1980 US presidential campaign, 103
2008 US presidential election, 5
2016 US presidential election: bot use during, 69–73
Democratic Party hacked, 8–9, 50
junk news circulation, 12, 55, 68, 72–73, 100, 109–10
Russian efforts to influence, 11–12, 24, 49, 50, 65–66
voter fraud allegations, 84, 98. See also Clinton, Hillary; Trump, Donald J.
2018 US elections, 24, 94. See also political polarization
2020 US presidential elections, 77
A/B testing, 124, 171 (defined). See also message testing
algorithms and ad distribution, 67–68
during Brexit campaign, 118, 119–28, 128t, 130–32, 133–34
conversion rate, 120, 123–24, 127, 133, 134–35, 172
data mining and, 113
Facebook’s pricing, 132
false advertising vs., 15
and marketing of political lies, 17
proposed guidelines, 155
Russian ads on social media, 45–49, 65–66
tithing, 165
TV/radio/print ads, 6
and voter activation, 110, 123–24
affinity campaigns, 128–29, 131, 171 (defined). See also BeLeave campaign; Vote Leave campaign
affordances, xvi, 17–18, 19, 20, 67, 95, 171 (defined)
Afghanistan, 49
African Americans, 49, 51, 140, 147–48
Aggregate IQ (AIQ), 119–20, 128–30. See also Brexit campaign
Albania, 122
Algeria, 34
algorithms: AI and, 144, 147, 173 (defined) (see also artificial intelligence)
computational propaganda and, 34, 67–68, 69, 91, 108, 141
and the distribution of misinformation, 2, 3, 17, 52, 67–68, 79, 104, 108, 142–43
Hong Kong protest posts removed, 55
and message testing, 122 (see also message testing)
and speed of junk news distribution, 100. See also artificial intelligence; bots and botnets; computational propaganda; social media platforms
All Out War: The Full Story of How Brexit Sank Britain’s Political Class (Shipman), 118, 120–22, 124
American Association of Public Opinion Researchers, 58
Antisocial Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy (Vaidhyanathan), 155
Arab Spring, 5–6, 10, 34–38, 55
Argentina, 76
Armenian Genocide, xvi
artificial intelligence (AI; machine learning), 23, 26–27, 144–54, 155, 171 (defined)
Assad, Bashar al-, 61. See also Syria
Assignments for Savushkin 55 (document), 39–40
astroturfing, 90, 171 (defined)
Australia, 138
authoritarian governments: censorship and surveillance, 1–2, 32, 36–37, 63–64
citizen data controlled, 159
defined, 171
lessons from Arab Spring, 34–38
media strategies (historically), 37
Morozov’s warning on internet use, 10–11
social media used for social control, xii, 1–2, 6, 11, 33, 36–38, 75–78
strategic use of information technologies, lie machines, xii, xiii, 1–2, 6, 36–38, 44, 52, 60, 77, 139, 140, 146. See also specific countries
automated social media accounts/activity: during 2016 presidential campaign, 69–73
and fake news, 23
and Hong Kong protests, 55
within Russia, 55
in Turkey, Philippines, 2. See also bots and botnets; fake social media accounts
automation. See algorithms; artificial intelligence; automated social media accounts/activity; bots and botnets
Azerbaijan, 77
Bakshy, Eytan, 104
behavioral data: AI and, 27, 151, 153
as political information, x, 3, 113–16, 156–57, 159–60
sources, 3, 4 (see also specific sources). See also data
BeLeave campaign, 119, 124–25, 128–31, 134, 182(n30). See also Brexit campaign
belief in lies/misinformation, xiv, 98, 135
Ben Ali, Zine El Abidine, 34, 35
bias. See cognitive bias
big data: AI and, 23, 27, 144–47
big-data analytics, 23, 65, 143
and computational propaganda, 21 (see also computational propaganda)
defined, 171–72
sharing access, 158–60, 167. See also data
Bolsonaro, Jair, 91
bots and botnets: and 2016 presidential elections, 11–12, 25, 65–66
advantages, 60, 77, 79, 142–43
in Brazilian politics, 91–95
chatbots, 26–27, 145, 146, 152
computational propaganda and, 22, 67–68, 142–43
conversation choked off, 56, 62–63, 68, 76
defined and explained, 56–57, 62, 70, 143, 172
first use of political bot, xv–xvi
harmful content amplified, 34
identifying, 55, 57, 58–59, 62, 77, 143, 145, 146
Imitacja Consulting’s use of, 90–91
market for, 78–81
as part of lie machine infrastructure, 17, 25, 54, 56–57, 85
political bots around the world, 74–78
political campaigns’ and parties’ use of, xii, 73–74, 76–77 (see also 2016 US presidential election)
political campaign solutions firms and, 64–65
power and influence, 56–61, 79, 85, 168
and the Syrian civil war, 61–64
tracing bot networks, 68–74
on Twitter, 17, 42, 55, 57, 60, 61–63, 77, 78–79, 91, 92–94. See also artificial intelligence; computational propaganda
Brasil Liker, 92
Brazil, 12, 55, 91–95, 98. See also Imitação Services
Brexit campaign: canvassing, 133
digital strategy, 11, 67–68, 118–24, 129–32
impact and influence, 125–36
lies and misinformation, 11, 85, 118, 122–23, 129, 135
spending, 118, 121–22, 124–28, 130–32, 133, 181–82(n30), 182(n31)
Brunton, Finn, 52
Cambridge Analytica, 9, 64, 65, 114, 160
cars, 4
Catalan independence, 47
causal factors, conjoined, 19–20
cell phones, 4, 63–64, 67, 121
censorship, 32, 36, 37, 143, 149, 161, 171 (defined), 172. See also authoritarian governments
Chaffee, Steve, 103
chatbots, 26–27, 145, 146, 152. See also artificial intelligence; bots and botnets
China: and Assad, 61
citizen data controlled, 159
and Hong Kong protests, 13, 55 (see also Hong Kong protests)
large-scale media experimentation, 26
media strategy (historically), 32
as misinformation superpower, 139
social media strategy, 1, 13, 33, 38, 75, 77
Citizen Lab, 63
clickbait content, 34
Clinton, Hillary, 11–12, 25, 50, 69–73, 84
CNN, xvi
cognitive bias, 11, 139. See also elective affinity; selective exposure
cognitive dissonance, 102–3
Columbian Chemicals Plant hoax, xvi
computational propaganda: algorithms and, 34, 67–68, 69, 91, 108, 141
in Brazil, 91–95
combatting or mitigating impact, 141, 168
defined and explained, xi, 17, 67–68, 142–43, 172
disseminated by troll armies, 33–34
future of AI-generated propaganda, 144–54
generated by lie machines, 16
hallmarks and advantages, 21–22, 142–43
message testing, 112 (see also message testing)
preservation of values/order through, 37
Russian polarization campaigns using, 43–51 (see also Internet Research Agency; Russia)
social media data and personalization, 104 (see also personalization)
social media platforms exploited, 17–18, 34, 67–68, 91
as threat to democracy, 97–98, 142–43, 146
tracing bot networks, 68–74. See also algorithms; bots and botnets; lie machines; political lies
Computational Propaganda Project, analysis by, 45–51
ComScore, 92
conservatives, 13, 24, 49, 51, 74, 114, 115, 117. See also Brexit campaign; far-right groups; Republican Party; Trump supporters
conversion rate, 120, 123–24, 127, 133, 134–35, 172 (defined)
core data, 9, 172 (defined). See also data
credit card companies: behavioral data, 3, 159
data and ad targeting, 152–53
data breaches, 116
data shared/sold, 9, 114, 115, 159–60
political use of credit card data, 6, 8, 9–10, 14, 156
proprietary data, 117
Crivella, Marcello, 94–95
Cummings, Dominic, 119–20, 121–22, 125–26, 127, 132
customization. See microtargeting; personalization
cyberattack (defined), 172
cyber troops, 2, 75–78. See also Internet Research Agency; trolls and troll armies
cyberwar, 63–64, 76, 172 (defined). See also Syria
Cyprus, xv
data: AI and, 23, 27, 144–47, 151, 153
buying/selling, 2, 114–15, 116, 153, 159–60, 163–64, 165
and canvassing, 133
citizens’ knowledge of/control over, 113–14, 115–16, 117, 156, 160–64, 166–67, 169
core data, 9–10, 172 (defined)
data breaches, 116
as delivery mechanism for misinformation, 7
device-level data, 4, 10, 11, 27, 67, 150–51
fake archives, 150
historical recordkeeping, 153–54, 159–60
illegal harvesting, 34
management and protection, 8–9, 115–17, 155, 159–60, 166–67
and personalization of ads/content, 16, 104, 111, 115, 151, 153
political campaigns’ use/management, 6–10, 111–18
as political information, x, 3, 14, 113–18, 156, 159–60, 162, 163
privately held, 117, 144–45, 153, 155, 158–64, 167, 168, 169
quantity, 4
raw data, 8, 114–15, 116, 117, 174
and redlining, 6–7 (see also political redlining)
shared access, 158–60, 165, 168 social media data (see social media platforms)
sources, 3, 4, 9–10, 23, 114, 121 (see also specific sources). See also behavioral data; big data
debates, political, 50, 70–71, 93
democracies: balance of power, 158, 158
bots’ negative impacts, 59
challenges facing, 27
data flow within, 159–60, 161–65 (see also data)
election regulators, 8
foreign political intervention against (see foreign intervention in politics)
indictments, complaints against Russia’s troll armies, 48
propaganda and censorship in, 32
similarities between, 35
social media as political tool, xii, 11–12, 55–56, 75–78, 143
social media’s negative impact, 2, 18, 51, 66–67
technology firms’ response to junk news, fake accounts, 66, 73, 79, 138
vulnerability to junk news, 138–39. See also democracy; elections (generally); and specific countries, parties, and elections
democracy: data and, 158–66
democratic government defined, 172
democratic movements (see Arab Spring; Hong Kong protests)
lie machines as threat, xiv, 53, 97–98, 110, 135, 140, 142–54 (see also artificial intelligence)
redesigning internet to support norms, 22, 158–69
social media’s impact/threat, 2, 11–12, 18, 51, 66–67, 143, 146–50. See also democracies; elections (generally)
Democratic Party (US), 8–9, 50, 103. See also liberals
and specific politicians
Democratic Unionist Party (Northern Ireland), 131
deniability, 96–97
device tithe, 164–65, 172 (defined)
dictators. See authoritarian governments; and specific individuals
Dilnot, Sir Andrew, 122
disinformation: defined, 15, 172–73
future of disinformation campaigns, 137–40, 143
historical disinformation campaigns, xv–xvi
about Nemstov’s death, 40–42
use of term, xi. See also junk news; misinformation; political lies
Disinformation and “Fake News”: Interim Report (UK House of Commons Digital Culture, Media and Sport Committee), 119, 130, 181–82(n30)
distribution systems for lies, 54–81
bots as, 54, 85 (see also bots and botnets)
social media (platforms) as, 3, 14–15, 16–17, 22, 51–53, 55, 66, 67–68, 108, 142–43, 149. See also algorithms; social media
social media platforms (companies); and specific platforms
Duterte, Rodrigo, 19
Economist, 84
Ecuador, 76
Eghna Development and Support, 63
Egypt, 5–6, 11, 34–35, 36, 100. See also Arab Spring
elections (generally): better guidelines, 157
impact of political lies, xiv, 12, 18, 98, 109–10, 142
selective exposure and voter loyalty, 100–101 (see also selective exposure)
social media as threat to, 11, 18
social media campaigns extended past, 97–98
surprising results, 27
voter decision making, in final days, 118, 122, 132
voter fraud allegations, 84, 98. See also democracy; and specific countries and elections
elective affinity, 100, 119, 154, 173 (defined). See also selective exposure
email, 4, 84, 88, 92, 116, 121
encrypted chat platforms, 150. See also WhatsApp
Equifax, 116
European Research Council, 69, 164
European Union: Brexit campaign lies about, 11, 85, 118, 122–23, 129
data protection law, 166–67
Russian criticism of, 42
vulnerability to junk news, 138. See also Brexit campaign
Facebook: and 2016 presidential election, 11–12, 49–50, 65–66, 72–73, 152
ad prices and revenue, 132, 134, 135
authoritarian governments’ strategic use of, 38
Brexit campaign ads, 67–68, 119–22, 123–24, 126–27, 128t, 129–32, 133–34
Cambridge Analytica scandal, 9
as distribution system for political lies, 3, 22, 66, 108
enforcement efforts by, 66, 107
impressions, 126, 127, 128t, 130–32, 134
journalism transformed, 138
models and data not shared, 60, 108
movement away from, 95
in Myanmar, 108
newssharing, selective exposure, and algorithmic ranking, 104
and North African protests, 10
in Poland, 87 (see also Imitacja Consulting)
political campaigns’ communication with voters through, 3–4
popularity and dominance, 92
quantity of content, 4
and Russian influence in US politics, 11–12, 45–51, 65–66, 152
as source of news, 100
voter turnout study, 133
fake news (defined), 86. See also junk news
fake social media accounts: AIdriven, 146–47
and Brazilian politics, 92, 94–95 (see also Imitação Services)
computational propaganda and, 22, 45
impact, 34
managed by US firms, 107
multiple platforms and credibility of, 48
and Russian interference in foreign politics, 45–51 (see also Russia). See also automated social media accounts/activity; bots and botnets; Imitacja Consulting; Internet Research Agency; trolls and troll armies
family and friends. See social networks
far-left groups, 11. See also liberals
far-right groups, 11, 13, 15, 24, 49, 51, 86, 140. See also conservatives
Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 74
foreign intervention in politics: AI and, 147–48
generally, xii, 2, 13, 16, 74, 148–49, 168. See also China; Russia; and specific elections and organizations
Freixo, Marcelo, 94–95
Gab, 152
German Democratic Republic, xv
Gladwell, Malcolm, 10
global economy of political lies. See under political lies
Google, 4, 45, 60, 88, 108, 111–12, 138. See also YouTube
Groundgame app, 133
health misinformation, 82–83
Hispanic voters, 49
Hong Kong protests (2019), 13, 25, 55, 100, 100
ideology: defined, 173
identifying voter affiliation through data, 114, 115
lies and lie machines in service of, 2, 15–16, 25, 30, 52, 141
and politics as sociotechnical system, x–xi
selective exposure and, 101–3, 104–5
social media as tool to advance, 11, 15, 33, 90
social movements and, 37–38. See also conservatives; far-right groups; liberals; political lies; political polarization; propaganda; and specific parties and political groups
Imitação Services (pseud.; Brazilian corporation), xvii, 91–95, 96, 98, 106–7, 108–9
Imitacja Consulting (pseud.; Polish corporation), xvii, 87–91, 96–97, 98, 106–7, 108–9
immigrants and immigration, 43–44, 51, 98, 122, 140, 148
impressions, 126, 127, 128t, 130–32, 134, 173 (defined)
Infoglut (Andrejevic), 65, 154
information bubbles, 10. See also selective exposure
information infrastructure: authoritarian governments’ control over, 36–37
and definitions of democracy, x
interference with, 116
political conversation flow directed by, 73
and political participation, 156
power of control over, 79
profitability of data gathered through, 139
tithing, 164
as tool for political actors, 18. See also information
technologies; internet; internet of things; social media platforms
information technologies: future of, 150–51
and politics as sociotechnical system, x–xi
power resulting from control of, 79
public trust in, 51, 55, 57, 58
strategic use by authoritarian governments, xii, xiii, 1–2, 6, 36–38, 44, 52, 139, 140 (see also social media; trolls and troll armies; and specific countries and technologies)
in warfare, 63–64. See also algorithms; artificial intelligence; bots and botnets; computational propaganda; information infrastructure; internet; internet of things; social media; social media platforms; technology firms
information warfare, 61–65
Instagram: as distribution system for political lies, 3, 22
popularity, 92
Russia’s use of, 12, 38, 45, 47, 48–50, 51, 66
trust levels on, 95
institutions (defined), 173
Intelligence Committees. See US House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence; US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
internet: changes in communication content/tone, 4–7
debate over role in public life, 10–11, 18
and the history of propaganda and political lies, xv–xvi
political actors’ use of, 97–98
and social movements, 10, 36–37 (see also specific movements and countries)
social science research and the societal role of, 19–21
user statistics, 55. See also bots and botnets; information infrastructure; information technologies; internet of things; social media; social media platforms; and specific platforms
internet of things, 4, 23, 26, 139, 151, 162, 173 (defined)
Internet Research Agency (IRA; Russia), 24–25, 31–33, 38–51, 66, 83–84, 96, 147–48. See also junk news; Russia
Israel. See Psy-Group
Jack, Caroline, 14
Joint Threat Intelligence Group, 77–78
Jordan, 34
journalism. See news media
junk news (fake news): during 2016 Brazilian elections, 94–95
during 2016 US elections, 12–13, 55, 72–73, 100, 109–10
during 2018 US elections, 94
algorithms and distribution, 67–68
appeal, 23
during Brexit campaign, 122–23
computational propaganda and, 22 (see also computational propaganda)
creation, dissemination, and organization, 13, 33–34, 49, 83–87, 99–100 (see also trolls and troll armies; and specific producers)
growth, 138
identifying, 139
impact, 2, 23, 98, 109–10, 154
junk news organizations, 96–98, 105–7, 144 (see also Imitação Services; Imitacja Consulting)
multiple, contradictory explanations offered, 32, 40–42
public’s susceptibility, 100–105, 138–39
role/function, 22
speed of distribution, 100. See also disinformation; junk science; misinformation; specific incidents and campaigns
junk science, 27, 86, 152, 154
Kremlin. See Putin, Vladimir; Russia
Labour (UK), 54. See also Remain campaign
laws and regulations: data reforms, 162–66
Lebanon, 34
legends, 87–90, 92, 173 (defined). See also fake social media accounts
liberals, 11, 43–44, 51, 114, 115, 117. See also Democratic Party; Labour (UK); Remain campaign; and specific politicians
lie machines: appearance, 18–19
bots’ role in, 80, 142–43 (see also bots and botnets)
breaking (disassembling), 28, 154–69
characteristics (strengths), xvi
cultivation of audience by, xvii
defined and explained, xi, 1–4, 13–18, 137, 141, 173
distrust sown by, 22, 110, 142, 149–50
future of, 137–41, 144, 144–54
global political economy of, 24, 26, 111, 140–44, 153, 160, 167
main components, 2–3, 16, 108–9, 142 (see also distribution systems for lies; marketing of lies; production of lies)
message testing, 112 (see also message testing)
motives for building, 37–38, 141
quality of lies, 85
researching, analyzing and understanding, 22–28
rise and growth, 32–34, 139, 140–41
Russian origins, 32–33, 52 (see also Internet Research Agency; trolls and troll armies)
as sociotechnical systems, 19–22, 155
as threat to democracy, xiv, 53, 97–98, 110, 135, 140, 142–54, 169 (see also democracies; democracy). See also junk news; political lies; trolls and troll armies; and specific firms and campaigns
lies (defined), 135. See also junk news; lie machines; political lies
LiveJournal, 32
lobbyists: chatbots used, 26, 152
consulting firms used, 88, 91, 117
data use and purchasing, 2, 3, 7–8, 117, 155, 162–63 (see also data)
direct communication with voters via social media, 3–4, 5, 109–12
future use of lie machines, 141, 145, 149, 152
and marketing of lies, xvii, 3, 17
as producers of lies and lie machines, 14, 137, 139–40, 141, 155, 168, 169
strategic use of information technologies, xi, xii, 6, 18, 76, 152
trolling techniques used, 19, 52
location targeting, 67–68
Macedonia, 122
machine learning. See artificial intelligence (AI)
Malaysian Airlines Flight 17, 41, 83–84
marketing of lies, 82–107
by Brazilian firm, 91–95, 106–7 (see also Imitação Services)
corporate media and, 106
legends, 87–90, 92, 173 (see also fake social media accounts)
market for robots, 78–81
organizing of junk news, 17, 83–87
personalization and, 104
by Polish firm, 87–91, 106–7 (see also Imitacja Consulting)
quality of lies, 85
repetition, 104–5
selective exposure and, 100–105
sowing doubt and uncertainty, 83–84, 107. See also advertising; algorithms; junk news: junk news organizations; lobbyists; personalization; political campaign support industry; political consultants
mass media, 106. See also news media
Melnikov, Ivan, 41
message testing, xvii, 112, 120–22, 124, 134, 171 (defined)
microtargeting, 6, 104, 142, 173–74 (defined). See also personalization; and specific campaigns and targeted groups
misinformation: algorithms and distribution of, 3, 16, 52, 67–68, 79, 104, 142–43 (see also algorithms)
data donation and, 164
defined, and term use, xi, 14–15, 174
false advertising vs., 15
formal structures, 22 (see also specific structures)
future impact, 155
health misinformation, 82–83
identifying, 139 (see also fact-checking)
operations around the world, 74–78
repetition of, 104–5
Russian campaigns, 40–51, 83–84 (see also Internet Research Agency; Russia)
social organization of, 51–53
structured campaigns, 85–86 (see also Brexit campaign). See also disinformation; foreign intervention in politics; junk news; lie machines; political lies; and specific misinformation campaigns
Miyo, Yuki, 103
Montenegro, 122
Moro, Sérgio, 98
Morocco, 34
Morozov, Evgeny, 10–11
Myanmar, 108
nanosats, 150
National Science Foundation, 69, 164
Nazis, xv
negative campaigning, 57–58, 64, 67, 74, 107, 110–11, 156, 174
Nemstov, Boris, 29–32, 38–39, 40–42, 47
Neves, Aécio, 92
New Knowledge (consulting firm), 74
news media: access to data, 158, 164
history of propaganda in, xv
and junk news firms/strategies, 98, 106, 138
role of editors, journalists, 109, 138–39, 158
Russia and foreign news media, 39–40
and social unrest, 36. See also junk news
North African protests. See Arab Spring
Obama, Barack, 5
Olshansky, Dmitry, 41
onboarding, 120, 174 (defined)
Operation Neptune, xv
opinion leaders, 90
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 151
Oxford Internet Institute, 45. See also Computational Propaganda Project
Pariser, Eli, 10
partisanship, 80, 99, 101–3. See also ideology; political polarization
pax technica, 79, 174 (defined)
Pax Technica (Howard), xii–xiii, 57
personal data. See data
personalization: of ads, messaging, and content, 6, 16, 104, 111, 152, 156, 173
and automation and computational propaganda, 4, 21–22, 153
data and, 16, 104, 111, 115, 151, 152 (see also data)
of our media consumption, 55
Peskov, Dmitry, 40
Phillips, Whitney, 106
Poland. See Imitacja Consulting
polarization. See political polarization
political campaigns: ads and voter activation, 110–11, 123–24
and AI-generated propaganda, 144–47, 152–53
authoritarian tactics adopted, 80
bot use, xii, 64–65, 73–74, 76–77 (see also 2016 US presidential election)
broad vs. microtargeting by, 6 (see also personalization)
canvassing, 133
direct communication with voters via social media, 3–4, 5–6, 109–12, 118–23
future use of lie machines, 141, 145, 148–49
information infrastructure an asset to, 18
misinformation campaigns increasing, 139–40
personal data use/management, 6–10, 111–12, 113–18 (see also data)
redlining, xi, 6–7, 111–12, 131, 132, 144–45, 174
social media strategies now used, 97–98
voter suppression, 49, 148–49, 164. See also advertising; negative campaigning; political consultants; political parties; redlining; and specific campaigns and elections
political consultants, 63, 64–65
and AI, 145–46
and data, 2, 7, 8, 9, 113, 114, 115–17, 162, 163
new tactics quickly adopted, 73, 93
political affinities, 117
as producers and marketers of lies, 3, 14, 17, 25, 27, 86, 105–6, 112, 141, 142, 155
social media exploited, 56, 94. See also Imitação Services; Imitacja Consulting
political lies: belief in, xiv, 98, 135
during Brexit campaign, 118, 122–23, 129, 135 (see also Brexit campaign)
creating effective lies, 80–81
defined, xiii–xiv
exposing and correcting, xi
future of disinformation campaigns, 137–40, 144
global political economy of, xiii, 24, 26, 111, 140–44, 153, 160, 167 (see also specific countries and organizations)
impact on voters, elections, xiv, 12, 18, 98, 109–10, 142 (see also specific campaigns and elections)
marketing, 3, 17, 25 (see also marketing of lies)
producers and production of, 2–3, 14 (see also production of lies)
quality, 85
Russian campaigns, domestic/foreign (see Russia)
types, xi–xii, xiv, 14–15. See also disinformation; lie machines; misinformation; propaganda; and specific producers, distributors, marketers, and events
political parties: consultants used, 100, 105–6
data use, management, security, 6–7, 8–9, 157, 158, 159–60
donor records, 9
factchecking, 109
as producers of lies, lie machines, 2, 6, 16, 105–6, 117, 137, 139–40
selective exposure and voter loyalty, 101–3
social media exploited, 11, 75, 144, 149, 168, 169
technology tools used, xii, 16, 19, 75–78, 145, 149–50. See also political campaigns; political polarization; politicians; and specific parties and countries
political polarization: AI and, 148
blame for, 24
as result of junk news (generally), 98, 110
Russian troll armies and, 24, 43–51, 66, 147–48 (see also Russia)
selective exposure and, 101
swing states targeted, 56, 68, 72–73, 100
political redlining, xi, 6–7, 111–12, 131, 132, 144–45, 174 (defined). See also Vote Leave campaign
politicians: communication with voters via social media, 3–4, 5, 109–12
consulting firms used, 91, 117
data use and purchasing, 2, 3, 7–8, 117, 154 (see also datay)
foreign-backed promotion/discreditation of, 148–49
as producers of lies, lie machines, 2, 117, 141, 155, 168, 169
strategic use of information technologies, xi, xii, 52, 152, 153. See also political campaigns; political consultants; political parties; and specific individuals
politics: AI and the future of, 144–54
assigning blame, 24
rebuilt social media’s promise for, 168
social media’s impact, 53, 109–13
as sociotechnical system, x–xiii. See also democracies; foreign intervention in politics; political campaigns; political lies; political parties; politicians; and specific countries
polls and polling data, 3, 8, 120, 158
push polling, 57–58, 59, 74, 174 (defined)
primary elections (US), 50, 74
privacy. See data
production of lies, 29–53
creating effective material, 80–81
dictators’ lessons from Arab Spring, 34–38
junk/fake news production, 85–86 (see also junk news)
by politicians, parties, and lobbyists, 2, 6, 14, 16, 105–6, 117, 137, 139–41, 155, 168, 169
social organization of misinformation and, 51–53. See also authoritarian governments; political campaign support industry; political consultants; trolls and troll armies; and specific countries and organizations
propaganda, xi, xv–xvi, 21, 32, 156. See also computational propaganda; disinformation; lie machines; misinformation; political lies; and specific countries
Psy-Group, 64–65
public trust: abused by bots, 57–59
in authoritarian countries, 37
distrust sown by lie machines, 22, 110, 142, 149
in technology and social media, 51, 55, 57, 58
push polling, 57–58, 59, 74, 174 (defined)
Putin, Vladimir, 24, 29, 30, 41, 83. See also Russia
al-Qaeda, 64
Qtiesh, Anas, 78
raw data, 8, 114–15, 116, 117, 174 (defined). See also data
Reddit, 17
redlining. See political redlining
Remain campaign, 131–32
repetition, 104–5
Republican Party, 50, 65, 74, 103. See also conservatives; Trump supporters; and specific politicians
Rousseff, Dilma, 92, 93–94, 98
RT (formerly Russia Today), 31, 86
Ruffini, Patrick, 80
Russia: citizen data controlled, 159
Democratic Party hacked, 8–9, 50
efforts to influence US politics, 11–12, 13, 24, 43–51, 56, 65–66, 100, 147–48, 152
health misinformation spread, 82–83
lie machines’ origins in, 32–33, 52
as misinformation superpower, 139
and Myanmar, 108
political murders, 29–32 (see also Nemstov, Boris)
troll armies and social media strategy, 18–19, 24, 30–33, 38–51, 65–66, 77, 82–84
Twitter conversations in, 44, 55
US botnet masquerading as Russian, 74. See also Internet Research Agency
Saleh, Ali Abdullah, 34
schemata, 102
junk science, 27, 82–83, 86, 152, 154
search engines, 14, 82, 105. See also Google
selective exposure, 100–105, 111–12, 154, 161, 174 (defined). See also cognitive bias; information bubbles
Serbia, 122
Serdar Arjic bot, xv–xvi
Shipman, Tim, 118, 120–22, 124
Shirky, Clay, 10
smart devices, 4, 27, 150, 152–53. See also cell phones; internet of things
social control, 6, 11, 38, 75–78. See also authoritarian governments; censorship; surveillance; and specific countries
social media: authoritarian governments’ strategic use, xii, 1–2, 6, 11, 33, 36–38, 75–78 (see also specific countries)
automated tools, 4
Brexit campaign and, 11, 67–68, 118–24, 129–32 (see also Brexit campaign)
democracy impacted/threatened, 2, 11–12, 18, 51, 66–67, 143, 146–50, 169
direct communication with voters via, 3–4, 5–6, 109–12, 118–23
as distribution system for political lies, 3, 14–15, 16–17, 22, 51–53, 66, 67–68, 108, 142–43, 149 (see also trolls and troll armies)
donation of social network accounts, 94
foreign intervention in politics via (see foreign intervention in politics)
networked structure, 66
organized manipulation, around the world, 74–78
political role (generally), x–xi, 10–11
and public opinion, 109–13
and selective exposure, 100–105, 154, 161
social control through, 6, 11, 38, 75–78, 143
social movements and, 5–6, 10, 34–35, 36, 55 (see also Arab Spring)
speed of dissemination, xvi, 100
ubiquity and popularity, 51, 54–55. See also algorithms; automated social media accounts/activity; bots and botnets; fake social media accounts; internet; social media platforms; social networks
social media platforms (companies): accountability and regulation, 138, 141, 143, 162, 165–66, 166–67
affordances, xvi, 17–18, 19, 20, 67, 95, 171 (defined)
algorithms and distribution of misinformation, 67–68, 79, 91, 104, 108 (see also algorithms)
authoritarian governments’ manipulation enabled by, 38
data collection and personalization, 4, 104
data management and sharing, 9, 115–16, 154–56, 160, 167, 168, 169 (see also data; data: shared access)
as distribution system for misinformation, 3, 14–15, 16–17, 22, 51–53, 55–57, 67–68, 79–80, 142–43, 149
encrypted chat platforms, 150
enforcement efforts by, 66, 73, 79, 143
exploited by computational propaganda, 17–18, 34, 67–68, 91 (see also trolls and troll armies)
as fundamental infrastructure, 166–67
identifying legend networks, 89
internal research, 112–13, 133, 181(n14)
manipulation of public opinion, dangers of, 154–60
movement from Facebook to other platforms, 95
proposed reforms, 163–69
research using data from, 60, 103–4, 112–13
Russian account data shared with Congress, 45
social networks used to connect, 97
surveillance by, 2
terms of service agreements, 9, 17–18, 67, 73, 89, 115–16
on their own influence, 109. See also social media; technology firms; and specific platforms
social movements, 5–6, 10, 34–35, 36–37. See also Arab Spring
social networks (family, friends): and the Arab Spring, 34
bots and, 59 (see also bots and botnets)
distribution of misinformation across, 13–14, 48–49, 53, 57, 84, 99–100, 156
and political communication on social media, 5, 14–15, 22
and selective exposure, 100–101, 104–5
trust in, 1
social unrest, phases of, 36–37
sociotechnical systems, x–xiii, 19–22, 155, 174 (defined). See also lie machines
Spain, 47
Spam (Brunton), 52
spamming, 91
Sputnick (Russian news agency), 31
Stasi (East German secret police), xv
Stimson, Rebecca, 130
surveillance, 2, 32, 61, 63–64, 172
swing states, 56, 68, 72–73, 100
Syria Civil Defence (White Helmets), 64
Syrian Electronic Army, 78
Taiwan, 77
technology. See information technologies
technology firms: accountability and regulation, 138, 141, 143, 162, 166, 167
data ownership, use, and management, 117, 154, 158–68 (see also data)
response to junk news and fake accounts, 66, 73, 79, 138
selective exposure and elective affinity exploited, 104–5, 154, 161. See also social media platforms; and specific firms
Telecom Project, 63
terms of service agreements, 9, 17–18, 67, 73, 89, 115–16, 117
Terms of Service; Didn’t Read (website), 115–16
Tibet, 77
TikTok, 25
trolls and troll armies, 29–53
AI as replacement for, 147–48 (see also artificial intelligence)
combined with bots, 80
criminal indictments and diplomatic complaints against, 48
defined and explained, 30, 174
Imitacja Consulting (Poland), xvii, 87–91 (see also Imitacja Consulting)
importance of understanding, 51–52
in Myanmar, 108
rise and growth, 18–19, 24, 33, 42–44, 52
Russian troll armies, 18–19, 24–25, 30–31, 38–51, 147–48 (see also Internet Research Agency; Russia). See also fake social media accounts; Internet Research Agency
Trump, Donald J., ix–x, 13, 49, 50, 84, 98. See also 2016 US presidential election; Trump campaign; Trump supporters
Trump campaign (2016), 64–66, 69–73, 74, 133. See also 2016 US presidential election
Trump supporters, 12, 84. See also conservatives; far-right groups; Republican Party
trust, public. See public trust
trust levels, on social media platforms, 95
truth machines, blueprints for, 163–66
Tunisia, 5–6, 34–35, 36. See also Arab Spring
Turkey, xv–xvi, 2, 11, 78, 122, 139
Twitter: and 2016 presidential election, 69–73
bots (automated accounts) on, 17, 25, 38, 42, 55, 57, 60, 61–63, 69–73, 77, 78–79, 91, 92–94 (see also bots and botnets)
direct communication with voters via, 3–4
as distribution system for political lies, 3, 22, 66, 108
enforcement efforts by, 66, 79
foreign misinformation campaigns on (generally), 152
junk/professional news ratio on, 12
models, data not shared, 111–12
models and data not shared, 60
as news source, 100
Russian activity on, 11–12, 33, 42, 45, 47, 48–49, 51, 66
Syrian “eggs,” 61–63
tweet statistics, 4
USAID’s “Cuban Twitter” program, 78. See also social media; social media platforms
Ukraine, 29–30, 40, 42, 83–84. See also Nemstov, Boris
United Kingdom, 75, 77–78, 118, 122, 133. See also Brexit campaign
United States: AI-generated propaganda in, 146 (see also artificial intelligence)
authoritarian social media tactics imported, 80
and Brazilian protests, 98
Columbian Chemicals Plant hoax, xvi
internet and Facebook use in, 55
junk news distribution and quantity, 99–100 (see also junk news)
minorities, 49, 51, 140, 147–48
Russian efforts to influence politics, 11–12, 13, 24, 43–51, 56, 65–66, 100, 147–48 (see also Internet Research Agency; Russia; and specific elections by year)
swing states, 56, 68, 72–73, 100
vulnerability to junk news, 138. See also specific elections, companies, minority groups, and individuals
US Agency for International Development (USAID), 78
UseNet, xv–xvi
US House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, 46
US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, 45, 48, 50. See also political polarization: Russian troll armies and
Vaidhyanathan, Siva, 155
Venezuela, 13, 33, 75, 77, 77, 139
Veterans for Britain, 131
virtual private networks (VPNs), 89
Vote Leave campaign, 85, 118–28, 130, 132, 134, 181–82(n30), 182(n31). See also Brexit campaign
voters: AI and voter participation, 145
data generation, 156, 157 (see also behavioral data; data)
decision making, in final days of campaigns, 118, 122, 132
Facebook and turnout, 133
redlining, xi, 6–7, 111–12, 131, 132, 144–45, 174
selective exposure and voter loyalty, 101–3 (see also selective exposure)
voter fraud allegations, 84, 98
voter suppression, 49, 148–49, 164. See also conservatives; elections; liberals; political polarization; swing states; and specific countries and elections
WeChat, 150
WhatsApp, 3, 4, 90, 92–95, 97, 150
White Helmets (Syria Civil Defence), 64
Wikipedia, xvi
Yemen, 5–6, 34–35. See also Arab Spring
young people, 103