. 16; David Bewley-Taylor, International Drug Control: Consensus Fractured (Cambridge, 2012), p. 75; interview, Sylvie Reulet, 22 December 2017.

  78  Fernandez and Libby, Heroin, pp. 110–11; Kathleen Frydl, The Drug Wars in America, 1940–1973 (New York, 2013), pp. 328–30.

  79  Ernest Drucker, ‘Maintenance Drugs in the Treatment of Opiate Addiction’, in Harm Reduction, ed. Harrison and Inciardi, pp. 35–6; Frydl, The Drug Wars in America, p. 338.

  80  Fernandez and Libby, Heroin, p. 116.

  81  Ethan Nadelmann, ‘Commonsense Drug Policy’, in The Drug Legalization Debate, ed. Inciardi, p. 164.

  82  Riley and O’Hare, ‘Harm Reduction’, p. 12.

  83  Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 187; interview, Dr Michel Reynaud, 26 April 2018.

  84  Strang and Gossop, Heroin Addiction and the British System, pp. 140–44.

  85  Ibid., pp. 145–51; Riley and O’Hare, ‘Harm Reduction’, pp. 3–4.

  86  Bewley-Taylor, Consensus Fractured, pp. 72–3.

  87  German Lopez, ‘The Case for Prescription Heroin’, 12 June 2017, accessed on www.vox.com.

  88  Van Solinge, Dealing with Drugs in Europe, pp. 122–7; Marcel de Kort, ‘The Dutch Cannabis Debate, 1968–1976’, Journal of Drug Issues, XXIV/3 (1994), pp. 417–27, at pp. 419–26.

  89  De Kort, ‘The Dutch Cannabis Debate’, pp. 425–6; Tom Blickman, ‘Cannabis Policy Reform in Europe’, Transnational Institute Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies, 28 (2014), pp. 1–24, at p. 3.

  90  Blickman, ‘Cannabis Policy Reform in Europe’, pp. 3–4.

  91  Van Solinge, Dealing with Drugs in Europe, p. 139.

  92  Caitlin Hughes and Alex Stephens, ‘What Can We Learn from the Portuguese Decriminalization of Illicit Drugs?’, British Journal of Criminology, L/3 (2010), pp. 999–1022, at pp. 1000–1001; Hannah Laqueur, ‘Uses and Abuses of Drug Decriminalization in Portugal’, Law and Social Inquiry, XL/3 (2015), pp. 1–36, at pp. 4–5; Susana Ferreira, ‘Portugal’s Radical Drugs Policy Is Working’, The Guardian, 5 December 2017, www.theguardian.com. For Portugal’s incidence of opiate use, which Laqueur wrongly describes as low, see UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends (New York, 1999–2003), 1999, p. 125.

  93  Hughes and Stephens, ‘Portuguese Decriminalization?’, p. 1002; Laqueur, ‘Uses and Abuses’, p. 7.

  94  Alex Reeg, ‘Drugs and the Law in Post-Franco Spain’, in Drugs, Law and the State, ed. Harold H. Traver and Mark S. Gaylord (Hong Kong, 1992), pp. 49–63, at pp. 53–7; European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Country Drug Reports (Lisbon, 1996–), Spain 2019, p. 5.

  95  Robert MacCoun and Peter Reuter, Drug War Heresies: Learning from other Vices, Times, and Places (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 231–3; EMCDDA, Country Drug Reports, Italy 2019, p. 5.

  96  EMCDDA, Country Drug Reports, Estonia 2017, p. 4; EMCDDA, European Drug Reports, 2019, accessible on www.emcdda.europa.eu.

  97  Riley and O’Hare, ‘Harm Reduction’, p. 11; Chloé Potier et al., ‘Supervised Injection Services: What Has Been Demonstrated?’, Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 145 (2014), pp. 48–68, at pp. 64–5.

  98  Hughes and Stephens, ‘What Can We Learn from Portuguese Decriminalization?’, pp. 1006–8.

  99  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2010, pp. 278–95.

100  Hughes and Stephens, ‘What Can We Learn from Portuguese Decriminalization?’, p. 1006; EMCDDA, European Drug Reports, 2019, p. 58.

101  Laqueur, ‘Uses and Abuses’, pp. 8–9.

102  Hughes and Stephens, ‘What Can We Learn from Portuguese Decriminalization?’, pp. 1008–10.

103  EMCDDA, European Drug Reports, 2019, pp. 41–59.

104  Bewley-Taylor, Consensus Fractured, p. 39.

105  Ibid., pp. 60–63.

106  Ibid., pp. 102–27.

107  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions (New York, 1946–), Forty-third session, 2000, p. 18.

108  Bewley-Taylor and Jelsma, ‘The Limits of Latitude’, p. 11.

109  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Sixth special session, 1980, pp. 24–5.

110  Thomas Pietschmann, ‘A Century of International Drug Control’, Bulletin on Narcotics, LIX (2007), p. 110.

111  Bewley-Taylor and Jelsma, ‘The Limits of Latitude’, pp. 11–12.

112  Ibid., pp. 14–15.

113  Zhou Yongming, Anti-Drug Crusades in Twentieth-Century China: Nationalism, History, and State Building (Lanham, MD, 1999), pp. 122–4.

114  Dali Yang, ‘Illegal Drugs, Policy Change, and State Power: The Case of Contemporary China’, Journal of Contemporary China, II/4 (1993), pp. 14–34, at pp. 26–7.

115  Sarah Biddulph and Xie Chuanyu, ‘Regulating Drug Dependency in China: The 2008 PRC drug Prohibition Law’, British Journal of Criminology, LI/6 (2011), pp. 978–96, at p. 979; Bewley-Taylor, Consensus Fractured, p. 67; Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 285.

116  Bewley-Taylor, Consensus Fractured, p. 51.

117  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2000, p. 87.

118  Bewley-Taylor, Consensus Fractured, pp. 176–7.

10 OPIATE OVERDOSE

    1  Based on excess death calculations: National Institute on Drug Abuse Online Database, Number of National Drug Overdose Deaths Involving Select Prescription and Illicit Drugs, 1999–2018, accessed on www.drugabuse.gov  on 22 May 2020.

    2  Richard Bonnie, Morgan Ford and Jonathan Phillips, eds, Pain Management and the Opioid Epidemic (Washington, DC, 2017), pp. 14–15 and 31.

    3  ‘States Show the Way on the Opioid Epidemic’, New York Times, 24 August 2018, www.nytimes.com; Paul Blest, ‘Delaware’s Opioid Crisis’, www.theoutline.com, 12 February 2018.

    4  Marc Mauer, ‘Long-Term Sentences: Time to Reconsider the Scale of Punishment’, UMKC Law Review, LXXXVII (2018), pp. 113–31, at p. 116; Sari Horwitz, ‘Holder Calls for Reduced Sentences for Low-Level Drug Offenders’, Washington Post, 13 March 2014, www.washingtonpost.com.

    5  Chris McGreal, American Overdose: The Opioid Tragedy in Three Acts (London, 2018), pp. 14–17 and 27; Sam Quinones, Dreamland: The True Tale of America’s Opiate Epidemic (New York, 2015), pp. 30–31 and 80.

    6  Interview, Dr Garret FitzGerald, 7 December 2018.

    7  McGreal, American Overdose, pp. 40–43.

    8  Ibid., pp. 21–4.

    9  Ibid., p. 48; Quinones, Dreamland, p. 133.

  10  Quinones, Dreamland, pp. 126–7.

  11  Ibid., pp. 134–5.

  12  Subsys only came out in 2012, but Insys had a predecessor: Cephalon, fined $425 million in 2008 for mis-branding its fentanyl pharmaceutical Actiq: Hannah Kuckler, ‘Wall Street, Bribery, and an Opioid Epidemic: The Inside Story of a Disgraced Drugmaker’, Financial Times, 19 June 2020, www.ft.com.

  13  Hannah Kuchler, ‘Opioid Executive Admits to “No Morals” Ahead of Prison Term’, Financial Times, 23 January 2020, www.ft.com.

  14  Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, p. 26.

  15  Ibid.; McGreal, American Overdose, p. 55.

  16  McGreal, American Overdose, p. 44.

  17  Interview, Dr Garret FitzGerald, 7 December 2018.

  18  McGreal, American Overdose, p. 232.

  19  Quinones, Dreamland, p. 190; Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, pp. 27–8.

  20  Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, p. 3.

  21  Quinones, Dreamland, pp. 81 and 94–108; McGreal, American Overdose, pp. 83–5; Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, pp. 25–6.

  22  Quinones, Dreamland, p. 137.

  23  Interview, Dr Garret FitzGerald, 7 December 2018; Final Complaint, State of Ohio vs. Purdue Pharma, Teva Pharmaceutical Industries et al., Ross County Common Pleas Court, 31 May 2017, pp. 16–34, accessed on www.ohioattorneygeneral.gov; Thomas Babor, ed., Drug Policy and the Public Good, 2nd edn (Oxford, 2018), p. 139.

  24  McGreal, American Overdose, p. 102.

  25  Scott Higham, ‘The Drug Industry’s Triumph over the DEA’, Washington Post, 15 October 2017, accessed on www.washingtonpost.com.

  26  Beth Mole, ‘Drug Companies Submerged wv in Opioids: One Town of 3,000 Got 21 Million Pills’, www.arstechnica.com, 30 January 2018.

  27  Babor, ed., Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 149.

  28  Ben Wiseman, ‘The Family that Built an Empire of Pain’, New Yorker, 23 October 2017, www.newyorker.com.

  29  Christopher Glazek, ‘The Secretive Family Making Billions from the Opioid Crisis’, Esquire, 16 October 2017, www.esquire.com.

  30  McGreal, American Overdose, p. 125.

  31  Ibid., p. 281.

  32  McGreal, American Overdose, pp. 84–90 and 162–4.

  33  Ibid., pp. 171–2; Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, pp. 36–7.

  34  McGreal, American Overdose, pp. 204–7.

  35  Ibid., pp. 141–2.

  36  Higham, ‘The Drug Industry’s Triumph over the DEA’.

  37  Ibid.; McGreal, American Overdose, pp. 215–16.

  38  McGreal, American Overdose, p. 233; Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, p. 18.

  39  Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, pp. 189 and 212–20.

  40  Margaret Talbot, ‘The Addicts Next Door’, New Yorker, 28 April 2014, www.newyorker.com; McGreal, American Overdose, p. 252.

  41  Dan Vergano, ‘This Drug Is Cheaper and More Powerful than Heroin – and May Be Killing Way More People’, www.buzzfeed.com, 5 June 2017; McGreal, American Overdose, p. 260; Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, pp. 220–22.

  42  Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, p. 3.

  43  NIDA, Number of National Drug Overdose Deaths, 1999–2018.

  44  David Crow, ‘What Next for the Sacklers: A Pharma Dynasty under Siege’, Financial Times, 7 September 2018, www.ft.com.

  45  Jared Hopkins, ‘Wholesalers to Settle Opioid Litigation’, Wall Street Journal, 14 February 2020, www.wsj.com.

  46  Colin Dwyer, ‘Your Guide to the Massive (and Massively Complex) Opioid Litigation’, National Public Radio, 15 October 2019, www.npr.org.

  47  Hannah Kuchler, ‘Insys Founder Convicted in Opioid Bribery Case’, Financial Times, 2 May 2019, www.ft.com.

  48  Dwyer, ‘Your Guide to the Opioid Litigation’; Julia Kollewe, ‘OxyContin Maker Purdue Pharma Files for Bankruptcy’, The Guardian, 16 September 2019; David Crow, ‘Billionaire Sackler Family Owns a Second Opioid Drugmaker’, Financial Times, 9 September 2018, www.ft.com.

  49  Bonnie, Ford and Phillips, Pain Management, pp. 35–6.

  50  Terrence McCoy, ‘Inside the Fallout of America’s Crackdown on Opioids’, Washington Post, 1 June 2018, www.washingtonpost.com; Brianna Ehley, ‘How the Opioid Crackdown Is Backfiring’, www.politico.com, 28 August 2018.

  51  ‘Products: Vital Statistics Rapid Release’, www.cdc.gov/nchs/nvss/vsrr/drug-overdose-data.htm, accessed 9 June 2020.

  52  Harriet Ryan, Lisa Girion and Scott Glover, ‘OxyContin Goes Global’, LA Times, 18 December 2016, www.latimes.com; interview, Dr Garret FitzGerald, 7 December 2018.

  53  Catharine Tunney, ‘Canada Has Seen More than 8,000 Apparent Opioid Deaths since 2016’, CBC News, 18 September 2018, www.cbc.ca. Babor places Canada ahead of the USA in per capita consumption: Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 145, but Van Amsterdam’s more precise calculations has it at only about half the U.S. level: Jan van Amsterdam and Wim van den Brink, ‘The Misuse of Prescription Opioids: A Threat for Europe?’, Current Drug Abuse Reviews, VIII/1 (2015), pp. 3–14, at p. 4.

  54  Van Amsterdam and Van den Brink, ‘The Misuse of Prescription Opioids’, p. 9.

  55  UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2000, p. 99; European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Drug Related Deaths and Mortality in Europe (Lisbon, 2021), p. 7.

  56  Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 140.

  57  McGreal, American Overdose, p. xii.

  58  NIDA, Number of National Drug Overdose Deaths, 1999–2018, with 1999 taken as the baseline even though for decades between 1914 and 1995 overdose fatalities can only have been far lower.

  59  David Bewley-Taylor, International Drug Control: Consensus Fractured (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 158–9.

  60  Steven Belenko, ed., Drugs and Drug Policy in America: A Documentary History (Westport, CT, 2000), pp. 295–6.

  61  Andrew Potter and Daniel Weinstock, eds, High Time: The Legalization and Regulation of Cannabis in Canada (Montreal, 2019), p. 17.

  62  Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America, pp. 297–9.

  63  David Musto, The Quest for Drug Control: Politics and Federal Policy in a Period of Increasing Substance Abuse, 1963–1981 (New Haven, CT, 2002), pp. 113–15.

  64  Emily Dufton, Grassroots: The Rise and Fall and Rise of Marijuana in America (New York, 2017), p. 36.

  65  Ibid., p. 75; Alyson Martin and Nushin Rashidian, A New Leaf: The End of Cannabis Prohibition (New York, 2014), p. 48.

  66  Musto, The Quest for Drug Control, pp. 207–9.

  67  Jerome Himmelstein, The Strange Career of Marihuana (Westport, CT, 1983), pp. 104–5.

  68  Dufton, Grassroots, p. 108.

  69  Drug Abuse Council, The Facts about ‘Drug Abuse’ (New York, 1980), p. 137; Howard Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History, 1800–1980 (Syracuse, NY, 1981), p. 161.

  70  Musto, Quest for Drug Control, pp. 230–33; Dufton, Grassroots, pp. 89–100.

  71  Ibid., p. 123; Martin, A New Leaf, p. 54.

  72  Dufton, Grassroots, p. 70.

  73  Martin, A New Leaf, p. 16.

  74  European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Medical Use of Cannabis and Cannabinoids (Luxembourg, 2018), pp. 25–6.

  75  James Inciardi, ed., The Drug Legalization Debate, 2nd edn (London, 1999), p. 30.

  76  Martin, A New Leaf, pp. 59–61.

  77  Ibid., pp. 62–4.

  78  Potter and Weinstock, High Time, p. 19. For a critical view, see Patricia Erickson, ‘History and Prospects in Canadian Drug Policy’, in Harm Reduction: National and International Perspectives, ed. Lana Harrison and James Inciardi (London, 2000), pp. 155–69.

  79  Potter and Weinstock, High Time, p. 20; Martin, A New Leaf, p. 208.

  80  Jesse Tahirali, ‘7 in 10 Canadians Support Marijuana Legalization: Nanos Poll’, CTV News, 30 June 2016, www.ctvmews.ca; Potter and Weinstock, High Time, pp. 22–5.

  81  SAMHSA, National Survey on Drug Abuse, 2016, Table 139BB.

  82  Martin, A New Leaf, p. 6.

  83  Ibid., pp. 160–73.

  84  Ibid., pp. 173–80.

  85  Ibid., pp. 191–4 and 204.

  86  Ibid., p. 216.

  87  Dufton, Grassroots, p. 228; Nathan Kasai, ‘America’s Marijuana Evolution’, 24 August 2017, www.thirdway.org, accessed on 10 June 2020.

  88  Sean Williams, ‘These 3 States Will Begin Selling Recreational Marijuana Fairly Soon’, Motley Fool, 7 September 2019, www.fool.com.

  89  Dufton, Grassroots, p. 229.

  90  Kasai, ‘America’s Marijuana Evolution’.

  91  Dufton, Grassroots, pp. 233–5.

  92  Ari Rosmarin and Niamh Eastwood, A Quiet Revolution: Drug Decriminalisation Policies in Practice across the Globe (London, 2012), p. 35; Guillermo Garat, ‘Uruguay: A Way to Regulate the Cannabis Market’, in Drug Policies and the Politics of Drugs in the Americas, ed. Beatrice Labate, Clancy Cavnar and Thiago Rodrigues (Cham, 2016), pp. 209–19.

  93  Garat, ‘Uruguay’, pp. 218–21; Global Commission on Drug Policy, Regulation: The Responsible Control of Drugs (Geneva, 2018), p. 43.

  94  Garat, ‘Uruguay’, p. 222; UNODC, World Drug Report, 2019, vol. V, p. 35.

  95  Potter and Weinstock, High Time, pp. 90–93 and 218; UNODC, World Drug Report, 2019, vol. V, pp. 33–4.

  96  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2019, vol. V, pp. 26–7.

  97  Global Commission on Drug Policy, Enforcement of Drug Laws: Focusing on Organized Crime Elites (Geneva, 2020), p. 31.

  98  Martin, A New Leaf, pp. 152–3.

  99  Dan Baum, ‘Legalize It All’, Harper’s Magazine, 23 April 2018, www.harpers.org.

100  Aurora Cannabis, 2019 Annual Report, p. 4, www.investor.auroramj.com.

101  Ibid., pp. 9–12.

102  Ibid., pp. 16–19.

103  Ibid., p. 17.

104  Associated Press, ‘Jamaica Decriminalises Marijuana’, The Guardian, 25 February 2015, www.theguardian.com.

105  Global Commission on Drug Policy, Enforcement of Drug Laws, p. 28.

106  ‘NZ Government Needs to be Courageous on Drug Laws – Criminologist’, Radio New Zealand, 7 November 2020, www.rnz.co.nz.

107  EMCDDA, Medical Use of Cannabis, pp. 25–8, pp. 27–8; Jamie Grierson, ‘UK Doctors Will Be Able to Prescribe Cannabis Medicine Next Month’, 11 October 2018, The Guardian, www.theguardian.com.

108  Aurora Cannabis, 2019 Annual Report, p. 13; Aphria Inc., 2019 Annual Report, p. 24, accessed on www.aphriainc.com.

109  Tom Blickman, ‘Cannabis Policy Reform in Europe’, Transnational Institute Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies, 28 (2014), pp. 1–24, p. 2; interview, Sylvie Reulet, 22 December 2017.

110  Andreas Siebel, Drogenstrafrecht in Deutschland und Frankreich (Frankfurt am Main, 1996), p. 237; Rosmarin and Eastwood, A Quiet Revolution, p. 24.

111  Blickman, ‘Cannabis Policy Reform in Europe’, pp. 7–8.

112  Ibid., pp. 8–13.

113  Bewley-Taylor, Consensus Fractured, p. 177; David Bewley-Taylor and Martin Jelsma, ‘The UN Drug Control Conventions: The Limits of Latitude’, Transnational Institute Series on Legislative Reform of Drug Policies, 18 (2012), pp. 1–24, pp. 13–14.

114  Bewley-Taylor and Jelsma, ‘The Limits of Latitude’, pp. 5–7. While the Single Convention merely asks states not to permit unlicensed possession, the 1988 Convention is more aggressive in having as a guideline that it should be a criminal offence.

115  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2006, vol. I, pp. 155–6. See also Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions (New York, 1946–), Fifty-first session, 2007–8, p. 39.

116  Alan Feuer, ‘El Chapo Found Guilty on All Counts; Faces Life in Prison’, New York Times, 12 February 2019, www.nytimes.com.

117  Jude Webber, ‘After “El Chapo”: Mexico’s Never-Ending War on Drugs’, Financial Times, 20 February 2019, www.ft.com; Anabel Hernández, Narcolands: The Mexican Drug Lords and Their Godfathers (London, 2014), pp. 225–48; Malcolm Beith, The Last Narco (London, 2010), pp. 117–19 and 186–8.

118  Robert Bunker, ed., Narcos over the Border: Gangs, Cartels, Mercenaries, and the Invasion of America (London, 2010), pp. 147–8.

119  Ted Galen Carpenter, ‘The Drug War’s Damaging Impact on Mexico and Its Neighbours’, in New Approaches to Drug Policies, ed. Marten Brienen and Jonathan Rosen (Basingstoke, 2015), p. 17.

120  Pierre-Arnaud Chouvy, Opium: Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy (Cambridge, MA, 2010), pp. 73–5.

121  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2017, vol. II, pp. 39–40.

122  Ibid., vol. I, pp. 3–4.

123  Ibid., vol. IV, pp. 13–16.

124  Tom Allard, ‘The Hunt for Asia’s El Chapo’, www.reuters.com, 14 October 2019.

125  Ibid.

126  Jonathan Caulkins and Sarah Chandler, ‘Long-Run Trends in Incarceration of Drug Offenders in the U.S.’, Crime and Delinquency, LII/4 (2006), pp. 1–25, at pp. 7–11.

127  This excludes local jails, unlike the first data set. Paige Harrison and Allen Beck, ‘Prisoners in 2005’, Bureau of Justice Statistics, November 2006, pp. 9–10; Jennifer Bronson and Ann Carson, ‘Prisoners in 2017’, Bureau of Justice Statistics, April 2019, pp. 22–4, both accessed on www.bjs.org.

128  Council of Europe, Annual Penal Statistics (Strasbourg, 1998–), 2002, pp. 14 and 26, and 2019, p. 50.

129  These rates are measured as the percentage of firm prison sentences garnered on possession offences actually processed by a court of justice: European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Drug Offences: Sentencing and Other Outcomes (Luxembourg, 2009), pp. 10–14.

130  David Bewley-Taylor, Chris Hallam and Rob Allen, ‘The Incarceration of Drug Offenders: An Overview’, Beckley Foundation (2009), pp. 1–18, at p. 8.

131  Sarah Biddulph and Xie Chuanyu, ‘Regulating Drug Dependency in China: The 2008 PRC Drug Prohibition Law’, British Journal of Criminology, LI/6 (2011), pp. 978–96, at pp. 983–92.

132  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2006, vol. I, p. 1; see also 2007, p. 1.

133  See Appendix III.

134  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions, Fifty-fourth session, 2010–11, p. 35.

135  Ibid., Fifty-fifth session, 2011–12, pp. 32–3, Fifty-eighth session, 2014–15, pp. 21–4.

136  Global Commission on Drug Policy, Enforcement of Drug Laws, p. 4; www.globalcommissionondrugs.org, accessed on 12 June 2020.

137  Global Commission on Drug Policy, Enforcement of Drug Laws, pp. 9–10.

138  Global Commission on Drug Policy, The Responsible Control of Drugs, p. 6.

139  Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, pp. 317–18; Labate, Drug Policies in the Americas, p. v.

140  David Bewley-Taylor and Christopher Hallam, ‘The 2014 Commission on Narcotic Drugs and Its High-Level Segment: Report of Proceedings’, International Drug Policy Consortium (2014), pp. 1–44, at pp. 1–15.

141  Ibid., p. 11.

142  Ibid., pp. 1–2.

143  ‘Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 19 April 2016’, United Nations/General Assembly/A/RES/S-30/1, accessed on www.unodc.org/ungass2016.

144  United Nations/General Assembly/19 April 2016/A/S-30/PV.1, ff. 16–17.

145  Ibid./A/S-30/PV.2, ff. 7–8.

146  Ibid./21 April 2016/A/S-30/PV.5, f. 3.

147  Thomas Pietschmann, ‘A Century of International Drug Control’, Bulletin on Narcotics, LIX (2007), pp. 124–5.

148  Bewley-Taylor and Jelsma, ‘The Limits of Latitude’, p. 16; Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, pp. 310–11.

149  Babor, Drug Policy and the Public Good, p. 305.

150  Global Commission on Drug Policy, The Responsible Control of Drugs, pp. 36–9.

151  UNODC, World Drug Report, 2016, vol. I, p. 27.

152  Ibid., 2014, p. iii.

153  Ibid., 2010, p. 4, and 2015, pp. 77–118.

154  Ibid., 2013, p. 33.

155  Ibid., 2019, vol. I, p. 1.

156  Ibid., 2013, pp. xii-xiv. See also the 2011 issue, pp. 26–7.

157  Ibid., 2013, pp. 59 and 108–12.

158  Ibid., 2019, vol. I, pp. 1–12.

159  Ibid., p. 26.

160  Organization of American States, Scenarios for the Drug Problem in the Americas, 2013–2025 (Washington, DC, 2013), pp. 11–23.

CLOSING OBSERVATIONS

    1  Hannes Gatterer et al., ‘Mortality in Different Mountain Sports Activities Primarily Practiced in the Summer Season: A Narrative Review’, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, XVI/20 (2019), www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph.

    2  National Institute on Drug Abuse Online Database, Number of National Drug Overdose Deaths Involving Select Prescription and Illicit Drugs, 1999–2018, www.drugabuse.gov; SAMHSA, Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2018 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (Rockville, MD, 2018), p. 14; EMCDDA, Recent Changes in Europe’s Cocaine Market (Lisbon, 2018), p. 15; UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2017, vol. II, p. 48.

    3  NIDA, Number of National Drug Overdose Deaths, 1999–2018; SAMHSA, Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators, pp. 14–15.

APPENDIX I: OPIUM SMOKER NUMBERS IN NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHINA

    1  ‘Memorandum on Opium from China’, International Opium Commission, Report of the International Opium Commission, Shanghai China, February 1 to February 26 1909 (Shanghai, 1909), p. 57; R. K. Newman, ‘Opium Smoking in Late Imperial China: A Reconsideration’, Modern Asian Studies, XXIX/4 (1995), pp. 765–94, at pp. 769–74; China Imperial Maritime Customs Reports on Opium (Shanghai, 1864–1909), vol. IV, pp. 60–63; Use of Opium and Traffic Therein: Message from the President of the United States (Washington, DC, 1906), pp. 167–9; Chantal Descours-Gatin, Quand l’opium finançait la colonisation en Indochine (Paris, 1992), p. 210; UNODC, World Drug Report (Vienna, 1997–), 2011, p. 46.

APPENDIX II:
LEAGUE-ERA OPIUM REGIME STATISTICS

    1  League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Procès Verbal of Sessions (Geneva, 1921–40); League of Nations, Advisory Committee on Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (Geneva, 1926–40); Jacques Dumarest, Les Monopoles de l’opium et du sel en Indochine (Lyon, 1938), p. 122.

APPENDIX III: POST-WAR DRUG SEIZURES

    1  Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Summary of Annual Reports of Governments (Lake Success, NY, 1944–86); International Narcotics Control Board, Statistics on Narcotic Drugs (Geneva, 1968–); Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Reports on Sessions (New York, 1946–); UNODC, Global Illicit Drug Trends (New York, 1999–2003); UNODC, World Drug Report, 1997–2019.