Achaemenids, Achaemenid Empire: The Achaemenid empire and dynasty founded by Cyrus the Great lasted from about 550 BC to 330 BC and stretched from present-day Turkey, Egypt, and Libya into central Asia and southeast to India. It was the first great Persian empire, with an estimated 40 percent of the world’s population at the time living within its boundaries. From the capital at Persepolis, the rulers of the empire waged war against the Greeks, who sought the same supremacy over the eastern Mediterranean.
The Achaemenids, who were conquered by Alexander the Great in 330 BC, had an enormous impact on Western civilization: They established a bureaucratic administration for the empire that included a postal system; a common language; a system of local administrators, called satraps; and laws that applied across the empire. They also emancipated slaves, including the Jews of Babylon.
advieh: This Persian spice blend varies from household to household. The classic one, widely sold in Persian groceries, is a blend of ground cardamom, cassia, and cumin and dried rose petals, in a proportion of one part cumin to two parts of each of the others. I find both cardamom and cassia quite penetrating and so my preferred proportion is two parts dried rose petals to one and a half parts of each of the others. Mix them together and store the advieh in a clean, dry glass jar; shake it before you use the mixture.
Albania, Caucasian Albania: From the first century BC until the second century AD, a kingdom called Albania lay between the greater and lesser Caucasus mountain ranges, roughly in the location of present-day Azerbaijan, bounded by Armenia to the west and the Caspian Sea to the east. It should not be confused with the present-day country called Albania, on the Adriatic Sea. There are a few written fragments of the original Albanian language, which seems to have been erased first by the Parthians and then the Persians, both of whom conquered the kingdom in the third century AD.
Alexander the Great: At a young age, the storied Macedonian began to conquer territory east of Greece. He and his armies vanquished Persia, defeating Darius III in 330 BC, and eventually reached the Indus River. When Alexander died, the empire was divided among his generals.
almonds, green almonds: Almonds, like walnuts, are the drupaceous fruit of a tree in the Prunus genus—Prunus dulcis, also known as Prunus amygdalis. The tree is native to western Asia and to Europe and is closely related to the peach. The husk of the fruit contains the almond, which when ripe has a hard outer shell that protects the kernel, or nut, inside. Green (unripe) almonds (chaghaleh badoom in Persian) are pale to medium green, with velvety skins that have not yet hardened into a shell: You eat the whole thing, nut and skin. Green almonds are a springtime treat for Persians and others who live where almonds grow. Look for them in Persian, Turkish, and Arab groceries in the spring.
angelica (golpar): Heracleum persicum, commonly mislabeled “angelica” and called golpar in Persian, is a plant native to Iran with seeds that are used as a flavoring and a spice. The plant, also known as Persian hogweed, is in the Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) family, which also includes coriander, celery seed, true angelica, parsley, and lovage. Golpar is aromatic and slightly bitter, and it is often mixed with salt (it is then called golpar namak). On its own or mixed with salt, it’s sprinkled on cucumbers, pomegranate seeds, cooked potatoes, and other vegetables to add another layer of flavor.
apricots, dried apricots, apricot leather: Apricots are the fruit of several closely related species in the Prunus (stone fruit) family. The most common are Prunus armenica. As the name indicates, botanists long believed that apricots originated in the Persian culinary region, but these days there is some dispute. We do know that they have been cultivated there for more than three thousand years. The orange fruits are fragile when ripe. Some are very sweet while others are tart. They are commonly preserved by being split and dried; they are also cooked, mashed, and spread flat to dry as fruit leather (see Fruit Leather and photo). The dried fruits are widely used in both sweets and savory dishes. Look for tart-tasting dried apricots, preferably those that have not been treated with sulfur; the unsulfured dried apricots are darker in color rather than brilliant orange.
Arab conquest: After the death of Mohammed and the struggles for succession, the Caliphate form of government was established to rule the Arabian Peninsula. Attacks on the Persians began around AD 630 and ended with the conquest of Persia in AD 651. Following the conquest, many Persians converted to Islam; others fled.
Arab nomads: The Khamseh federation in Iran’s eastern Fars Province (in the hills east of Shiraz) is a grouping of five nomadic tribes: Arab, Nafar, Baharlu, Inalu, and Basseri. The family I spent time with (see Nomad Encounter) were Arabic speakers and part of the Khamseh.
Arabic: Arabic is a Semitic language with many dialects. Following the Arab conquest of Persia in the seventh century, the official language became Arabic and the alphabet used to write Persian shifted from Pahlavi script to the Arabic alphabet. In the following centuries, efforts by Persians to preserve Persian culture resulted in the revival of Persian language and its resurgence in poetry and daily life. Persian is still written using a version of the Arabic alphabet, and numbers in Iran are also written in Arabic.
Aramaic: Versions of the family of ancient languages referred to as Aramaic are still spoken by Assyrians in Iran, Turkey, Syria, and the diaspora. Aramaic is also used in the rituals of Assyrian churches (see Chaldeans and Orthodox Churches). It is a Semitic language and is written in an alphabet that was the precursor of the Hebrew and Pahlavi alphabets.
Lahich, Azerbaijan—Fancy versions of the traditional hat worn by Azeri women displayed in a small shop.
Armenia, Armenian: Armenia today is a small part of what is often referred to as Greater Armenia, which extended east from the Mediterranean coast of Turkey and Syria to present-day Armenia. (In Armenia, the country is called Hayastan.) The precursor civilization in Armenia was called Urartu, and lasted from the eighth century BC until about 585 BC, when it was succeeded by an Armenian kingdom. The Urartians traded actively with the Phoenicians and others in the Mediterranean. At its largest extent, the Armenian kingdom included parts of present-day Turkey, Iran, and Syria. The kingdom’s fortunes waxed and waned over the centuries, as it was conquered successively by the Romans (under Pompey the Great), the Persians, and others. Armenia was the first country to declare itself Christian, around AD 300. The Armenian language is an old Indo-European one, with an alphabet that was developed in the early fifth century by Mesrop Mashtots, a man who is still revered by Armenians.
baharat: In Iraqi Kurdistan the word for “spice blend” is baharat; its name derives from the Arabic word bhara, meaning spice. The classic Kurdish baharat used with meat dishes includes cassia (dachini), coriander, cumin (zeera), cloves (mexakh), cardamom (he), black pepper (allat), and turmeric (curcuma), and often nutmeg and some kind of paprika or cayenne (biber). The baharat for breads in Kurdistan is usually powdered fenugreek (shemli) and nigella.
barberries: Barberries grow on a shrub that is part of the Berberis family, native to Europe and West Asia. The small oval berries have a sharp, tart taste and a dull red color. They are used in Iran and the rest of the Persian culinary region to give a tart edge to savory dishes (see Barberry Rice, Tabriz Meatball Soup, and Onion Salad with Barberries), and to make jams and juice. Barberries are rich in vitamin C and pectin. They dry very well and are available in Persian and Arab grocery stores; the dried berries soften after a short soak in water or during cooking. Although the plant grows well in North America, the most common variety, Berberis vulgaris, is an alternate host to the fungus that causes rust in wheat. Consequently, its cultivation is prohibited in Canada and in parts of the United States.
Tehran, Iran—Barberries, called zereshk in Persian, at a covered bazaar.
beans and lentils: The seeds of leguminous plants, often referred to as pulses, include dried beans and the smaller disk-shaped lentils. They come in all shapes and sizes and many different names are used for them, which can be confusing. They are a good source of protein and fiber and because of the former are especially appreciated by vegetarians. The seeds are dried after harvest and can be stored for months, which makes them a low-cost (and versatile) pantry item for home cooks. Many people believe that soaking dried beans overnight before cooking them shortens the cooking time; I find it doesn’t make enough difference with smaller beans that cook relatively quickly, but I do soak chickpeas (garbanzos) and kidney beans. Using a pressure cooker shortens cooking time substantially but I have never used one.
Note: It’s important to cook all beans thoroughly, both for digestibility and to eliminate toxins. This is especially true in the case of kidney beans, because if not cooked thoroughly they can cause a kind of food poisoning. Cook them at a strong boil, rather than in a slow cooker, to make sure that the temperature in the center of the beans reaches at least 176°F, the level at which all toxins are killed.
Black-Eyed Peas: Also called cowpeas, these are the seeds of Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata. The peas are rounded and off-white, with a black dot that makes them easy to identify. They take about 1½ hours to cook in boiling water.
Chickpeas (also known as garbanzos): Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum) are relatively large and round, with a dented line around their equator. The off-white beans take a long time to cook (about 2 hours of hard boiling) but are worth the time. They can be mashed to a paste (to make hummus, for example) or eaten whole, and have a sweet, appealing flavor. Smaller chickpeas, with a darker brownish color, are the ones most commonly used in India (where they’re known as channa).
Kidney Beans: Kidney beans (also Phaseolus vulgaris) usually take more than 2 hours to cook (see Note). They may be dark wine-red or a deeper, almost purple magenta color, as well as a pale or speckled pink. The meaty, rich-tasting beans are best paired with oil to smooth out their slightly mealy texture.
Lentils: The seeds of Lens culinaris are disk-shaped and cook more quickly than globe-shaped legumes such as chickpeas. The lentils called for in this book are brown lentils; they have a satisfying meaty, earthy flavor.
Mung Beans: These small, olive-green round beans are from the plant Vigna radiata, which is native to India. Common bean sprouts are made from soaking the beans in a little water. Their outer skin is olive green, but the bean inside is a golden yellow; hulled and split versions of mung beans are sold in Indian groceries as moong dal. Whole mung beans take about an hour of boiling to soften completely.
Navy Beans: Small, white, and oval, navy beans are another bean in the Phaseolus vulgaris family. I like their meatiness, and their relatively short cooking time (about 1 hour).
Split Peas: Yellow split peas are the dried fruit of Pisum sativum that has been hulled and split in half. The hulling and splitting means that they cook relatively quickly (in just over an hour). They are rich in protein and complex carbohydrates. When cooked and left to cool, they congeal, rather as cooked polenta does, because the starch seeps into the cooking water during cooking and then sets as it cools.
beef, baby beef, beef shank, ethical veal: Beef is much more common in Georgia, Kurdistan, and Armenia than in neighboring Azerbaijan or Iran. The meat, most often from young animals that are twelve to eighteen months old, is often called baby beef. The term “ethical veal” refers to the meat of young animals that have been weaned and then fed on grass and grain until slaughtered at eight to twelve months old. The meat is redder than the pale white meat of milk-fed veal, but it is not as flavorful as that of baby beef. Beef from full-grown animals can be substituted for baby beef in the recipes in this book. Beef shank, like lamb shank, has a rich flavor and needs to be slow-cooked until very tender (see Spiced Beef Shank).
bell peppers, chile peppers: All peppers, whether sweet bells or scorching-hot Scotch bonnet chiles, are members of the Capsicum family. Bell peppers have no capsaicin, the substance that causes a burning sensation in the mouth and the “hotness” of hot chiles. Green bell peppers are the unripe version of the peppers, which ripen to red, yellow, orange, or purple hues. Bell peppers, also referred to as sweet peppers, may be the classic bell shape or may instead be longer, with a squared-off lower tip. For more about chile peppers, see Cayenne.
bitter oranges: Known in Persian as naranj and sometimes in English as Seville oranges, bitter oranges (Citrus x aurantium) have a bumpy peel and their color is a duller orange than ordinary sweet oranges. The peel is used fresh or dried for intense orange flavor (dried bitter orange peel is sold in Persian and Arab groceries, and check online for mail-order sources) with no hint of sweetness. The juice is the main flavoring ingredient in an orange sharbat (see recipe), and the juice can also be used in salad dressings and as a souring agent in marinades or stews. The growing season in Spain and other parts of the Mediterranean traditionally runs from January to March, but the oranges are now being grown in California, where the season extends into April. Look for them at specialty shops and Mediterranean and Persian groceries. You can freeze bitter oranges whole for later use; thaw before using.
blue fenugreek: Found only in the Swiss Alps and the mountains of Georgia, blue fenugreek (Trigonella caerulea) is native to Europe. Although Georgians call it utskho suneli, meaning foreign spice, it is an essential ingredient in Georgian cooking. It’s sold with the dried seeds and leaves mixed together. I hope that with the growing popularity of Georgian food, blue fenugreek will soon become available in North America. In the meantime, you can substitute a mix of dried fenugreek leaves and powdered fenugreek, as specified in the recipes.
borage: Borage (Borago officinalis), an herb that is native to the Mediterranean, has medicinal as well as culinary uses. Its star-shaped violet-blue flowers are dried and used to make an aromatic herbal tea in Iran and elsewhere. (Its name in Persian is gol gav zaban, meaning cow-tongue flower.) The tea is believed to be calming as well as a diuretic. Borage leaves are cooked in soups and as a green on their own. The tea and the leaves have a number of uses in traditional and naturopathic medicine.
Kerman, Iran—Dried flowers for making tea, with dried safflower blossoms at left and borage flowers above.
bulgur: Bulgur is cooked dried wheat that has been pounded into different-sized flakes. It’s widely used in both Kurdistan and Armenia, as well as throughout the eastern Mediterranean. In Kurdish it’s sauer; in Armenian, it’s gorgot. Bulgur is sold in Mediterranean and Arab groceries as well as many mainstream markets. The packages will be marked fine, medium, or coarse. Also see Wheat.
butter, butter-ghee: Butter is used in the Persian culinary world for baking, for cooking vegetables, and as a flavoring, especially in rice dishes. Butter-ghee, a kind of clarified butter, is more stable than regular butter and keeps well, which is why it’s the most common form found in the region. You can make your own butter-ghee or buy it in Persian, Arab, or Indian shops.
To make butter-ghee: Heat butter gently in a heavy saucepan until the milk solids separate from the clear liquid. Skim off the solids and reserve them to use as a flavoring for rice or vegetables. Transfer the liquid ghee to a clean glass jar and store in a cool place. Ghee is also made from hydrogenated vegetable oil, hence the specification for butter-ghee in these recipes.
Byzantine Empire: Also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the Greek- speaking Byzantine Empire vied with the Persian Empire for control of the eastern Mediterranean, the Caucasus, and what is present-day Turkey. For example, at times control of the Caucasus region was divided by treaty between the two empires, with western Georgia being allocated to the Byzantines while eastern Georgia, Armenia, and present-day Azerbaijan were under Persian rule. The Ottoman conquest in the fifteenth century ended the Byzantine Empire’s reign.
Kashan, Iran—A detail of the adobe roof of a traditional merchant’s house, now a small museum.
calendars: The Persian calendar is rooted in traditional rituals and beliefs. An Islamic calendar governs Islamic religious observances in Iran, but the official calendar of Iran (and neighboring Afghanistan) is based on the seasons and the sun’s annual movement. The years have 365 or 366 days, as in the Western calendar, but the New Year is at the spring solstice, around March 21. Years are counted from that date (the year 0 is the Western year AD 622, as it is in the Islamic calendar).
Thus calendars in Iran show two versions of the year (three if you include the Western calendar). In 2016, the Persian calendar, with the new year starting around March 21, will be at year 1395. The Islamic calendar, which is lunar and has only 354 days, rotates in relation to both the Western and the Persian calendars. In 2016, the Islamic New Year falls in October, after which the Islamic year will be 1438.
Of course, various other people in Iran and Greater Persia have different calendars. The Armenians and Assyrians, being Eastern Rite Christians, have a religious calendar that is Julian, so their holy days are about twelve days later than those observed by Western Christians (Christmas falls on January 7, for example). The Chaldeans, as Roman Catholic Assyrians, base their festivals and holy days on the Western calendar. And the Jews of Iran, like Jews all over the world, use a lunar calendar to mark their holy days, a calendar in which the Western year 2016 is 5776 until the Jewish New Year in early October, when it becomes 5777.
In Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Kurdistan, the Western calendar is used for everything but religious events and anniversaries.
cardamom: The cardamom plant is a member of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae) and is native to India and Sri Lanka. The flavor is in the small brown-black seeds, which are contained in small pods. Cardamom is sold as both whole pods and powdered. I recommend you buy unbleached green pods (not white) and store them in a sealed container. The word for cardamom is hel in Kurdish and Persian, hil in Azeri, and ili in Georgian.
cardoon: This member of the sunflower family (Cynara cardunculus) is a close cousin of the artichoke. The stems, harvested before the plant exhibits its tall, thistle-like flowers, are eaten as a vegetable, first blanched to remove bitterness and then simmered. Cardoons are native to the eastern Mediterranean and are still grown as a vegetable crop in France and Morocco.
cassia: A close relative of cinnamon and commonly labeled cinnamon in North American grocery stores, cassia has a stronger, less subtle taste than true cinnamon. Cinnamon can be substituted, but its taste is more perfumed and less punchy than that of the more familiar cassia. Cinnamon sticks are curled pieces of the inner bark from several related trees and are correctly referred to as quills. Cassia quills, from the tree Cinnamomum cassia, are tougher than the quills of tree cinnamon, Cinnamomum verum, which are more fragile and more expensive.
cayenne, cayenne powder, dried red chiles: Cayenne is a chile pepper that is just one of many varieties of Capsicum annuum. Cayennes are long and narrow, with pointed tips; they have medium chile heat (from the capsaicin in their membranes and flesh) and a slightly sweet flavor. Dried red cayenne chiles are widely sold in grocery stores as well as in Asian groceries, are dark red and a little wrinkled. Dull orange-red cayenne powder or pepper is the dried and ground form of the chile. It usually has a strong, intense chile heat, but powders vary in their intensity, so when you buy a fresh batch, start slowly with it, using a little, until you have a sense of how much heat and flavor it will give.
celery leaf: See Leaf Celery
Chador: A full-length piece of cloth, most often black, that is worn by some women in Iran and elsewhere. It has no fastenings, and is draped on the head and held closed at the front with one hand.
Chaldeans, Chaldean Church: Rather confusingly, the Chaldean Church and its members, who call themselves Chaldeans, are not remotely related to the ancient people called Chaldeans. The Chaldean Church is aligned with the Roman Catholic Church, and most of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians living in Kurdistan and in the rest of Iraq, and in Turkey, Syria, and Iran, as well as in diaspora in the United States and elsewhere. They call themselves Chaldeans to distinguish themselves from the Assyrians who follow the Eastern Rite or Orthodox churches. The language of the church is Syriac, an Aramaic language.
Tbilisi, Georgia—New World foods in a very Old World place.
chervil: A delicate annual herb, Anthriscus cerefolium, chervil has a subtle licorice or anise flavor; fine, lacy, bright green foliage; and tender, slender stems. It is related to parsley but has none of that herb’s vigor (and occasional toughness).
citric acid, citric acid powder: Also known as sour salt, powdered citric acid is used as a preservative. It can take the place of lime or lemon juice and in this book is given as an alternative in the recipe for Apricot Moraba (see recipe). That recipe comes from Azerbaijan, where limes and lemons were nearly impossible to find during periods of the country’s history (particularly the Soviet era). Look for citric acid in well-stocked grocery stores near pectin and other canning supplies.
Colchis: Colchis was an independent kingdom in the western part of present-day Georgia and is famous in myth as the destination of Jason and the Argonauts when they were searching for the Golden Fleece. The neighboring kingdom to the east was called Iberia. Colchis was conquered by the Greek kingdom of Pontis in 164 BC. The Colchians spoke a Khartvelian language that is related to modern Georgian. See also Albania and Iberia.
coriander: Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is both an herb and a spice; the herb is more often known as cilantro in the United States. The seeds are used in savory dishes and spice blends, including the Georgian spice mix called kmeli suneli (see recipe). The tender leaves and finer stems of the plant are used in many parts of the Persian culinary region, both as a flavoring and a garnish.
cornels: The oval, cherry-sized fruit of the tree Cornus mas, which is native to the Caucasus and Europe, is a little tart, like sour cherries. The fruits are called cornels, Carnelians, or Carnelian cherries and may be a deep red, orange-red, or pale yellow. The tender flesh surrounds a long pit. Cornels can be substituted for sour cherries or sour plums in sauces, condiments, and pies and strudels.
cucumber, Persian; cucumber, English; cucumber: Cucumbers are the fruit of a vine (Cucumis sativis) that is native to South Asia and a member of the Cucurbitaceae family. Many different cultivars are found worldwide. Those used in Iran, Kurdistan, and the Caucasus have delicate fine skins and few seeds, and they are eaten sliced or chopped, and usually peeled. They may be short or long but are always slender, quite unlike the fat, thick-skinned cucumbers common in North America. The long, fine-skinned cucumbers known as English or European cucumbers and the shorter Persian cucumbers, sometimes called Mediterranean or Lebanese cucumbers, are the closest North American equivalents to those grown in the region.
currencies: Each of these countries has a different currency: the Azeri monat; Armenian dram; Georgian lari; Iranian rial; and Kurdish (Iraqi) dinar. Iranians often refer to money as toman, the word for a previous currency, and that’s the word you’ll often encounter in books and movies, even contemporary ones. These days a toman is worth one-tenth of a rial (like a dime to a dollar).
dairy products: See Butter, Butter-Ghee; Kashk; Whey; and Yogurt.
damsons: See Sour Plums
dill: A plant in the Apiaceae family (a relative of carrots and nigella), dill is both a spice and an herb. Fresh dill is much more aromatic and potent than dried. Dill seeds, the fruits of the plant, have a strong anise-like aroma and flavor. Dill is used in Georgian spice blends, and both the fresh leaves and the seeds are essential for Green Ajika (see recipe), the Georgian herb paste.
doshab: The word doshab is most commonly used in the Persian culinary world for a thick grape syrup, but it can also mean mulberry syrup. Doshab is like a thick robb (see recipe) and is an important food and flavoring in Armenia, Georgia, Iran, and Azerbaijan. It’s made by pressing the fruit for its juice and cooking it down to a very thick syrup.
dried fruits: Drying fruits is a traditional way to preserve them. In the region, apricots and plums are dried whole or halved, while apples are cut into strips or chunks and strung on threads. Most dried fruits are used to give dishes tartness, but they also may be a wintertime snack. Also see Apricots, Barberries, and Sour Plums.
dried herbs: Drying is the most common and easiest way to preserve the fragrance and flavor of fresh herbs for use through the winter. Dried herbs may be more intense in flavor than their fresh counterparts, although sometimes the reverse is true. Quantities of fresh and dried herbs are not usually interchangeable, and fresh herbs are not always a good substitute for dried. See also specific herbs.
dried limes, dried lime powder, limoo basrahi, limoo omani: Dried limes are a common flavoring ingredient in Persian and Kurdish cooking. Known in Iran as limoo omani (meaning limes from Oman) and in Kurdistan as limoo basrahi (limes from Basra, a port in southern Iraq), they give a distinctive tartness and almost smoky, aromatic flavor to simmered dishes. Limes chosen for drying are soaked in saltwater and then dried in the sun until wrinkled, completely dried out, and brownish black. You can buy dried lime powder at Arab and Persian groceries or grate a whole dried lime with a Microplane or other fine grater to produce dried lime powder.
dried orange peel: Available from Persian and Arab groceries, dried orange peel is used to flavor meat dishes. The peel must be boiled in several changes of water to remove bitterness.
Eastern Orthodox churches: See Orthodox Churches
eggplant: The advice that eggplants must be salted to draw out their bitterness and then rinsed before using has never applied to the long, slender pale and dark purple varieties we call Asian eggplants. It’s also not necessary today for most Mediterranean or round, fat eggplants, because horticulturists have developed fruits that have fewer seeds and less bitterness than the old varieties.
emmer: An early form of wheat with 28 chromosomes (as opposed to the 42 found in modern wheat), emmer is known as hajor in Armenia (see The Armenian World of Wheat).
English cucumber: See Cucumber
farro: In Italy, the whole unmilled wheat berries of emmer, einkorn, and spelt are all sold labeled as farro.
Farsi: The Persian language is called Farsi in Iran (as French is “français” in France and German is “Deutsch” in Germany). I use both words interchangeably in this book when referring to the national language of Iran. It is an Indo-European language, like Tajik and Kurdish, and all are members of the Iranic family of languages. It’s written in Arabic script, which replaced the original Pahlavi script some time after the Arab conquest of Persia in AD 651.
fat, rendered fat: Fat gives flavor and makes most meats more tender. Rendered fat can be used as a cooking oil. To render fat, cut chunks of fat into small pieces and place in a heavy skillet with a little water over medium-low heat. As the fat starts to melt, raise the heat to medium. Pour off the fat into a dry glass container, cover, and refrigerate.
fenugreek, fenugreek powder, fenugreek leaves: Fenugreek is a leguminous plant (Trigonella foenum graecum L.) that is used as a spice and an herb in Greater Persia and beyond. Fresh fenugreek leaves are used in Indian cooking. Dried fenugreek leaves are a staple herb in the Persian pantry; see the recipes for Kerman-Bazaar Lamb Stew and Persian-Style Fried Fish Fillets, where they impart a maple syrup–like flavor. They are sold in Persian and Indian groceries, usually as a slightly coarse mixture of dried leaves and stems. Grind them to a powder in a mortar or crumble between your fingers before adding them to a dish. The hard, triangular, orange-yellow seeds are a legume, although when ground to a powder, they are used as a spice (shemli in Sorani Kurdish, shanbalile in Persian). Fenugreek powder is bitter on its own, but when combined with other ingredients, or toasted or cooked, it develops an enticing flavor with hints of maple syrup and an appealing nuttiness. See Blue Fenugreek.
fish: A number of kinds of fish are mentioned in this book as candidates for various recipes, but please do not feel bound by my suggestions, and do substitute fish that you prefer. If you have access to a good fish store where they can tell you about the source of your fish, try to buy fish that are not on the endangered species list.
Alaskan Black Cod: The fish known in the United States, Canada, and the UK as black cod is more properly called sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria). It is found in deep waters in the North Pacific (hence the frequent inclusion of the adjective “Alaskan” in its name). The fish is rich in oils and in omega-3 fatty acids (as wild salmon is). It is ideal for grilling and frying and when cooked can be flaked into large succulent pieces.
Kerman, Iran—Peanuts, pistachios, sunflower seeds, and toasted, salted chickpeas, all favorite snacks, plus blocks of crude sugar, at a stall in the bazaar.
Black Sea Bass: Centropristis striata is fished in the North Atlantic off the east coast of North America. It is a type of grouper (Serranidae). The flesh is white, firm, and mild-tasting and the fish available in shops weigh between 1½ and 3 pounds.
Branzino: Dicentrarchis librax is known as Mediterranean sea bass, European sea bass, spigolo, loup de mer, or sea dace. The flesh of this attractive slender fish is firm-textured. Branzino is often sold whole, but you can also find fillets. It can be grilled, baked, or fried. It is caught wild in the Mediterranean Sea and is farmed in various countries in the Mediterranean basin.
Haddock: Melanogramus aeglefinus is a North Atlantic species recognizable by the black stripe that runs the length of the fish. A firm-textured fish that has become increasingly expensive, haddock lends itself to grilling and frying.
Ling Cod: Although Ophiodon elongatus is also known as lingcod (one word) or buffalo cod, it’s no relation to cod. Found off the west coast of North America, ling cod is prized for its firm flesh.
Pickerel: A freshwater fish like pike in the genus Esox, pickerel swims in lakes and rivers from Siberia to northern North America. Its firm, sweet flesh makes it ideal for grilling or frying, either whole or in fillets.
Snapper, Red Snapper: The name snapper is given to a number of fish, of which the most familiar—because it is so distinctive-looking and available in North America—is the red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus). It is a pinkish red in color and is fished in the Gulf of Mexico and in the Atlantic near the southern part of the United States. Other snappers have the same shape (a sloping profile from the nose up to the dorsal [back] fin), and some (the dog snapper and mutton snapper) have prominent canine teeth, unlike the red snapper. All have tender white flesh that is mild-tasting and a little delicate. They can be grilled or roasted or fried.
Near Massouleh, northern Iran—Low, trimmed rows of tea bushes, a characteristic sight in the Caspian region, not only in Iran, but also in Azerbaijan.
Striped Bass: Also known as rockfish or striper or Atlantic striped bass, Morone saxatilis is found along the Atlantic coast of North America. The fish spawn in fresh water upriver, but live as mature fish in the ocean. As the common names suggest, they have dark stripes running lengthwise along their sides. The fish can grow huge, up to thirty pounds. The flesh is white and mild-tasting and adapts to many kinds of cooking, from poaching to frying to grilling.
Sturgeon: A number of different varieties of fish in the Acipenseridae family are known as sturgeon. Sturgeon are native to cold and temperate waters in North America, Europe, and Asia, with the Caspian and Black Seas being most famous for sturgeon. Unfortunately, the sturgeon fishery in those waters is threatened by overfishing and pollution. Sturgeon are now being farmed in several places in North America for their roe—caviar—which commands a premium price. As a result, farmed sturgeon is now becoming increasingly available in North American fish markets. The flesh is firm and rich and slightly sweet, ideal for grilling, and a real treat.
gaz, gazo: The best and most famous examples of this much-loved form of nougat come from Isfahan in Iran, although the gaz made in Kurdistan is also prized. This is not surprising since an essential ingredient of authentic gaz is a sweet sap from the leaves of tamarisk trees, which grow in the Zagros Mountains, along the border between Iran and Kurdistan. The sap is extruded by insects and left on the leaves, then gathered. Other nougat ingredients include egg whites, rose water, and pistachios.
Georgian spice blend: This blend, kmeli suneli in Georgian, gives Georgian cooking its distinctive flavors. Homemade is usually best (see recipe), but it is easier to buy it ready-made. Commercial versions from Georgia are becoming more available in North America. Some are salted and some not, so wait to taste before adding salt to the dish. Kalustyan’s on Lexington Avenue in New York City carries it and will ship mail orders.
ghee: See Butter
golpar: See Angelica
Greek-style yogurt: See Yogurt
herbs: Fresh and dried herbs play a big role in the Persian culinary region. Fresh herbs are eaten at most meals as a kind of flavoring or salad accompaniment at the table (see Herb Plate). Both dried and fresh herbs have a role in cooking. Many of the recipes in this book give equivalents for fresh and dried herbs.
Often the dried forms of herbs are much stronger tasting per volume or weight than their fresh equivalents (dill, basil, and tarragon are among the exceptions). This means that the substitution for, say, a cup of fresh fenugreek leaves would be 2 tablespoons powdered dried fenugreek leaves.
care of fresh herbs: Store fresh herbs in the refrigerator or another cool place in a tightly sealed plastic bag or wrapped in a damp paper towel inside a plastic bag. There’s now better access to fresh herbs year-around, but if you have the space and the time, grow your own; many herbs thrive indoors in winter. It’s always good to have the following fresh herbs on hand: mint, flat-leaf parsley, and tarragon. I also like to have dill and sorrel for an herb plate. Fresh fenugreek leaves are available in the spring from South Asian and Persian groceries. Other fresh greens that serve as both herbs and greens include scallions, watercress, and purslane.
honey, honey bees: Honey, along with ripe fruit, is the original sweet. In this long-inhabited region, honey was used as a sweetener until sugar became more available. Thus, for example, the sweet syrup that drenches the cookies from Yazd (see Oasis Baqlava), though now made with sugar, would have originally been made from honey. Honey from the Caucasus is special, because the bees that make it are distinctive. The bees indigenous to the region are Apis mellifera caucasia, and beekeeping is widespread, especially in Georgia and Azerbaijan. The bees are darker colored than European and North American bees.
Iberia (Caucasus): Iberia was an ancient kingdom in what is now eastern Georgia. Its first king ruled in the third century BC. from the town of Mtskheta, not far from present-day Georgia’s capital, Tbilisi. The Roman general Pompey conquered Iberia, along with Armenia and Colchis, in 65 BC. The following four centuries saw control of Iberia pass back and forth between Persia and the West (first Rome and later Byzantium), as it lay on the border between their respective spheres of influence.
Iran: The modern country of Iran has undergone enormous changes internally and in its relationship to the rest of the world over the last hundred years. Rich in oil and natural resources, with a well-educated population and a pride in its long history, Iran has been governed by a theocracy since the revolution of 1979. Before then, under the Shah, an absolute ruler, there was a push for modernization and secularization. In the early part of the twentieth century, Britain and Russia competed for control and influence there, while during the Second World War, Iran was occupied by the British. Some of that history may explain the paranoia that the current regime expresses about other powerful nations. The name Iran goes back in history, and is related to the word aryan. See also Persia.
Jerusalem artichokes, sunchokes: Now widely available in farmers’ markets and large grocery stores, these hardy vegetables are the tubers of a variety of sunflower (Helianthus tuberosus) native to North America. The flavor is reminiscent of artichokes and the Jerusalem part of the name probably comes from girosol, the French word for sunflower. The plant is a perennial, and Jerusalem artichokes can survive in frozen ground, which makes them a hardy winter vegetable for people in the colder parts of North America. Scrub them thoroughly and then roast them, or slice and stir-fry them. (They can cause flatulence if not thoroughly cooked.)
Jews, Jewish populations: Until recently, there were important Jewish populations living throughout the Persian culinary world. After the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, a number of Jews in the region made aliyah, and moved to Israel. Those in Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan, like Jews in the rest of the Soviet Union, faced intermittent persecution but had great difficulty leaving until after the USSR broke up in the early 1990s. There are still small Jewish populations in each of the Caucasus countries. In Halabja, in Kurdistan, friends pointed out to me the Jewish part of town and told me that the last inhabitants had left in the 1980s, fleeing the violence of Saddam Hussein. In Iran, the Jewish population has a long history, going back to the time of Darius and the story of Queen Esther. It has faced intense persecution at times, and yet over the centuries survived and created a rich distinctive culture. Because of the intense hostility of the government toward Jews and toward Israel following the Islamic Revolution, many more Iranian Jews left in the 1980s, so that the Jewish population of Iran now numbers less than ten thousand people. Jewish versions of Persian rice dishes use oil rather than butter. For traditional Jewish versions of dishes from the Persian culinary region, consult Claudia Roden’s The Book of Jewish Food (see Bibliography).
Yerevan, Armenia—Clay pots and wine jugs for sale at the weekly antiques market.
kashk: In Persian and Kurdish, it is kashk, while in Azeri and other Turkic languages, this is known as qurut; in Armenian, it’s chortan. Whatever the language, kashk is a fermented-milk product, traditionally made from concentrated (cooked-down) whey, the liquid remaining after butter is made from milk. In some places, it is made from concentrated yogurt or sour milk. Kashk has a strong cheese-like flavor, and it adds pungent intensity to vegetable dishes and thick soups, rather in the same way that aged Parmesan does. In North America, kashk is most often available in the form of small dried white disks or balls with a strong cheesy aroma. Although they are designed to be kept at room temperature, I refrigerate mine on hot days. To reconstitute dried kashk: Soak the dried disks in warm water until softened a little. Chop them into small pieces, or transfer them, with the soaking liquid, to a food processor or blender and process to a paste.
Kashk is also available as a thick, off-white paste that, once opened, has a short shelf life and must be refrigerated. Unless you use it a lot, I recommend dried kashk.
khachapuri: The Georgian word for a whole array of filled breads is khachapuri, with puri meaning bread; the best known are filled with cheese. The breads may be leavened by baking powder (see Cheese-Filled Quick Breads) or yeast (see recipe). The fillings are most commonly a mix of a fresh cheese with yogurt and perhaps herbs. The breads can also be filled with cooked kidney beans or other beans. The filling is usually enclosed in the bread but can also top it, as it does in traditional adjaruli khachapuri, which is boat shaped and filled with cheese, topped with an egg, and eaten drizzled with melted butter.
Kurdish, Kurdistan, Kurds: The Kurdish people, who speak a number of different but related northwest Iranic languages, live in a large area that spreads over five countries: Iraqi Kurdistan, Iran, Armenia, northern Syria, and Turkey. Having arrived in the region from the east millennia ago, they are one of the largest groups in the world to be without a country. The main Kurdish peoples and languages are Sorani, sometimes called Gorani (in southern Kurdistan), Hawrami (in Iran and also in the Halabja area of Kurdistan), and Kurmanji (in northern Kurdistan, Turkey, and Armenia). Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims; some converted long ago to Yazidism (see Yazidis) and now consider themselves a separate people. A Kurdish nationalist movement has been active for years. The government of Turkey has waged war on the Kurds, occasionally negotiating settlements and then resuming hostilities. The Kurdish population in Armenia is small and still raises sheep and goats in a seminomadic style of life. In Iraqi Kurdistan, the Kurds are the majority, while in Iran, they have often been persecuted by the central government.
leaf celery: Also known as celery leaf, herb celery, cutting celery, or Chinese celery, Apium graveolens var. secalinum is related to the familiar stalk celery we eat (Apium graveolens var. dolce), but is closer in both appearance and taste to wild celery, or smallage. The dark-green leaves resemble those of flat-leaf parsley and have a pungent celery flavor, and so should be cooked in dishes rather than eaten raw. The stems are narrow and hollow and are used as a flavoring for stock. Look for leaf celery in Chinese and eastern Mediterranean groceries.
leeks: Like garlic and onions, leeks, members of the Allium family, are a much-loved and useful vegetable in the Persian culinary region, especially in Iran. Their white and tender green parts are eaten, while the tougher tops of the leaves are best used as flavoring, in stocks or soups, for example. Leeks are cold-tolerant and easy to grow in temperate climates. To use them, first trim off the root ends, then slice the white and tender green parts and submerge them in cool water to remove sand and grit that might be caught between the layers of leaves. Drain the leeks and wash a second time to make sure they are free of sand. Leeks keep well in a cool place or the refrigerator.
Limoo Basahi, Limoo Omani: See Dried Limes
lovage: Levisticum officinale is a tall perennial herb in the Apiaceae family that is native to Iran and the eastern Mediterranean. Its yellow- green leaves look a little like celery leaves and have a strong, almost hot, celery-like taste. The plant grows well in temperate climates and is widely used in Europe as well as in West Asia. The seeds are a spice and the leaves an herb.
manteau: The word used in Iran for the basic outer garment worn by women, manteau is French for coat. In Iran it is generally knee-length and long-sleeved, with a front closing up to the neck. It’s worn over long trousers or leggings, and with a head scarf. In urban environments, many women wear fashionable, very fitted manteaus with sleeves that are less than full-length, and they pair them with eye-catching shoes and head scarves. Women in more conservative environments wear a black manteau, a dark head covering, and, over that, a black chador, the full-length piece of cloth that hangs from the top of the head to the ground and is held closed in front with one hand.
marigold flowers, powdered marigolds, marigold petals: In Georgia, the yellow tint that is so prized in the region comes from dried marigold flowers, not saffron. They give yellow color and a faint aroma to various dishes. The powder, known as zaffran, is an ingredient in the Georgian spice blend kmeli suneli (see recipe). In Azerbaijan, the same color is obtained from safflower blossoms, while in Kurdistan, turmeric gives a yellow hue to rice and other dishes. Dried marigold flowers are sold in Middle Eastern and Turkish groceries. Grind the petals to a powder in a mortar or crumble with your fingers.
mint, dried mint: The leaves of Menthe piperita, common peppermint, are well known in Europe and North America. In the Persian culinary world, mint is often used in its dried form, either as desiccated leaves or as a fine green powder. The Persian word for mint is poonga, which is also used in Kurdish. Mint is a perennial that grows well in most climates, even those with cold winters.
Mongols, Mongol invasions: The Mongols, an army on horseback, swept west from central Asia in the thirteenth century, first under Genghis Khan and then under the leadership of his sons and descendants. Genghis Khan had reached Persia and the Caucasus by the time he died in 1227. Subsequent invasions in the middle of the thirteenth century by later Mongol armies devastated parts of northern Iran, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, and the Caucasus. The invaders laid waste to libraries, villages, monasteries, churches, and cities all across the region.
moraba: The word moraba refers to a kind of thick jam, or fruit confit, throughout the region, no matter what language is spoken (see recipes here and here).
mulberries: Known as tut in most of the languages of the Persian culinary world, mulberries grow on a flowering tree (Morus). They look a little like elongated raspberries or blackberries but have a firmer texture than either. The fruit may be red, white, or black: Red mulberries are native to North America, white mulberries to China, and black mulberries to Persia and the Caucasus. Both black and red mulberries have an intense, sweet-tart flavor, while the white ones are milder. Dried mulberries are sold in Persian grocery stores. The leaves of mulberry trees are food for silkworms. Local production of silk, formerly a household craft in the Caucasus, has pretty much disappeared (see Mulberry Country).
Nagorno-Karabakh: A mountainous region situated between Azerbaijan and Armenia, Nagorno-Karabakh was majority Armenian in population but lay within the Azerbaijan SSR in Soviet times. Before the Soviet Union broke up, there was a pro-Armenia vote, but after the breakup, a vicious war resulted in the exodus of Azeris from the territory. It is now controlled by Armenia, and there is a poorly observed cease-fire that results in soldiers being killed every year along the border. The cost of this “hot” cease-fire is huge for both Azerbaijan and Armenia in terms of manpower and money. It also means that the border crossings between them are closed.
nettles: The tender leaves and tips of young nettles (Urtica dioica) are used as a green vegetable in the spring, typically in soups and in kuku’ye sabzi (see Persian Greens Frittata). Once cooked, nettles lose their sting and have a flavor somewhat like spinach. They are rich in vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron.
nigella: A spice with a slightly oniony flavor, nigella is the seed of an annual, Nigella sativa. The plant is related to carrots and Queen Anne’s lace, with tiny teardrop-shaped seeds. Nigella seeds are sometimes mislabeled black cumin, although they are no relation to cumin. In South Asian stores, they are usually labeled kalonji.
Nou-Roz: Nou-Roz is the Persian name for the New Year that is celebrated at the spring equinox by the people and countries of the Persian culinary region and beyond. It’s now a secular public holiday in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraqi Kurdistan, and Uzbekistan. In Zoroastrian tradition, the origin of the holiday, it marks the moment when the sun crosses into the north at the equinox, and it is a holy or religious celebration. In Iran, the festivities last for thirteen days.
oil: The main cooking oil in the region these days is sunflower oil, extracted from the seeds of sunflowers grown for the purpose. And butter and butter-ghee are used in many dishes, such as Persian rices, as well as in sweet baking. Rendered lamb fat is used in some stews. Olive oil production is still small in Iran and smaller yet in Azerbaijan and Armenia, but olive oil is gaining in popularity, especially in Iran. See also Butter, Butter-Ghee; Fat, Rendered Fat; Olives; and Sunflower Oil.
olives: Ancient records indicate that olive trees grew in Persia three thousand years ago, yet only recently have olives been eaten and olive oil used for cooking. Instead, the oil was used for soap and oil lamps. An article in the Encyclopedia Iranica (see Bibliography) traces olives and olive trees from earlier times, noting that the trees grew in southern Iran, in Khuzestan Province. But most olive groves are in Gilan Province, in the Caspian region, on the north slope of the Alborz Mountains. These days olives are big business: Iranian producers are selling olive oil as well as cured olives. Olive oil is also beginning to be used in Azerbaijan and in Armenia. In Armenia there is at least one plantation, begun by a Western Armenian from Syria who moved to Armenia, that is now producing oil and olives. Georgia and Georgians seem to have no history of olive production, despite the history of Greek colonization of the Black Sea coast over the millennia.
The other people who use olive oil are the Yazidis, for whom it is important in their religious ceremonies (see Yazidis). Consequently, at Yazidi temples there are large earthenware barrels of oil stored underground, to keep the oil cool. The Yazidis cultivate olive trees in Kurdistan and elsewhere to ensure a supply.
Massouleh, northern Iran—Green olives from Iran.
Orthodox churches: The Christians of Greater Persia speak many languages and are members of a number of different churches. Most are Orthodox, with the exception being the Chaldean Church (see Chaldeans). The Orthodox or Eastern Rite churches include the Armenian Apostolic Church (which is Oriental Orthodox), headquartered in Etchmiadzin, near Yerevan, and the Georgian Apostolic Autocephalous Orthodox Church (which is Eastern Orthodox), headquartered in Tbilisi. There are, as well, a number of Eastern Orthodox Assyrian churches, including the Assyrian Church of the East, now headquartered in the United States, and the Syrian Orthodox Church, headquartered in Damascus.
Pahlavi: The ancient alphabet called Pahlavi was used to write Persian until the Arab conquest, when it was replaced by Arabic script. Pahlavi is also the family name of the Shah of Iran, who ruled from 1941 until he was deposed in the revolution of 1979.
pastry flour: Sold as white or whole wheat flour, pastry flour has a low protein content (usually less than 9 percent), which results in a tender crust when used for pies and pastries.
peppers: See Bell Peppers and Cayenne
Persia, Persian, Persians, Persian Empire: Persia is the name that the country now called Iran was known by for millennia. The name comes from the region called Fars, or Pars, which is the place of origin of the first Persian Empire. (The city of Shiraz is the capital of Fars Province in modern Iran.) Similarly, the language spoken in Iran is Persian. (In Persian, the word for the language is “Farsi.”) Persian (and its predecessors, Middle Persian and Old Persian) is the language of poetry and literature. The great epic poem Shahnameh, written in Persian by the poet Ferdowsi between circa AD 977 and 1010, is credited with reviving and strengthening the Persian language when it had been weakened by the imposition of Arabic in public life following the Arab conquest. Most people in Iran speak of themselves as Persians when speaking English. They may say they are Iranian in terms of nationality, but their identity and their culture is Persian (unless they happen to be Assyrian, Kurdish, Armenian, or Azeri).
The first great Persian Empire, the Achaemenid Empire, was created by Cyrus the Great and lasted from 550 BC to 330 BC, when it fell to Alexander the Great. Rulers after that included the Seleucids and the Parthians. Another Persian Empire, the Sassanian Empire, lasted from AD 224 to AD 651, when it was defeated by the Arabs. See Arab Conquest.
Persian cucumber: See Cucumber
Persian poets: The list of Persian poets is long. Here are a few of the best known: Ferdowsi (935–1025) is famous for his epic poem Shahnameh, which describes the origins of Persia and is written in Persian, with a marked avoidance of words with Arab origins. This is significant, as it marks the start of a revival of Persian language after the Arab conquest of Persia. Ferdowsi’s tomb is in Tus, outside Mashad in northeastern Iran. Omar Khayyam (1048–1131), who was born in the same region, is more famous among Persian and Arab scholars as a scientist and mathematician than as a poet. Yet he is perhaps the best-known Persian poet among English speakers because of the famous nineteenth-century translation of his poetry by Edward FitzGerald, titled The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. The poet Hafez (circa 1325–1389) lived and worked in Shiraz, now the site of his tomb. His poetry, well known and beloved by Persians, both celebrates the pleasures of love and wine and attacks hypocrisy. Saadi (circa 1210–1290), another poet from Shiraz, was widely traveled. He lived through the upheavals caused by the Mongol invasions and wrote about the people he met on his travels through India, central Asia, and Anatolia. Rumi (1207–1273), known as a Sufi mystic as well as a poet, wrote in Persian. His most famous work, composed in Konya (now in Turkish Anatolia), is Mathnawi.
pickles: Throughout Persia and the Caucasus, pickles—torshi in Persian—are a part of the herb plate that accompanies most meals and are eaten in the winter in place of fresh vegetables. White radishes are the most common pickled vegetable; they often are tinted pink with a little beet juice. In Georgia and Armenia, pickles tend to be made with salt brine rather than vinegar. Mild or slightly hot peppers, garlic, and onions are often pickled too. Persian-style pickles are widely available in specialty stores and some large groceries, as are pickled peppers, garlic, and onions.
pomegranate juice: Unsweetened pomegranate juice is now available in North America. It’s a good fallback when you don’t have the time or inclination to squeeze your own, although I prefer to do so. If you buy pomegranate juice to cook down to molasses, check that the juice is pure, not sweetened or from concentrate.
pomegranate molasses: The cooked-down juice of tart (nonsweet) pomegranates is called pomegranate molasses or pomegranate concentrate in English. In this book, I use the term pomegranate molasses. It’s an indispensable ingredient in the region, tart with a sweet edge that enlivens everything from salads (see recipe) to Persian fesanjun (see recipe) to marinades (see recipe). The name for the molasses in Persian is robb-e-anar, or pomegranate robb (robb meaning a thick or reduced syrup made of fruit juice). You can make your own (see recipe), but it’s much easier to buy it. My favorite brand is Cortas, made in Lebanon.
pomegranates: The fruit of a small tree, Punica granatum, pomegranates are native to Persia, where they are called anar. From late September until February, the trees bear fruit, which may be tart/sour or sweet. Pomegranates have a thick, leathery skin that prevents them from losing moisture in the dry climates in which they thrive. Inside, in chambers separated by bitter white pith, are bundles of seeds coated with juicy red pulp. Choose firm, heavy fruit, an indication that they are fresh and juicy. For eating and seed-collecting instructions, see here.
pulses: See Beans and Lentils
purslane: An annual plant (Portulaca oleracea) that is usually treated as a weed in North America, purslane is a valued green in the Persian culinary region and beyond. It is a succulent with thick reddish stems and leaves that have a slightly mucilaginous texture. It is cooked in soups (see Purslane Soup) and eaten raw in salads. In North America, it’s sold at some farmers’ markets; once you recognize it, you may discover it growing wild by the roadside or in your own garden.
Yerevan, Armenia—Persian-style rice cooking pots, including copper ones. The shape, wider at the bottom and tapered inward toward the top, ensures a generous amount of bottom crust. It also helps funnel the steam and heat up into the piled rice at the last stage of cooking (see Basic Persian Rice).
qanat: Qanat is the Persian name for the underground water channels that for millennia have been used to bring water from the mountains to the desert while keeping it cool and preventing loss through evaporation. The system was developed in Persia and later spread into central Asia, including China’s Xinjiang Province.
Rendered Fat: See Fat, Rendered Fat
rice, broken rice, rice brokens, rice flour: Different types of rice have widely different characteristics. The most noticeable are the size of the grains (long, medium, or short) and the texture of the cooked rice (separate and almost dry grains or clinging/sticky grains). Basmati is long-grain and high in amylose, which means that it can absorb a lot of water as it cooks to a tender but firm texture, with grains that remain separate. (In contrast, lower amylose rices such as jasmine, or Japanese, rice have soft clinging grains.) When buying basmati rice, look for rice from India or Pakistan (Persian rice is unavailable in the West; if you find some, do buy it!). Make sure to wash it well, as directed in the recipes.
“Rice brokens,” or “broken rice,” refers to a low grade of rice that has, as the name indicates, a large proportion of broken grains (this happens during the milling process). Brokens are used in dishes such as rice pudding, where their loose starches are desirable. You will find rice brokens in Asian grocery stores. You can substitute whole jasmine or other rices by breaking them a little in a food processor, or instead placing them on a cloth on a work surface, topping with another fine cloth, and rolling a heavy rolling pin over them to break them a little. The rice flour called for in this book is always the flour of regular rice (not glutinous rice). Please read the package carefully, since the two types of rice flour are not interchangeable.
rose hips: The fruits of roses are a familiar sight in the autumn when the flowers have faded; in their place are swollen rounds that look like berries and turn to red-orange, or sometimes a dark purple, as they ripen. These are rose hips, also known as rose haws. Rose hips are loaded with vitamin C and have a pleasing clean tartness, with a hint of sweet. They keep well if stored in a cool place. To use, boil them whole in a little water until soft, then press through a strainer and discard the debris. Use the thick juice extract to make jam or soup (see Rose Hip Soup).
rose petals: Dried rose petals are sold in Persian and Arab groceries and in gourmet shops. Crushed to a powder, they add a lightly perfumed flavor to dishes. Fresh rose petals are used in the production of rose water (see following).
rose water: Water scented by flowers, including roses, is produced by steam distillation. The city of Kashan in central Iran, not far from Qom, is a famous source of distilled scented waters (see photo). Rose water has an intense flavor and should be used with a light hand. It flavors many Persian sweets and can also add a distinctive, pleasing layer of flavor to savory dishes such as the soups called ash.
saffron: Saffron threads are the stigmas of a crocus flower, Crocus sativus. Iran is the largest producer of saffron in the world. (For more on saffron production, see Seeking Saffron.) Saffron is available in spice shops and well-stocked grocery stores. The yellow color given by saffron is very much desired in the whole Persian-influenced world and beyond. True saffron is very expensive, but just a few threads are enough to dye a cup of warm water to use in rice and other dishes. (Less-reputable sellers may substitute safflower stigmas or other plant material for saffron and offer it at a lower cost; it will color the water but won’t have the same aroma and flavor.)
saffron water: The best way to transform saffron into a usable spice, flavoring, and coloring is to make saffron water (see recipe). The stigmas can be used whole or ground to a powder, then dissolved in a little hot water.
saj, sajj, saaj: A saj is a shallow round pan looks like a shallow wok and is used dome side up as a cooking surface for breads (see photo). They are used primarily by Kurds and other peoples in the Persian world and Turkey whose backgrounds are nomadic, as well as by the Bedouin and other Arab nomads.
salep: A powder that is used as a thickener in Persian ice cream (bastani) and in desserts, salep (salaab in Persian) is ground from the root of several plants in the Orchis family. When it traveled to England, it became the basis for a thickened drink known as saloop.
samanu, samanoo: In the days leading up to the Zoroastrian New Year, Nou-Roz, home cooks prepare samanu—a slightly sweet paste made of sprouted wheat that is mixed with water and cooked very slowly until thickened (see Zoroaster’s Legacy).
Sassanian Empire: The Sassanian dynasty ruled the Persian Empire from AD 224 until the time of the Arab conquest in AD 651.
scallions: A member of the Allium family, like onions, scallions are also known as green onions. They are immature; that is, they have tender green stems and a slender white bulb. The whites and tender greens are eaten raw or used in cooking.
sea buckthorn: A thorny shrub-tree (Hippophae rhamnoides) with clusters of intensely gold-orange berries (see photo), sea buckthorn is native to central Asia and Europe. The name probably derives from the fact that the bush thrives in salty soil near the seashore. It also does well in dry sunny conditions, such as those in parts of the Caucasus and Iran. The tart, astringent berries, which are rich in oils, are pressed for juice and baked in pies. Because of its oil, sea buckthorn has recently become popular as an ingredient in skin creams and other cosmetics.
Yerevan, Armenia—Fresh barberries, left, and sea buckthorn berries, right, at the market.
sharbat: Sharbat is a type of drink popular in Iran and Azerbaijan, made by mixing water and a fruit syrup and pouring it over ice. The fruit syrups are often aromatic with rose water or other flavorings.
Shia Islam, Twelvers: Ali and his sons Hassan and Husseyn (also spelled Hussein) were the first three imams in Shia Islam—that is, successors of the Prophet Mohammed.
The Shia believe that truth from God is transmitted by the imams, that the imams are infallible, and that the imams must be male descendants of Ali (whose wife was the Prophet’s daughter Fatemah). As various Shia sects diverged, each developed a different interpretation of the lineage. The Ismailis and the Twelvers are the largest groups of Shia. The Twelvers practice the version of Shia that is the dominant religion in Iran and has the most believers worldwide. They believe in a lineage of twelve imams, nine more after Husseyn, eight of them historic and the final twelfth, called Mahdi, being the imam still to come. The shrine in Mashad of the seventh imam, Imam Reza, who was martyred nearby, is the most holy shrine in Iran for Twelvers.
skewers: Metal skewers are the traditional tool for cooking shashlik/kebabs; they can be found in Persian, Arab, and Turkish grocery stores and some housewares shops. The metal transmits heat to the center of the meat or vegetable for even cooking. Look for wide, flat skewers for kebabs made of ground meat (such as Iranian koobideh kebab), and narrower ones for chunks of meat and vegetables, and for cooking fish shashlik (see recipe). When assembling skewers for grilling, be sure not to cram too much onto them, or the pieces of food may burn before the center is cooked.
Sorani, Sorani Kurds: There are several distinct populations of Kurds living in Kurdistan, Iran, Armenia, and Turkey who speak related but different languages. The Sorani Kurdish are the majority population in Kurdistan, notably in the southern half that includes the capital, Arbil, and the cities of Halabja and Sulaymaniyah. See also Kurdish, Kurdistan, Kurds.
sorrel: Common sorrel (Rumex acetosa) is a large-leafed perennial herb that grows well in temperate climates, especially if there is plenty of water. Sorrel leaves are tender and bright green, with a lemony citrusy flavor.
sour plums, damsons, tkemali plums: There are a number of plums (fruits of the family Prunus) that are treasured for their tartness rather than their sweetness. They may be used fresh for sauces and condiments or dried whole or processed into fruit leather for longer keeping. Some sour plums are sour because they are picked before they have ripened, while others, which may be green, dark purple, or red, are distinctly sour when fully ripe. The unripe bright green plums, called gojeh sabz in Persian and tkemali in Georgian, are a springtime treat. Ripe dark sour or tart plums include damsons (Prunus insititia), which are purple and slightly elongated, and the Georgian plum tkemali (Prunus ceracifera), a small red plum known in English as a cherry plum.
spelt: A variety of wheat, spelt (Triticum spelta) grows well in tough terrains and can be used for bread making, as well as eaten as whole wheat berries. In Italy, it’s one of the three varieties of wheat that are eaten as unmilled whole berries and known as farro; the other two are emmer and einkorn. See also Emmer.
spoon jam: From Serbia and Romania to Greece, Turkey, and the Caucasus, there is a tradition of serving thick, jam-like sweets on a spoon as a hit of sweet to eat with a glass of cold water or hot tea. Apricot Moraba (see recipe) and Carrot Moraba (see recipe) are made in the style of spoon jam.
Sufism, Sufi Islam: A branch of Islam that is focused on the mystic, the ecstatic, and the interior, or spiritual, Sufism is shunned and despised by some Sunnis and Shia. Others accept it as a legitimate and rich school of Islam.
sugar, confectioners’ sugar, fine sugar, icing sugar, pearl sugar, rock sugar: The recipes in this book call for familiar refined white sugar, the same sugar that is used to sweeten tea and coffee in the regions. Rock sugar, made of sugar syrup that has been heated to boiling and then cooked slower so it forms large golden crystals (see photo), is dipped into tea to sweeten it by some people in Iran. Specialized sugars called for include icing sugar, also known as powdered sugar, which is finely ground granulated sugar mixed with a little cornstarch (to prevent caking). Fine or superfine sugar, also called castor sugar or baker’s sugar, is a finer version of granulated sugar and is valued for its quick-dissolving properties. Large crystal sugars include pearl sugar, which is used as a decorative topping because it doesn’t melt in the oven’s heat.
Yazd, Iran—Rock sugar made by hand in a shop in the Yazd bazaar, where liquid sugar is cooked down until crystallized. The crystals are sold in blocks like these or in sticks that can be dipped into tea.
suluguni: A traditional cheese of Georgia, originally from the Samegrelo region and now found in markets throughout the country, suluguni is, like mozzarella, a pulled-curd cheese, but it has a firmer texture and a slightly stronger flavor. It may be made from cow, goat, or buffalo milk and melts beautifully when heated. Mozzarella is a good substitute.
sumac: Sumac is a dark red spice from the drupes of a bush in the Rhus family. Ground sumac has a sparkling lemony taste. It’s sprinkled on kebabs in Kurdistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan and used as a table condiment in Azerbaijan. It is also an essential ingredient in the eastern Mediterranean spice blend called zatar. The word sumac comes from the Aramaic word for red.
summer savory: An annual herb (Satureja hortensis), summer savory has small leaves and lilac-colored flowers. It is used in some Georgian dishes. In Europe it is usually part of the classic blend known as herbes de Provence. The less-common winter savory is a perennial.
sunflower oil: The major cooking oil in the Persian culinary world, and produced throughout the region, sunflower oil comes from locally grown sunflowers (Helianthus annuus). Georgia produces about 50,600 tons, while Iran’s production is about 96,000 tons. Sunflower oil is also produced in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iraq.
The oil is a mixture of linoleic and oleic acids (mono- and polyunsaturated fats). It may be pressed from the seeds or extracted from them using chemical solvents (refined). Pressed oil (called expressed) has a pleasant taste and a pale golden-yellow color, but it is less stable than refined oil and has a lower smoke point (about 220°F). Refined oil has a high smoke point, comparable to peanut oil (about 435°F), and it is more stable, but its flavor is less interesting. Sunflower oil is now widely available in North America. Use the refined oil for frying and try to find organic cold-pressed oil for use in salads and other dishes that are raw or cooked at low temperatures. If you wish, substitute a mild-tasting extra-virgin olive oil for sunflower oil, as indicated in the recipes.
Sunni Islam: More Muslims are Sunni than Shia. The fundamental split between the two came soon after the death of Mohammed, when there was a dispute over the governance of the faithful. As with other faiths, there are many styles of Sunni Islam, some very moderate and others more extreme. Most Kurds in Kurdistan are Sunnis; about 15 percent of Azeris are Sunnis.
tamarind: The fruit of the tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica, native to Africa) has tart pulp that is used as a souring ingredient in cuisines from Iran to India and Southeast Asia. Tamarind trees grow well in tropical and subtropical climates and give generous shade. The name derives from the Arabic tamar hindi, meaning Indian date. Tamarind is believed to have powerful medicinal properties; it’s rich in iron and potassium and in B vitamins (especially B1) and is thought to aid digestion.
The long pods (tamarind is a leguminous tree) encase the pulp, which is typically sold as dark, firm blocks packed with seeds and plant debris. The pulp must be cut into pieces and soaked in warm water for about 15 minutes to soften, then strained and pressed through a sieve to produce tamarind liquid; the seeds and other solids are discarded.
Mashad, Iran—At an Afghan-style bakery near the Imam Reza shrine, one baker is slapping dough onto the wall of the tandoor oven, his face covered with a cloth against the heat; another is stretching dough; and the third is shaping dough into rounds.
tamerlane: Tamerlane is the name by which the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur is best known. Tamerlane was born in the 1320s in what is present-day Uzbekistan. As head of an army of mixed Turkic and Mongol peoples, he used Islam as his uniting idea when he tried to reconquer and re-create the Mongol empire of Genghis Khan, which had fragmented in the late 1200s. Tamerlane successfully took control of Greater Persia and most of central Asia, as well as eastern Turkey, Iraq, and Afghanistan, murdering thousands and laying waste to cities, towns, and villages. His empire crumbled after his death in 1405.
tandoor: Tandoor is the most common name in English for a kind of oven that is widely used in the Caucasus, central Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa, as well as in northern India and Pakistan. Other names include tonur, tandir, tanoor, and the Georgian toné.
Tandoor ovens are barrel shaped with an inner surface of clay or cement on which breads bake. The oven is heated with a fire at the bottom, and when it is hot, shaped flatbreads (leavened or unleavened) are slapped onto the hot inner walls to bake. As the breads bake, they slowly detach from the oven walls, so that they can be lifted off when done. The ovens may be heated with wood or coal or, in more modern times, with gas. Some tandoor ovens are wide and less than three feet tall (see photo); others may be four to five feet tall with an opening that is no more than a narrow ten-inch slit in the front to give the baker access.
tarragon: The fragrant, fine-leafed perennial herb called tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus var. sativa) is a member of the sunflower family and is an essential herb in most of the Persian culinary world. Known as tarhuna in Georgian, tarhun in Persian, and terhun in Azeri, tarragon is best used fresh, since dried tarragon can be bitter and lack fragrance. Both French and Russian tarragon are available as garden plants; French tarragon has much more aroma and a brighter, sweeter taste, in the anise-licorice style.
Two hours west of Baku, Azerbaijan—A kettle heats by the roadside. A man had parked his truck of watermelons nearby and was taking a break.
tea: Tea (Camellia sinensis) has been cultivated in Persia since the late nineteenth century. It’s grown in the Caspian coastal areas of both Iran and Azerbaijan, and near the Black Sea coast of Georgia. Most is of the Assamese variety (Camellia sinensis var. assamica)—also known as Assam tea. The tea leaves are plucked in spring and summer, dried, and fermented to make black tea. Some are infused with herbal flavors. The word for tea all through the region is some version of the word chai. Tea is drunk clear and usually sweetened with plenty of sugar (see Tea with Sugar in Iran).
thyme: The wild thyme (Thymus serpyllum) that grows low to the ground in the mountains and uplands of Armenia is known as urtz in Armenian. The aroma emanating from its small mauve flowers is intense. The closest substitute for it is the Mediterranean thyme known as zatar, which is available at Middle Eastern groceries.
tomatoes, fleshy tomatoes, Roma tomatoes: In the hot temperatures of the region, fleshy, thick-skinned tomatoes do best. Most of the recipes that call for tomatoes in this book specify fleshy or Roma tomatoes, which hold their shape when grilled.
turmeric: Turmeric comes from the rhizome of an ancient plant, Curcuma longa, native to India. The powder made from the dried rhizome is used in the cooking of southern Iran and Kurdistan, as well as in many other parts of the world. It is often rubbed on fish before cooking. Turmeric has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties.
Twelvers, Twelver Islam: See Shia Islam
Urartu: Urartu is the name of a kingdom dating back to the Iron Age that was situated in the Armenian highlands near Lake Van (currently part of eastern Turkey). In the Bible, the same kingdom is called Ararat. Urartu is the precursor of present-day Armenia. See Armenia.
urtz: See Thyme
vanilla sugar: To make vanilla sugar, bury a vanilla bean in a jar of sugar for several weeks; its aroma will perfume the sugar.
verjuice, verjus: The flavoring made from the sour juice of unripe (green) grapes is called verjuice or verjus. It is produced wherever grapes are grown, whether the grapes are used for winemaking or for something else. Verjuice is used as a souring agent in savory dishes in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, and Georgia.
walnuts, green walnuts: A number of trees in the genus Juglans produce a husked drupe (technically a fruit, not a nut), inside of which is a tough-shelled pit that protects a symmetrical kernel. The whole fruit is a walnut, but most of us use the term walnut for the kernel that lies at its center. The best known walnut is Juglans regia, which is called both the Persian and English walnut. Others include the black walnut, which is native to North America, and the butternut. Walnuts are rich in oil and so once out of their shell should be kept in a cool place or in the refrigerator. In the Caucasus and elsewhere, immature, or green, walnuts are preserved in syrup (walnut moraba) or pickled.
watercress: A semiaquatic plant native to Europe and Asia, watercress (Nasturtium officinale) is rich in minerals, including iron, calcium, and magnesium, and vitamins. (Despite the Latin name, it is not related to nasturtiums, the flowering annuals.) With its refreshing, peppery taste and intensely green leaves, it’s eaten as a leafy green and used as an herb. Keep it loosely wrapped in a plastic bag in the refrigerator and use it as soon as possible.
Tbilisi, Georgia—Aged farm cheeses made of cow’s milk are a familiar sight at Georgian markets.
wheat, wheat bran, whole wheat, wheat berries: The common wheat grown today is Triticum aestivum. It’s most often milled into all-purpose or whole wheat flour. Because the bran and germ have been removed from it, all-purpose flour keeps better than whole wheat flour (which still includes the bran and germ), but it has a less distinctive flavor. Wheat bran is sold at health food stores and should be refrigerated. The whole (unmilled) wheat grains are called wheat berries. Hard wheat berries take much longer to cook than soft wheat berries.
Wheats are categorized according to their protein content, often described as hardness. Hard wheats are those with 11 to 14 percent protein. The flour made from them is often used for breads and stretched doughs. Soft wheats, with 9 percent or lower protein, yield flours more suitable for cake or pastry. In North America, all-purpose flour can be used for both bread and cakes because it has about 12 percent protein.
whey: Whey is the liquid that is left when milk is churned into butter. It is also the term for other nearly clear liquids drained from other milk products (for example, the liquid that is released when yogurt is drained to thicken it; see Yogurt). Whey makes a tart, refreshing drink. It can also be dried and the solids cultured to make kashk (see Kashk).
yakhchal: The ice-storage houses in Iran called yakhchal were part of the qanat system of underground water channels (see Qanat). Water flowed down from the mountains and under the desert in qanat tunnels and in the winter was left to freeze in channels on the north (cold) side of the storage houses, even in cities as far south as Kerman. It was then broken up and stored in pits.
Yazidis, Yezidis, Ezidis: An ethno-religious community based originally in northern Iraq, with populations in northern Syria, Turkey, Armenia, and Georgia, Yazidis number in total fewer than 1,000,000 and perhaps closer to 500,000. They seem to be ethnically Kurdish but have existed as a distinct group since the eleventh century. Their beliefs derive in part from Zoroastriansim (fire and the sun are all-powerful) and other early Iranic religions, as well as from elements of Christianity and Sufi Islam. The revered founder of the Yazidi faith, Sheik Adi, who died in the early twelfth century, was a Sufi. His tomb and shrine, in Lalish in northern Iraqi Kurdistan, not far from Mosul, are a place of pilgrimage for Yazidis.
The Yazidis’ supreme being is Melek Tawus, an archangel (one of seven created by God to run the world) who sinned but was forgiven by God. His symbol is a peacock. Several other symbols are distinctively Yazidi: the twenty-one-pointed sun, which appears on the Kurdistan flag and on Yazidi churches; and a conical, sharp-pointed roof, shaped like the top of a steeple, that has ridges and represents the rays of the sun. Olive oil is important to worshippers, being used as the oil for lamps and for other ritual purposes. Consequently, the Yazidis in Kurdistan grow olives and also import olive oil from Turkey for use in worship. In Lalish, I saw huge quantities of stored oil and oil lamps in the mother temple.
The sun, water, earth, and the seasons are all central to the religion. The principal festivals are in November, toward the end of the solar year, and at the full moon after the spring equinox, when flowers and other offerings are hung on buildings and placed by springs and waterways.
Because the Yazidis’ principal deity is a fallen angel, extremist outsiders, both Muslim and Christian, have in times of strife labeled them devil-worshippers and conducted murderous campaigns against them.
yogurt, thick yogurt: Yogurt is made from milk, whether cow, sheep, water buffalo, or goat, that is cultured with bacteria. In North America, it is often sold as a reduced-fat product, but in the Persian culinary world, full-fat plain yogurt is prized, used to make cooling drinks (see recipe), as a condiment, and as an ingredient in soups (see recipe). The word for yogurt in Persian is mast; in Georgian, it’s matsoni. When used as a sauce or as part of a vegetable dish such as a borani (see recipe), yogurt is usually drained (see following) so that it becomes thicker. When thick yogurt is called for, you can substitute what is sometimes labeled Greek-style yogurt in North America.
To make thick yogurt, you need to drain it. I set a sieve over a bowl, line the sieve with a thin tea towel or cotton cloth, add the yogurt, and let it drain. I have friends who spoon the yogurt into a conical coffee filter, in its holder, placed over a bowl. Whatever method you use, let it drain for 30 minutes or longer. Once the whey is drained, the thickened yogurt tastes sweeter. Serve it lightly salted (less than ½ teaspoon salt for a cup of thick yogurt) if you like, and if serving it as a side condiment, stir in a little dried mint or some finely chopped fresh mint. You can also serve it as an accompaniment to pastries or fruit, in which case you might want to sweeten it with a little honey.
Zatar: See Thyme
Zoroastrians, Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism is a religion that dates back to the writings of Zoroaster, who was born sometime before 600 BC (scholars cannot agree on his dates) in what is present-day Uzbekistan. In his scriptures, the Avesta, Zoroaster described a founder god, Ahura Mazda, composed of being and mind, who created order and wisdom out of chaos (the religion is sometimes referred to as Mazdaism). Scholars trace some of the thinking to Indian Brahmanic Hindu scriptures and some to earlier religions whose gods included Mithra and Anahita. Zoroastrianism was the official religion of the Persian Empire under the Achaemenids and the Parthian and Sassanian empires. It thus had a widespread influence on Jewish, Christian, and Islamic theology.
In this religion, the sun’s cycle and the seasons give their names to the months, and the New Year, Nou-Roz, comes at the spring equinox. Nou-Roz (in various transcriptions) is celebrated in many countries in central Asia and Greater Persia. Water and fire are both considered purifying elements. A fire is kept burning continuously at all Zoroastrian temples (hence the term “fire temple”). There are active Zoroastrian temples in Iran in Tehran and Yazd, and inactive but restored temples, now museums, in Baku, Azerbaijan, and Tbilisi, Georgia. After the Arab conquest of Iran, many Zoroastrians left and eventually settled in India, where they are known as Parsis.
