abolition advocacy, 69
Abourezk, James, 126, 153, 158–59, 226n21
ad-hoc coalitions, 191–92
advisory committees, 169
advocacy organizations: advocacy strategies, 151–52, 187; and anti-racism, 19–20; Arab Americans, 123–30; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and civil rights, 118–19; and colorblindness ideology, 81; and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confronting Islamophobia, 117–18; and the future of civil rights, 207; and Islamophobia in American culture, 91; Muslim American advocacy organizations, 130–37; and the racial dilemma, 26–28; and racial formation, 68–72; and research methods, 31–33; South Asian, 138–42. See also civil rights organizations
affirmative action, 74–75, 144–46, 152–53, 182–83, 194, 200
Afghans, 36, 42–44, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 106, 115, 121
African Americans: advocacy organizations, 165–66; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; Islamic organizations, 182; and Islamophobia in American politics, 95; and Middle Eastern American communities, 55; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 132–35; and transactional coalitions, 187. See also Black identity
airport security, 67–68
Alcatraz Island occupation, 77
“Alien Terrorists and Undesirables: A Contingency Plan,” 99
All Dulles Area Muslim Society (ADAMS), 205
AMEMSA (Arabs, Middle Easterners, Muslims, and South Asians), 8
American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee (ADC), 154, 156; and Abourezk/Zogby split, 158–59, 226n21; background, 123, 126–30; and Census reform, 203–4; and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and definitions of terrorism, 111; and durability of Islamophobia, 199, 201; existential crisis, 134; and international affairs, 141; and interviews, 211–13; and Islamophobia in American culture, 90; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; origin of, 121–22, 122; and post-9/11 counterterrorism policy, 136; and the post–civil rights era, 153–56, 158–60; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167–69, 171; and racial shifts after 1990, 161–66; and research methods, 32; and transactional coalitions, 187, 190–91
American-Arab Relations Committee, 120–21
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), 103
American Communities Survey (ACS), 60
American culture, 86–92
American Hustle (2013), 87
American Indian Movement, 77
American Islamic institutions, 3
American Task Force, 161
anthrax threats, 101
anti-American sentiment, 41–42
anti-discrimination laws, 19–20, 119, 178–79
anti-foreign racism, 154. See also nativism; White supremacy
anti-Islamophobia advocacy, 30
anti-Muslim rhetoric, 3, 115, 217n3
anti-racism, 19–20
anti-Semitism, 154
anti-Sharia legislation, 93, 205
Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, 100
Arab American Action Network (AAAN), 117, 173
Arab American Association of New York, 27
Arab American Family Services, 173
Arab American Institute (AAI), 160; and Abourezk/Zogby split, 158–59, 226n21; and Census reform, 203–4; and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and international affairs, 141; as a “leadership organization,” 132; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; origin and purpose of, 121–22, 122, 128–30; and the post–civil rights era, 153, 157, 159–60; and public opinion on American Muslims, 197; and racial pressures after 9/11, 166–67, 169, 171; and racial shifts after 1990, 165–66; and transactional coalitions, 187, 190
Arab and Chaldean American Affairs Office, 183
Arab Community Center for Economic and Social Services (ACCESS), 121, 168–69
Arab-Israeli conflict, 126. See also Palestine
Arab National League, 123
Arabs: advocacy organizations, 98, 158; and coalition building, 81; and definitions of the Middle East, 42, 43; and ethnic identity, 22; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; and linked histories, 43–50; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120–21, 122, 123–30; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53; and Middle Eastern racial category, 3, 5, 7–8; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 135; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; and the post–civil rights era, 153; and the racial dilemma, 24, 27; racial identity, 157; and racial pressures after 9/11, 168, 183; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 116; and structural racism, 14; and US immigration policies, 46; and Whiteness, 202–4
Arab terrorism narrative, 42
Arafat, Yasser, 129
Arizona, 18
Asian American Justice Center, 172, 191
Asian Exclusion Acts, 42
Asians: and anti-racism, 19; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and civil rights, 74–78; and civil rights activism, 76; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and the “ethno-racial pentagon,” 78; and linked histories, 43–50; and Middle Eastern racial category, 8–9; and the racial paradox, 35, 37, 38; and socially constructed racial categories, 15–16
Associated Press (AP), 104–5
Association of Arab American University Graduates (AAUG): background, 124–26; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 63; and the post–civil rights era, 153; and racial formation, 68; and racial shifts after 1990, 163–64; and the War on Terror, 98
Association of Indians in America, 121
Assyrian National Council of Illinois, 173
Attorney General of the United States, 101
Awlaki, Anwar al-, 111–12
Ayyubid empire, 39
Bangladeshis and Bangladeshi Americans, 54, 58, 59, 61, 105. See also South Asians
bans of Muslims, 44, 45–46, 96
“Barbary captive” narrative, 41
Barber, William J., II, 149–50
Battle of Tours, 39
Bellingham, Washington, 46, 47
Bennett, John, 22
Bhutanese, 54
bin Laden, Osama, 89
biological race, 15
biometric security measures, 102
Black identity: and ADC/AAI split, 226n21; and advocacy organizations, 69, 71–72; and anti-racism, 19; and Black nationalism, 71; and Black unity, 69, 71; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and civil rights coalitions, 146–47; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; and the “ethno-racial pentagon,” 78; and the future of civil rights, 208; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 149; and Middle Eastern racial category, 5; and the post–civil rights era, 155, 157–58; and race-based solutions, 73; and the racial paradox, 35; and racial shifts after 1990, 166; and social activism, 71; and socially constructed racial categories, 15–16
Black Islamic movement, 31
#BlackLivesMatter, 27, 186. See also Movement for Black Lives
Borneo, 44
Boyd, Ralph, 178
brain drain, 50
Brennan, John, 112–14
bridging organizations, 173
Buddhists, 3
“building trust” initiatives, 181
Bureau of Indian Affairs, 77
Bush, George W.: Islamic Center of Washington speech, 135; and Islamophobia in American culture, 89–90; and Islamophobia in American politics, 94; and the War on Terror, 97–99
busing, 144
Cain, Herman, 95
California, 199–200
capitalism, 84
Carnegie Foundation, 191
Carter, Jimmy, 178
censuses, 53. See also US Census
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 112
centrifugal and centripetal forces, 62–65, 144, 151, 168, 186, 192, 194
Chaldeans: centrifugal and centripetal racial forces, 63; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 121; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53; and Middle Eastern racial category, 9; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; and racial pressures after 9/11, 183
charitable foundations, 143
Chinese Americans, 21, 42, 44, 47, 63–64, 74, 76, 80–81, 187–88
Christians: and advocacy organizations, 71; and Arab American advocacy organizations, 130; and definitions of the Middle East, 38, 39–40; and FBI surveillance policy, 105–6; and Islamophobia in American culture, 88; and Islamophobia in American politics, 94–95; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53–54; and Middle Eastern racial category, 3, 4; and the racial dilemma, 24; and the racial paradox, 37; and right-wing extremism, 112; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 138; and transactional coalitions, 187–89
civil disobedience, 146–47
civil liberties, 3, 14, 171–72
Civil Rights Act, 20, 64, 73, 119, 145, 178, 200
Civil Rights and Civil Liberties Office, 180
Civil Rights Division (Department of Justice), 146–47, 169, 177–80, 199
civil rights movement: and advocacy organizations, 70, 72; and anti-racism, 19–20; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 144; and colorblindness ideology, 78–82; future of, 205–8; and international affairs, 141; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 194; and post 9/11 Islamophobia, 34; and the racial dilemma, 23; and racial formation, 68, 74–78; and racial shifts after 1990, 166; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 116; and research methods, 34; and transactional coalitions, 191; and US immigration policies, 49–50; and the War on Terror, 102. See also civil rights organizations
civil rights organizations: Arab American advocacy organizations, 123–30; background of, 118–19, 144–47; and confronting Islamophobia, 117–18; and durability of Islamophobia, 198; and the future of civil rights, 207; Middle Eastern American coalitions, 147–52; Muslim American advocacy organizations, 130–37; and the post–civil rights era, 152–61; and the racial dilemma, 26, 27–28, 143; racial pressures after 9/11, 166–86; racial shifts after 1990, 161–66; and research methods, 31–33; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 138–42; strategies going forward, 192–94; transactional coalitions after 9/11, 186–92. See also advocacy organizations
civil rights statutes, 176–77
Civil War, 44
clash of civilizations thesis, 86, 166
classical period, 39
Clinton, Bill, 131
coalition building, 32, 81, 191
coalitions, 64
collective identities, 43, 151
collectivization, 64
colloquialisms, 5
colorblindness ideology: and advocacy strategies, 152; and civil rights activism, 78–82; and civil rights coalitions, 145–47; and durability of Islamophobia, 199–201; and the future of civil rights, 207–8; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 194; and post 9/11 Islamophobia, 34; and the post–civil rights era, 157; and South Asian Americans, 81; and transformational coalitions, 192
Combating Terrorism Center, 105
Commission on Middle Eastern American Affairs, 182, 183
confidential informants, 12
Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), 71
conservative activism, 93, 144, 195–96
conspiracy theories, 95–96, 109, 195
content analysis, 30
contextual analysis, 28
co-opting racial identity, 26
Cordoba House (Park 51), 195–96
corporations, 119
Council of Presidents of National Arab American Organizations, 163
Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR): and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confidentiality issues, 218n40; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and durability of Islamophobia, 201; and the future of civil rights, 206; and international affairs, 141; and interviews, 211–13; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 121; origin and purpose of, 122, 122, 133–37; and the racial dilemma, 23–24, 26, 27; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167, 171, 173–74; and racial shifts after 1990, 163–65; and research methods, 32; and transactional coalitions, 187–90
Countering Violent Extremism (CVE), 110–12
Counterintelligence Program (COINTELPRO), 98, 107
counterterrorism: Counterterrorism Advisor, 112; and discriminatory surveillance, 104–8; intelligence gathering, 181–82; and Islamophobia in American policy, 103–4; and Middle Eastern racial category, 4–5; and Obama reforms, 114; and racial pressures after 9/11, 171; and structural racism, 10–14; and US immigration policies, 49
cultural associations, 50, 62–63
cultural Islamophobia, 86–89
culture-oriented organizations, 168
De Blasio, Bill, 105
decolonization, 120
dehumanization of Arabs, 88
Democratic National Convention (DNC), 131–32
demographics, 37, 38, 51–55, 59, 61, 161–66, 206
“Demographics Unit,” 104–5, 107–8
Department of Homeland Security (DHS): and definitions of terrorism, 113–14; interviews, 213; and racial pressures after 9/11, 172, 177, 180–81; and research methods, 29; and structural racism, 11; and the War on Terror, 99
desegregation, 144
Desis Rising Up and Moving (DRUM), 117
detentions, 14, 85, 99, 171. See also internment of Japanese Americans
direct-action protests, 77
discrimination: and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and counterterrorism, 11; and the future of civil rights, 205; and Islamophobia in American culture, 91–92; and Islamophobia in American politics, 97; and Japanese internments, 48; and Middle Eastern American communities, 52; and the post–civil rights era, 158; and the racial paradox, 37; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167–69; religious, 19; and structural racism, 11; and surveillance programs, 104–8; and the War on Terror, 100–101
diversity: and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 144; and civil rights activism, 74; and colorblindness ideology, 80; and complexity of racial categories, 16–17; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; and durability of Islamophobia, 202; and the future of civil rights, 205; and international affairs, 141; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 124; and Middle Eastern American communities, 52, 55, 61–62; and Middle Eastern racial category, 6, 7; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 132–35, 134–35; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 192, 194; and the racial dilemma, 26; and the racial paradox, 35, 37; and racial pressures after 9/11, 169, 171, 176, 182; and racial shifts after 1990, 165; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 116; and transactional coalitions, 187, 190
“dog whistle” politics, 103
dominance, 16
dragnet surveillance, 103, 115
“drones” (unmanned aerial vehicles), 111–12, 115
durability of Islamophobia, 20–22, 198–201
economic downturns, 170–71
ecumenical approaches, 165
Egypt, 86
Egyptians: and centrifugal/centripetal racial forces, 62; and counterterrorism policy, 108; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; and Islamophobia in American culture, 86; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 121, 123, 124; and Middle Eastern American communities, 52–53, 56, 57
electoral campaigns, 92–97, 159–60, 195–96
Emmanuel Baptist Church, 109
Encyclopedia of Associations, 30–31, 120–21, 126, 139, 163
entrepreneurship, 183
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 178–79
equal housing, 152
equal protection clause, 146
essentialism, 89
ethnicity: and definitions of the Middle East, 40; ethnic associations, 50, 62–63; ethnic cleansing, 42; ethnic heritage, 124, 138; “ethno-racial pentagon,” 15–16, 35, 78
European Renaissance, 115
European settlements, 40–41
exclusion zones, 48
Executive Order 9066, 48
Executive Order 12250, 178
Ex parte Mohriez, 45
Facebook, 106
Fatimid Caliphate, 39
fear, 17–18
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI): and definitions of terrorism, 110–11, 113; and discriminatory surveillance, 104–8; and durability of Islamophobic racism, 21; and FBI surveillance policy, 106; and interviews, 210; and Islamophobia in American culture, 87, 89–90; and Middle Eastern racial category, 3; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 135–37; and the post–civil rights era, 153; and racial pressures after 9/11, 169, 176–77, 179–80; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 140–41; sting operations, 198; and structural racism, 11–14; and the War on Terror, 98–99, 101–2
Federation of Association for Arab American Relations, 126
Ferguson, Missouri, 27
Fifteenth Amendment, 69
film, 41
First Amendment, 196
first generation immigrants, 62
Ford Foundation, 191
foreign affairs, 193
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) Amendments Act, 103
foreign policy, 153
“franchise model” of advocacy organizations, 134
Free Syria Society, 123
“fringe effect,” 197
funding for research, 218n46
Gail Research, 30–31
Gandhi, Indira, 88
Gaza, 124
generational differences, 162
Golan Heights, 124
“Ground Zero mosque” controversy, 195–97
Guidestar database, 31
Guiliani, Rudolph, 94
Hafsid empire, 39
Haley, Nikki, 21
Hamas, 135–36
hate crimes: and anti-Sikh violence, 90–91; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; hate groups, 46–47, 154; and Islamophobia in American culture, 91–92; and Middle Eastern racial category, 2, 4; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 133; post-9/11 attacks on Muslims, 196–97; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167–69, 177–79; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 115; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 140–41
Health and Human Services, 178
Hindus, 3–4, 24–25, 54, 138–39
Hirabayashi, 48–49
Hispanics, 16. See also Latin@s
Hollywood, 41–42, 84, 87–88, 132, 133
Holocaust Memorial Museum, 113
Holy Land Foundation, 136–37
Hoover, J. Edgar, 98
House Homeland Security Committee, 21
human rights, 12–14, 23, 171–72
Human Rights Watch, 12–14
identity-based civil rights, 74
identity-based groups, 118
Illinois Coalition for Immigrant and Refugee Rights (ICIRR), 173–75
immigrant status, 175
immigration, 18, 51–52, 57, 166
Immigration and Nationality Act (Hart-Celler Act), 50
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 99, 100–101
immigration policy, 34, 48, 170–75
Indian American Leadership Center, 141
Indians: and anti-immigrant violence, 83; centrifugal and centripetal racial forces, 62; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 62; and definitions of the Middle East, 38, 42; immigration statistics, 58, 59; Indo Americans, 76, 173; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120–21; and Middle Eastern American communities, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61; and Middle Eastern racial category, 6, 9; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; and the post–civil rights era, 160; and the racial paradox, 36; and Sikh militants, 88; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 139, 141; and US immigration policies, 44, 46; and the War on Terror, 101
Indian subcontinent, 138
individual liberties, 108
Indo-American Center, 173
Indo-China, 44
Inhofe, James, 94–95
Institute of Arab American Affairs, 123
intelligence agencies, 103
Internal Revenue Service (IRS), 114
international affairs, 128–29, 131
international conflicts, 193
internment of Japanese Americans, 48–49, 75, 85
Intifada, 131
Iranians, 35–36, 38, 53–54, 56, 57, 61, 62, 64, 120–21, 123
Iraqis, 45, 53–54, 56, 57, 61, 62, 121, 123
Islam: Islamic calendar, 223n99; Islamic Revival, 130; Islamic terrorism, 33, 43; “Islamo-fascism,” 94; and legitimate religious debate, 217n3; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53–54; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 130–37; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 138
Islamic Center of Southern California, 131
Islamic Center of Washington, DC, 135
Islamic Shura Council of Southern California, 133
Islamic Society of North America (ISNA), 131, 136–37, 211
Islamic State (ISIS), 14, 110, 197–98
Israeli-Palestinian conflict, 126–27, 131, 135, 153, 161–63
Israelis, 61
Israeli War for Independence, 124
Jackson, Jesse, 155–56, 156, 159–60
Japanese, 48–49, 63–64, 68, 74–76, 85, 160
Javans, 44
Jim Crow segregation, 69, 73, 85, 120, 207
jingoism, 48
joint letters of protest, 170, 173
Jordan, 86
Jordanians, 45, 53, 56, 57, 61
Judaism, 53
juries, 13
Kellogg Foundation, 25
Kennedy, John F., 88–89
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 72, 79, 208
Kirk, Mark, 21
Laotians, 74
Latin@s: advocacy organizations, 165–66; and anti-racism, 19; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and civil rights, 76; and definitions of the Middle East, 38; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and the “ethno-racial pentagon,” 78; and the future of civil rights, 205; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 149; and Middle Eastern racial category, 9–10; and the racial dilemma, 25, 26, 27; and the racial paradox, 35; and racial pressures after 9/11, 174, 180; and racism in the US, 85; and socially constructed racial categories, 16; and transactional coalitions, 187–88
law of exclusion, 115
Leadership Council on Civil Rights (LCCR), 141, 160, 186, 191
leadership development, 168
League of Arab States, 53
Lebanese: and Arab American advocacy organizations, 123–24, 126; centrifugal and centripetal racial forces, 62; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and definitions of the Middle East, 38, 42; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120–21; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53, 56, 57, 61; and the post–civil rights era, 153, 157; and the racial dilemma, 26; and US immigration policies, 46
legislative advocacy, 172. See also lobbying
liberal social justice, 138–39
“Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing” (Johnson), 72
linked histories, 43–50
lobbying, 30, 69, 119, 125–26, 128, 168, 171
“lone wolf” terrorism, 11, 110, 113–14
loose coalitions, 163
Los Angeles Eight, 99
Los Angeles International Airport, 108
lynchings, 47
Madrid Conference, 129
“majority-minority” era, 206–7. See also demographics
Malay Peninsula, 44
Malaysians, 55
Mamluk empire, 39
Maryland, 182
mass incarceration, 85
mass shootings, 110
material witnesses, 101
“Mauri” term, 39
melodramas, 33
“melting pot,” 44
Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF), 63, 68, 140–41
Middle Ages, 37
“Middle East and North African” (MENA) identity, 5, 33, 157, 167, 203–4
Middle Eastern Americans: and advocacy organizations, 120–22; American communities, 51–62; and civil rights coalitions, 147–52; and colorblindness ideology, 81; and definitions of terrorism, 110; and hate crimes, 83–84; immigration statistics, 60; impact of Islamic State on, 197–98; and linked histories, 43–50; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53, 55, 57, 61; and racial categories, 2–5, 7–10, 176; and the racial dilemma, 26, 34; and the racial paradox, 35–36, 37; and racial pressures after 9/11, 184–85; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 115, 116; and structural racism, 10, 11, 14; and the War on Terror, 100; and Whiteness, 202–5. See also specific ethnicities and nationalities
Middle East peace process, 129
migration, 37
militias, 112–13
millennial generation, 52
mobilization, 71
monitoring, 103
moral language, 26
Moral Monday Movement, 149
Movement for Black Lives, 146. See also #BlackLivesMatter
multiculturalism, 50
multi-generational wealth, 51
Munich Olympic Games attacks, 98
Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, 88, 94
Muslim American charities, 102–3
Muslim Community Association (MCA), 117
“Muslim extremism,” 43
Muslim Public Affairs Council (MPAC): and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and counterterrorism efforts, 135; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and the future of civil rights, 206; and international affairs, 141; and interviews, 211–12; origin and purpose of, 122, 122, 131–33; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167–68, 171; and racial shifts after 1990, 163–66; and transactional coalitions, 188–90
Muslims: advocacy organizations, 130–37; and coalition building, 81; and complexity of racial categories, 17; and definitions of the Middle East, 42, 43; and linked histories, 43–50; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120–22, 122; and Middle Eastern racial category, 5, 7, 8; and the racial dilemma, 24, 27; and racial formation, 66; and racial pressures after 9/11, 168; and racial shifts after 1990, 166; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 116; and US immigration policies, 46; See also Islam; specific ethnicities and nationalities
Muslim Students Association (MSA), 121, 130–31, 211
Muslim Women Resource Center, 173
Nakba War, 124
Napolitano, Janet, 113–14
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 68, 70–72, 155, 160, 191
National Association of Arab Americans (NAAA), 63, 125–26, 153, 161, 163–64
National Capital Immigration Coalition, 173
National Coalition of South Asian Organizations, 184
National Commission on Terrorism, 131
National Congress of American Indians, 160
National Council of La Raza, 160, 191
National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC), 109, 223n99
National Indian Youth Council, 77
National Network of Arab American Communities, 169
National Origin Working Group (NOWG), 178
National Science Foundation, 218n46
National Security Agency (NSA), 103
National Security Entry-Exit Registration System, 102
National Security Strategy, 112
National Urban League, 161
Native Americans: and anti-racism, 19; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and civil rights, 74–78; and definitions of the Middle East, 38, 42; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and the “ethno-racial pentagon,” 78; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 149; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; and the racial dilemma, 26; and the racial paradox, 35; and racism in the US, 85; and socially constructed racial categories, 15–16
nativism, 206
naturalization, 44–45, 48, 115, 171
Naturalization Act, 44–45
Nazis, 154
Nepalese, 54
“New Americans Democracy Project,” 174
new civil rights movement, 80, 194, 208, 229n27
New Guinea, 44
“New Left” political advocacy, 98
New Right, 80
news media, 166
New York City, 104
New York City Council, 105
New York Police Department (NYPD), 27, 104–5, 107–8
Niagara Movement, 69–70
9/11 attacks: and advocacy strategies, 152; and Arab American advocacy organizations, 127–28, 130; and colorblind advocacy strategies, 34, 81; and definitions of terrorism, 114; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; and durability of Islamophobia, 201; and the future of civil rights, 206–7; and “Ground Zero mosque” controversy, 195–96; and Islamophobia in American culture, 89–92; and Islamophobia in American policy, 97; and Islamophobia in American politics, 94–95; and Middle Eastern racial category, 3–4; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 132, 134–35; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 194, 198; post 9/11 Islamophobia, 89–92; and the racial dilemma, 1, 143; and racial nature of Islamophobia, 17–19; racial pressures after, 166–86; and racial profiling, 203; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 139–42; and transactional coalitions, 186–92; and the War on Terror, 99–101
niqab veils, 164
Nixon, Richard, 152
“no-fly lists,” 101–2
non-Arab Middle Easterners, 60, 61
North Africans: and definitions of the Middle East, 39; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 123; and Middle Eastern American communities, 52, 53, 55, 59, 61; and Middle Eastern racial category, 5, 10; and the racial paradox, 35, 37–38
North Koreans, 102
nullification, 228n11
Obama, Barack, 95, 103, 110–12, 114, 147
“oil sheik” caricature, 86–87
Oklahoma City bombing, 133, 163
O’Malley, Martin, 182
“One Community United” campaign, 184–85
one-drop rule, 42
Open Society Foundation, 25
Open Society Initiative, 172
Operation TIPS, 111
Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 86–87
Organization of Chinese Americans (OCA), 63
Orientalist stereotypes, 33, 40–42, 66, 74, 84, 86
Pakistanis: centrifugal and centripetal racial forces, 62; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; immigration statistics, 58, 59; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120, 121; and Middle Eastern American communities, 54, 58, 59; and Middle Eastern racial category, 6, 9; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193; and the racial paradox, 36–37; and racial pressures after 9/11, 182; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 139, 141; and transactional coalitions, 187–88; and US immigration policies, 46; and the War on Terror, 101
Palestine, 126–27, 131, 135, 153, 161–63
Palestinian Liberation Front, 87
Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), 126
Palestinians: and Arab American advocacy organizations, 129; centrifugal and centripetal racial forces, 63; and definitions of the Middle East, 42; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120–21, 123; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 193
Palin, Sarah, 95
Pan Am Flight 103 bombing, 87
Panethnic Asian Americans, 75
panethnicity: and Arab American advocacy organizations, 124; centrifugal and centripetal racial forces, 63; and civil rights activism, 74–78, 80; and Middle Eastern American communities, 54; and Middle Eastern racial category, 8; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 134; “protective,” 80; and race-neutral approaches, 167; and the racial dilemma, 26; and racial pressures after 9/11, 173; and racial shifts after 1990, 163; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 138, 141
Pearl Harbor, 48
“people of color” identity: and advocacy organizations, 70; and Census reform, 203–4; and civil rights activism, 74, 206, 208; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 194; and the post–civil rights era, 158; and racial pressures after 9/11, 175; and racism in the US, 85, 186; and transactional coalitions, 191
Persians, 41–42, 63. See also Iranians
phenotypical variation, 76
philanthropies, 102–3
physical traits, 2–5, 24, 41, 76, 188
Planned Parenthood, 109
police brutality, 27
political activism, 46, 63, 150, 190–91
political correctness, 95
political exclusion, 34
political norms, 118–19
popular culture, 41
post–civil rights era, 34, 78, 125, 152–61
post-racial era, 144
Powell, Colin, 162
presidential politics, 92–97, 159–60
President’s Program, 103
profiling, 115–16
“Project O,” 174
propaganda, 93
Proposition 209, 200
public relations, 25
Rabin, Yitzhak, 129
race and racial categories: and anti-racism, 19–20; and colorblindness ideology, 145–47, 157; coming to terms with race, 14–22; and durability of Islamophobic racism, 22; fluidity of, 15; and the future of civil rights, 208; “Middle Eastern” racial category, 2–5, 5–7, 7–10, 217n5; and Muslim Americans, 219n13; race-based activism, 192–94, 199, 204; race consciousness, 27; race conscious strategies, 34; race-neutral strategies, 25–26, 149, 167; racial diversity, 187–88; racial formation process, 9, 15–16, 84, 114–16, 118, 180, 183–84, 198, 201; racially defined groups, 24–25; racial nature of Islamophobia, 17; racial profiling, 18, 21, 26–27, 34, 104–8, 171, 201; racial segregation, 18; racial state, 68; and research methods, 31–33; stereotypes, 13; and transactional coalitions, 186–92. See also racial dilemma; racial paradox
racial dilemma: and civil rights advocacy, 143; coming to terms with race, 14–22; and confronting Islamophobia, 23–28, 117–18; and definitions of the Middle East, 38; and durability of Islamophobia, 198–201; and the future of civil rights, 206; and hate crimes, 1; and “looking Muslim,” 2–10; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 148–49; and the post–civil rights era, 152–53, 158–59, 161; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167, 184; and racism in the US, 85; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 116; and research methods, 28–33; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 141; and structural racism, 10–14
racial paradox: and advocacy organizations, 68–72; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 62–65; and colorblindness ideology, 78–82; and definitions of the Middle East, 38–43; described, 33–38; and durability of Islamophobia, 198, 201; and linked histories of migrant groups, 43–50; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 148; and Middle Eastern American communities, 51–62; and panethnic unity, 142; race-based problems and solutions, 72–73; racial barriers, 50; racial formation process, 65–78; racial profiling, 67–68; racial project concept, 65; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 85, 114–17
racism: and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 64; and colorblindness ideology, 152; defining, 66–67; and durability of Islamophobia, 22, 200; institutional, 67; Islamophobia as, 114–17; and migration policies, 44; and Orientalism, 33, 40–42, 66, 74, 84, 86; and the racial dilemma, 26; and racial formation process, 66–67; racial nature of Islamophobia, 17–18, 116; and structural racism, 10–14; and transactional coalitions, 188; and US immigration policies, 44, 46–50
Rainbow Coalition, 155, 159, 201
Reagan, Ronald, 49, 98–99, 152
Reconstruction, 73
“Red Power,” 77
reforms, 144
religious identity: and racial categories, 3, 15–19; religious discrimination and persecution, 19, 24, 201; religious freedom, 23–24; religious groups, 42; religious markers, 40. See also specific religions
Republican Party, 113
research grants, 218n46
research methods, 28–33
reverse discrimination, 144, 194
Rights Working Group (RWG), 171–75
right-wing extremism, 112–13
riot, 47
Roberts, John, 79
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 48
Russian Turkestan, 44
San Bernardino County Department of Public Health, 110
Saudis, 123
Second World nations, 74
secret evidence, 100
segregation, 18, 73, 75–76, 85, 120, 145, 207
self-identity, 9
separation of church and state, 196
Sephardic Jews, 41
September 11 attacks. See 9/11 attacks
service organizations, 168
“Shared Responsibility Committees,” 111
“sheik” caricature, 86–87, 127
Shelby County case, 228n11
Shura Councils, 132–33
Siamese, 44
Siberians, 44
Sikh American Association, 139
Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund (SALDEF): and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and interviews, 212; origin and purpose of, 122, 122; and the post–civil rights era, 160; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167–68, 171, 183, 185–86; and racial shifts after 1990, 166; responses to 9/11, 139–41; and transactional coalitions, 189
Sikh Coalition, 111
Sikh Council of North America, 121
Sikh Mediawatch and Resource Taskforce (SMART), 139–40
Sikhs: and coalition building, 81; and colorblindness ideology, 152; and complexity of racial categories, 17; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and definitions of terrorism, 111; and definitions of the Middle East, 41–43; and durability of Islamophobia, 199, 201; and hate crimes, 1; and interviews, 212; and Islamophobia in American culture, 86, 88–89, 90–91; and Islamophobia in American politics, 94; and linked histories, 43–50; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 122; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 148–49; and Middle Eastern American communities, 54, 59; and Middle Eastern racial category, 3–5, 7, 9, 121; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 137; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 192–94; and race-based coalitions, 34; and the racial dilemma, 24–27; and racial pressures after 9/11, 166–68, 170–71, 175–78, 179–81, 184–86; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 114, 116; and research methods, 28, 30, 32; Sikh Temple massacre, 83, 90, 109; and South Asian American advocacy organizations, 138–42; and structural racism, 14; and transactional coalitions, 188–90; and US immigration policies, 46, 50; Wisconsin temple attack, 109
Six Day War, 86
sleeper cells, 11
“snowballing,” 29
Snyder, Rick, 183
social activism, 190–91
social advocacy organizations, 63
social construction of racial categories, 2
social production of race, 84
social protest, 146
social structures, 4
socioeconomic class, 52–53
Somalis, 67
South Asian Americans Leading Together (SAALT): and complexity of Islamophobia, 143; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and interviews, 212–13; and Islamophobia in American politics, 94–95; origin and purpose of, 122, 122; panethnic outreach, 141–42; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167–68, 171, 183–84, 186; and racial shifts after 1990, 166; and transactional coalitions, 190
South Asians: advocacy organizations, 138–42; and advocacy strategies, 152; and centrifugal/centripetal forces, 63; and civil rights activism, 76; and coalition building, 81; and colorblindness ideology, 81; and complexity of racial categories, 17; and confronting Islamophobia, 118; and definitions of the Middle East, 38, 40–43; and durability of Islamophobia, 199, 201; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; immigration statistics, 58, 59, 60; and Islamophobia in American culture, 86, 88–89, 91; and Islamophobia in American politics, 94–95; and linked histories, 43–50; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 122; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 148–49; and Middle Eastern American communities, 52–55, 59, 60, 60, 61; and Middle Eastern racial category, 3, 5–7, 7–8, 217n5; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 132–35, 137; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 192–94; and race-based coalitions, 34; and the racial dilemma, 24, 26–27; and the racial paradox, 35; and racial pressures after 9/11, 166–68, 170, 175–84; and racial shifts after 1990, 166; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 14, 84, 114–16; and research methods, 28, 30, 32; and transactional coalitions, 186, 188–90; and US immigration policies, 45–47. See also specific ethnicities and nationalities
Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), 71
Southwest Asians: and definitions of the Middle East, 39–40; and Middle Eastern American communities, 52, 59, 61; and Middle Eastern racial category, 4, 6, 8, 10; and the racial paradox, 35, 37; and racist elements of Islamophobia, 115; and US immigration policies, 47, 50
“special registration” protocols, 102
“sponsors of terrorism,” 11
stereotyping: caricatures of Arabs, 86–88; and definitions of the Middle East, 40–41; and the future of civil rights, 207; and Islamophobia in American culture, 92; and the post–civil rights era, 158; and racial formation, 66; and racial profiling, 34; and racial shifts after 1990, 163; and research methods, 33; “sheik” caricature, 86–87, 127; and structural racism, 11, 14; and the War on Terror, 104
stigmatized groups, 24–25, 157. See also racism
sting operations, 106–7, 108, 177
stop-and-frisk policies, 27
strategic advocacy, 32
strategic essentialism, 80
strict scrutiny, 145–46
structural racism and discrimination, 5, 10–14, 67
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 71
student organizations, 104–5
Suez Canal, 40
Sumatrans, 44
SWANA (Southwest Asians and North Africans), 8
Syria, 40, 86, 123–24, 163, 193
Syriac, 61
Syrians: and Arab American advocacy organizations, 123–24; and definitions of the Middle East, 41; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53, 56, 60; and Middle Eastern racial category, 6; and US immigration policies, 45–47
Tancredo, Tom, 96
taxonomy of race, 15–16
terminology of race, 5–7, 7–10, 40
terrorism: classification of attacks, 109, 223n99; defining, 108–14; and definitions of the Middle East, 41–42; and internment contingency plans, 49; and Islamophobia in American culture, 87–89; and Middle Eastern racial category, 7; and Muslim American advocacy organizations, 135; and structural racism, 10–14; and the War on Terror, 97–104. See also 9/11 attacks
Terrorism Information and Prevention System (TIPS), 101
Terrorism Liaison Officer, 101
Thind, Bhagat Singh, 45–46
Third World nations, 74
Thirteenth Amendment, 69
“To Be Young, Gifted, and Black” (Wels), 72
top-down research, 32
torture, 115
transactional coalitions: and advocacy strategies, 151–52; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 149–50; and racial pressures after 9/11, 166–67, 170–75; and racial shifts after 1990, 164–65; and transactional coalitions, 186–92
transformational coalitions: and advocacy strategies, 34, 151–52; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and the future of civil rights, 206, 208; and Middle Eastern American coalitions, 149–51; and ongoing advocacy strategies, 192–94; and the post–civil rights era, 160; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167, 170, 172, 175–76, 180, 183–86; and racial shifts after 1990, 164–65; and transactional coalitions, 189
Transportation Security Administration (TSA), 25–26, 67–68, 109, 169, 201
Trump, Donald J., 20–21, 96, 198
trust building, 177
Turkestan, 44
Turkmen, 42
Turks: and centrifugal/centripetal racial forces, 63; and definitions of the Middle East, 40, 42–43; foreign-born percentage of American population, 61; and Middle Eastern American advocacy organizations, 120–21; and Middle Eastern American communities, 56, 60; and Middle Eastern racial category, 9
TWA Flight 800, 89
12250 meetings, 178
Umayyad Caliphate, 39
umbrella organizations, 151
undercover informants, 104, 177
unintentional racism, 67
United Arab Emirates, 53
United States Senate, 7
University of California, 35, 36
University of Texas v. Nassar, 200, 228n11
unmanned aerial vehicles (“drones”), 111–12, 115
USA Freedom Act, 100
US Army, 105
US Census: and Japanese internments, 48; and Middle Eastern American communities, 53–54, 53–55; and the post–civil rights era, 157–58; and the racial paradox, 35, 36–37; and racial pressures after 9/11, 167; and Whiteness, 202–4
US Congress, 93, 98, 153–54, 195–96
US Constitution, 202
US Customs Service, 203
US Department of Energy, 102
US Department of Homeland Security, 176
US Department of Justice (DOJ): and advocacy strategies, 152; and civil rights coalitions, 146–47; Civil Rights Division, 146–47, 169, 177–80, 199; and durability of Islamophobia, 199; and interviews, 213; and Japanese internments, 48–49; and racial pressures after 9/11, 169, 176–81, 183, 186; and research methods, 29; and transactional coalitions, 189; and the War on Terror, 98–101
US Department of Labor, 177
US Department of State, 136
US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 91
US presidency, 93
US Supreme Court, 45–46, 48–49, 108, 145–46, 200
Voting Rights Act, 64, 73–74, 145, 200, 228n11
War on Terror, 4–5, 97, 99–100, 115
“watch lists,” 102–3
wealthy benefactors, 143
West Point, 105
Whites, 16, 35–37, 44–46, 66, 78, 135, 202–5
White supremacy, 4, 84–85, 94, 109, 113, 207
Winant, Howard, 65, 67–68, 75, 79–80
Wired, 105
World Trade Center attacks, 161, 166, 195–96
World War I, 48
X, Malcolm, 72
xenophobia, 95
Yemenis, 42, 52–53, 56, 57, 60, 62, 112
zakat, 134
Zionism, 123