1. Fred Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary (New York: Time Life, 2007), 9.
2. This quotation is included in the two American Bandstand popular histories coauthored by Dick Clark and Fred Bronson; see Dick Clark and Fred Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand (New York: Collins Publishers, 1997), 19; Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary, 9.
3. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91 (March 2005): 1235.
4. Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 267.
1. The Official 1955 Bandstand Yearbook [no publication information listed], 13.
2. Margaret Weir, “Urban Poverty and Defensive Localism,” Dissent, Summer 1994, 337–42; Thomas Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 210. On the fights over open housing in other cities, see Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 159–70; Becky Nicolaides, My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working-Class Suburbs of Los Angeles, 1920–1965 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); David Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Arnold Hirsch, “Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953–1966,” Journal of American History, 82 (September, 1995), 522–50.
3. Freund, Colored Property, 13.
4. Charles Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors: A Study of Prejudice in Housing (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1955), ix.
5. Anna McCarthy, Ambient Television: Visual Culture and Public Space (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 16.
6. “WFIL, WFIL–TV Now Operating From Integrated New Quarters,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952.
7. Commission on Human Relations (CHR), “Philadelphia’s Negro Population: Facts on Housing,” October 1953, CHR collection, box A-620, folder 148.4, Philadelphia City Archives (PCA).
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. CHR, “Philadelphia’s Non-White Population 1960, Report no.1, Demographic Data,” box A-621, folder 148.4, PCA.
11. Davis McAllister, “Between the Suburbs and the Ghetto: Racial and Economic Change in Philadelphia, 1933–1985” (Ph.D. diss., Temple University, 2006), 151. Original quotation in Clarence Cave, “Equal Housing Opportunity: Real Estate Dilemma,” Realtor 41 (May 1960): 4.
12. Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors, 171.
13. CHR, “Philadelphia’s Negro Population: Facts on Housing.”
14. CHR, “A Report on the Housing of Negro Philadelphians,” 1953, CHR collection, box A-620, folder 148.4, PCA; ibid.
15. Beryl Satter, Family Properties: Race, Real Estate and the Exploitation of Black Urban America (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009), 6.
16. CHR, “Annual Report, 1953,” 1953, CHR collection, box A-620, folder 148.4, PCA; Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 58.
17. On the CHR’s response to employment discrimination cases, see Countryman, Up South, 58–68.
18. Ibid., 92–95.
19. On white homeowners’ groups, see Hirsch, “Massive Resistance in the Urban North,” 522–50; Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 210–29; Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors, 181–90; Herman Long and Charles Johnson, People vs. Property? Race Restrictive Covenants in Housing (Nashville: Fisk University Press, 1947), 39–55; 73–85.
20. Luigi Laurenti, Property Values and Race: Studies in Seven Cities (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 184.
21. Angora Civic Association (ACA), “To Residents of This Section of West Phila.,” March 1955, Fellowship Commission (FC) collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, Temple University Urban Archives (TUUA).
22. ACA, “Do you like your home?” November 18, 1954, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
23. ACA, “Help!! Help!!” May 19, 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
24. West Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Angora Civic Association Meeting,” May 19, 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
25. Mary Constantine, “Memo re: Angora Civic Association,” [n.d., ca. 1954], FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
26. Ibid.
27. Angora Civic Association, “Help!! Help!!”
28. James Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 170–71.
29. Ibid., 188.
30. West Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Angora Civic Association,” November 18, 1954, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
31. Freund, Colored Property, 337.
32. Daniel Martinez HoSang, Racial Propositions: Ballot Initiatives and the Making of Postwar California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010), 20–21.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. On the practices of blockbusting real estate agents, see Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis, 194–97.
36. “Go West Young Man,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 9, 1952; “Race Realty” and “West Phila. Specials,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 5, 1952.
37. Historians of blockbusting note that brokers who accelerated racial change were cast as scapegoats of the “legitimate” real estate industry, but they could not have functioned without the industry’s commitment to maintaining segregated housing markets. On blockbusting, see W. Edward Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore: The Edmondson Village Story (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1994); Kevin Fox Gotham, Race, Real Estate, and Uneven Development: The Kansas City Experience, 1900–2000 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), 91–119; Satter, Family Properties, 111–16.
38. “Let’s All Pull Together,” November 8, 1954, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 37, TUUA. On the Fellowship Commission and CHR’s attempts to reach out to the homeowners’ groups, see Dennis Clark, memo to Maurice Fagan, December 16, 1954, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 37, TUUA; Anna McGarry, letter to Mary Constantine, November 30, 1954, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 37, TUUA; Rev. Donald Ottinger, letter to Arthur Cooper, November 1, 1954, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 37, TUUA.
39. Fellowship Commission, Committee on Community Tensions meeting minutes, January 12, 1955, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Philadelphia branch (NAACP) collection, URB 6, box 4, folder 104, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Nicholas Petrella, February 2, 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 37, TUUA.
40. On this effort, see CHR, “What to Do Kits: A Program for Leaders in Changing Neighborhoods,” 1958, CHR collection, Box A-620, folder 148.4, PCA. On the CHR’s failed neighborhood stabilization plan, see Countryman, Up South, 71–75.
41. Fellowship Commission, Report to the Community, October 1952, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 9, TUUA; Fellowship Commission, Report to the Community, May 1953, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 10, TUUA.
42. “Tensions Committee Notes Rise in Biased Groups,” Fellowship Commission, Report to the Community, January 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 12, TUUA.
43. Fellowship Commission, Report to the Community, February 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 12, TUUA.
44. Countryman, Up South, 92–95.
45. Satter, Family Properties, 136–41.
46. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 7.
47. Thomas Edsall and Mary Edsall, Chain Reaction: The Impact of Race, Rights, and Taxes on American Politics (New York: W.W. Norton, 1991), 139.
48. Self, American Babylon, 168.
49. Phil Ethington, “Segregated Diversity: Race-Ethnicity, Space, and Political Fragmentation in Los Angeles County, 1940–1994,” Final Report to the John Randolph Haynes and Dora Haynes Foundation (September 13, 2000), 43.
50. Oliver Williams et al., Suburban Differences and Metropolitan Policies: A Philadelphia Story (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1965), 217–19. Survey cited in Michael Danielson, The Politics of Exclusion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 28; and Sheryll Cashin, The Failures of Integration: How Race and Class Are Undermining the American Dream (New York: Public Affairs, 2004), 265.
51. Jill Quadagno, The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 99.
52. George Lipstiz, The Possessive Investment in Whiteness: How White People Profit from Identity Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998), 27–33; Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 186–216.
53. Quadagno, The Color of Welfare, 98.
54. Educational Equality League, “Notes on the Meeting with the Board of Education,” October 26, 1951, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 137, TUUA.
55. West Philadelphia High School Record, June 1951, West Philadelphia High School.
56. “Angry Parents Resent Remarks by Principal,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 23, 1951.
57. Walter Palmer, interviewed by author, June 29, 2007.
58. Weldon McDougal, interviewed by author, March 27, 2006.
59. West Philadelphia High School Record, 1954–60 editions, West Philadelphia High School.
60. “Investigation of Skating Rink: Interim Report,” 1952, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 20, folder 383, TUUA; Spence Coxe, letter to Joseph Barnes, December 12, 1952, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 20, folder 383, TUUA.
61. CHR, “Recommendation for Closing Case: Concord Skating Rink,” January 11, 1955, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA.
62. Commission of Human Relations, Meeting Minutes, September 21, 1953, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA.
63. “NAACP Radio Report on WCAM,” September 27, 1953, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 21, folder 421, TUUA; West Philadelphia Fellowship Council, Minutes, October 27, 1953, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 36, TUUA; CHR, “Minutes of Meeting on Skating Rink Project,” March 30, 1954, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 21, folder 421, TUUA.
64. CHR, “Minutes of Meeting on Skating Rink Project,” March 30, 1954, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 20, folder 383, TUUA.
65. CHR, “Recommendation for Closing Case: Crystal Palace Roller Skating Rink,” January 19, 1955, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; “Recommendation for Closing Case: Concord Skating Rink”; CHR, Annual Report, 1954, CHR collection, Box A-620, folder 148.1, PCA.
66. Mitzi Jacoby, letter to Mabel Queens, January 20, 1955, Fellowship House (FH) collection, Acc 723, box 14, folder “Mitzi Jacoby correspondence 1955 #2,” TUUA; Mitzi Jacoby, letter to Milo Manly, July 21, 1955, FH collection, Acc 723, box 14, folder “Mitzi Jacoby correspondence 1955 #2,” TUUA; Mitzi Jacoby, letter to Ira D. Reid, March 24, 1958, FH collection, Acc 723, box 14, folder “Mitzi Jacoby correspondence 1958–9,” TUUA.
67. “You Have a Stake in Delaware, Valley, U.S.A.,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 12, 1952. On nineteenth-century boosterism, see Williams Cronin, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1991).
68. “Raw Materials,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952.
69. “You Have a Stake in Delaware, Valley, U.S.A.”
70. WFIL–TV, “For Advertisers …”
71. WFIL–TV, “WFIL–adelphia, the MAIN STREET of Delaware Valley, U.S.A.,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952.
72. Alison Isenberg, Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 3.
73. Ibid., 2.
74. Ibid., 42–77.
75. Ibid., 43.
76. On Disneyland, see Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 106–44; George Lipsitz, “Consumer Spending as State Project: Yesterday’s Solutions and Today’s Problems” in Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Society in the Twentieth Century, ed. Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern, and Matthias Judt (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 136–40.
77. Howell Baum, Brown in Baltimore: School Desegregation and the Limits of Liberalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010); Orser, Blockbusting in Baltimore, 84–130; Brett Gadsden, “Victory without Triumph: The Ironies of School Desegregation in Delaware, 1948–1978,” (Ph.D. diss., Northwestern University, 2006); Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Viking, 2002), 107–17.
78. Maryland repealed its antimiscegenation law shortly before the Supreme Court’s Loving decision in 1967, while Delaware did not repeal its statue until 1986. On the history of miscegenation law, see Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
79. E. S. Bankes, “Financial Basis of Expansion,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1952, 79–80.
80. Abrams, Forbidden Neighbors, 102, 172.
81. Lynn Spigel, Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media and Postwar Suburbs (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 35.
82. William Boddy, Fifties Television: The Industry and Its Critics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 51.
83. Federal Communication Commission, Annual Report, 1955. On the FCC’s policies and practices in the years surrounding the television freeze, see Hugh Slotten, Radio and Television Regulation: Broadcast Technology in the United States, 1920–1960 (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000), 145–88; ibid., 28–64, 113–31; James Baughman, Same Time, Same Station: Creating American Television (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), 56–81.
84. Michael Stamm, “Mixed Media: Newspaper Ownership of Radio in American Politics and Culture, 1920–1952,” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 2006), 19.
85. Baughman, Same Time, Same Station, 74–79.
86. Christopher Ogden, Legacy: A Biography of Moses and Walter Annenberg (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1999), 322–23.
87. Ibid., 322.
88. Glenn Altschuler and David Grossvogel, Changing Channels: America in TV Guide (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), 4–6.
89. Gaeton Fonzi, Annenberg: A Biography of Power (New York: Weybright and Talley, 1969), 24.
90. John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ’n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 14–15.
91. Ibid., 7–13.
92. On the radio stars who moved to television in the late 1940s and early 1950s, see Susan Murray, Hitch Your Antenna to the Stars: Early Television and Broadcast Stardom (New York: Routledge, 2005).
93. Dick Clark and Richard Robinson, Rock, Roll and Remember (New York: Popular Library, 1976), 60.
94. A 1951 survey of 250 students at Philadelphia’s Northeast High School, for example, found that the 950 Club was their favorite radio program. Paul Duffield, “The ‘Teen-Ager’s’ Taste in Out-of-School Music,” Music Educators Journal, 37 (June-July 1951): 19–20. On the 950 Club, see Jackson, American Bandstand, 9–12.
95. Jackson, American Bandstand, 14–16.
96. Ibid., 16–19.
97. The Official 1955 Bandstand Yearbook, 4–7; ibid., 19.
98. Jerry Blavat, interviewed by author, July 25, 2006.
99. Jackson, American Bandstand, 24.
100. Ibid., 20–24.
101. The Official 1955 Bandstand Yearbook.
102. Ibid., 26.
103. Richard Peterson, “Why 1955? Explaining the Advent of Rock Music,” Popular Music 9 (January 1990): 97–116.
104. Richard Peterson and David Berger, “Cycles in Symbol Production: The Case of Popular Music,” American Sociological Review 40 (April 1975): 160, 165; Christopher Sterling, Stay Tuned: A History of American Broadcasting (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2002), 365–70.
105. Sterling, Stay Tuned, 365–70.
106. Alan Freed was a white deejay who helped to popularize black R&B and popularized the term rock and roll. See John A. Jackson, Big Beat Heat: Alan Freed and the Early Years of Rock and Roll (New York: Schirmer Books, 1991). On WDIA, see Louis Cantor, Wheelin’ on Beale: How WDIA-Memphis Became the Nation’s First All-Black Radio Station and Created the Sound That Changed America (New York: Pharos Books, 2002). On the large number of independent record companies that developed the national market for R&B and rock and roll, see Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay: The History and Politics of the Music Industry (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), 27–49; Charlie Gillet, The Sound of the City: The Rise of Rock and Roll (New York: Outerbridge & Dienstfrey, 1970), 79–134. For a useful study of one of the companies, see Donald Mabry, “The Rise and Fall of Ace Records: A Case Study in the Independent Record Business,” The Business History Review 64 (Autumn 1990): 411–50.
107. Among studies of the interracial exchanges in rock and roll, see Glenn Altschuler, All Shook Up: How Rock ’n’ Roll Changed America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 3–66; Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 123–69; George Lipsitz, “Land of a Thousand Dances: Youth, Minorities, and the Rise of Rock and Roll,” in Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of the Cold War, ed. Lary May (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989), 267–84; Matt Garcia, “‘Memories of El Monte:’ Intercultural Dance Hall in Post-World War II Greater Los Angeles,” in Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Joe Austin and Michael Nevin Willard (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 157–72. On the working-class roots of rock and roll and the appeal of these values and traditions across class lines to listeners in urban, suburban, and rural areas, see George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 99–132; Medovoi, Rebels: Youth and the Cold War Origins of Identity (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005), 91–134.
108. Jackson, American Bandstand, 20.
109. Quoted in Murray Forman, “‘One Night on TV Is Worth Weeks at the Paramount’: Musicians and Opportunity in Early Television, 1948–55,” Popular Music 3 (2002): 257.
110. Tom McCourt and Nabeel Zuberi, “Music on Television,” The Museum of Broadcast Communications, http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/M/htmlM/musicontele/musicontele.htm (accessed October 25, 2006).
111. McDougall interview.
112. Jackson, American Bandstand, 21–22.
113. Ibid., 24.
114. Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided, 189.
115. Palmer interview. Palmer went on to be an important community activist in West Philadelphia. On Palmer’s work in addressing educational inequality and racism, see Countryman, Up South, 191–99, 225–68.
116. CHR, “Present Status of Current ‘C’ Cases,” May 4, 1954, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA.
117. Pricilla Penn, “Social Notes of Interest in the Quaker City Whirl,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1954.
118. CHR, “Intergroup Tensions in Recreation Facilities,” March 7, 1955, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 4, folder 104, TUUA. On William Penn High School and the work of black educator Ruth Wright Hayre in improving the educational offerings at the school, see chapter four.
119. Jackson, American Bandstand, 23.
120. Ibid., 57.
121. Blavat interview.
122. “Arrest TV Em Cee as Drunken Driver,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 23, 1956.
123. On rock and roll music and dance halls as spaces for intercultural exchange, see Lipsitz, “Land of a Thousand Dances”; Garcia, “‘Memories of El Monte’” ; Ward, Just My Soul Responding.
1. The Fellowship Commission formed in October 1941 with representatives from the Jewish Community Relations Council, Fellowship House, Friends Committee on Race Relations, and Philadelphia Council on Churches. The Philadelphia branch of the NAACP joined in 1942, and by 1955 the Fellowship Commission included nine community agencies.
2. Maurice Fagan, “Fellowship Commission Annual Dinner Meeting, Report by Executive Director,” February 6, 1952, Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) collection, box 007, folder 012, Philadelphia Jewish Archives Center (PJAC).
3. Anna McCarthy, The Citizen Machine: Governing by Television in 1950s America (New York: The New Press, 2010), 4–9.
4. Ibid., 7.
5. Ien Ang, Desperately Seeking the Audience (New York: Routledge), 32.
6. On Americans All, Immigrants All, see Barbara Savage, Broadcasting Freedom: Radio, War, and the Politics of Race, 1938–1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 21–62.
7. “Report to the Community,” October 1948, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 5, TUUA; “Within Our Gates: List of Profiles” [n.d.], [ca. 1950], FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 62, TUUA; Ruby Smith, “Lesson in Race Relations Brought Philadelphia Weekly via Radio,” The Philadelphia Afro-American, February 14, 1948.
8. Max Franzen, “Film Discussion,” in “Report to the Community,” December 1948, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 5, TUUA; Mary Constantine, “Film + Discussion = Action” [n.d.], [ca. 1949], FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 43, TUUA.
9. Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” October 1952, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 9, TUUA.
10. Helen Trager and Marian Yarrow, They Learn What They Live: Prejudice in Young Children (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952).
11. On the Early Childhood Project, see Catherine Mackenzie, “Prejudice Can Be Unlearned,” New York Times, July 25, 1948; Barbara Barnes, “Prejudices Can Be Un-Learned, Experiments Conducted Here Show,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, October 11, 1951; “Report of the Committee on Evaluations,” July 8, 1949, Fellowship House (FH) collection, Acc 723, box 30, folder “Early Childhood,” TUUA; “Minutes: Committee on Program Priorities,” November 12, 1951, Jewish Community Relations Council (JCRC) collection, box 003, folder 015, PJAC; “Annual Meeting,” February 20, 1950, FC collection, Acc 626, box 1, folder 5, TUUA.
12. On the broad intellectual history of intercultural education (also called intergroup education by some educators), see Cherry McGee Banks, “Intercultural and Intergroup Education, 1929–1959: Linking Schools and Communities,” in Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, 2nd ed., ed. James Banks (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004), 753–69; Nicholas Montalto, A History of the Intercultural Educational Movement, 1924–1941 (New York: Garland Publishing, 1982); Ronald Goodenow, “The Progressive Educator, Race, and Ethnicity in the Depression Years: An Overview,” History of Education Quarterly 15 (Winter 1975): 365–94; Patricia Graham, Progressive Education: From Arcady to Academe: A History of the Progressive Education Association, 1919–1955 (New York: Teachers College Press, 1967); O. L. Davis Jr., “Rachel Davis DuBois: Intercultural Education Pioneer,” in Bending the Future to Their Will: Civic Women, Social Education, and Democracy, ed. Margaret Smith Crocco and O. L. Davis Jr. (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 169–84; Daryl Michael Scott, “Postwar Pluralism, Brown v. Board of Education, and the Origins of Multicultural Education,” Journal of American History 91 (June 2004): 69–82.
13. Jennie Callahan, Television in School, College, and Community (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1953), 46. On the cooperation between the Philadelphia’s commercial television stations and the schools, see Philadelphia Board of Education, “Report of Television-Radio Activities,” 1953, Division of Radio and TV, box 76, Philadelphia School District Archive (PSDA). For contemporary articles citing Philadelphia as a leader in the field of educational television, see Belmont Farley, “Education and Television,” Music Educators Journal 39 (November-December 1952): 18–20; Burton Paulu, “The Challenge of the 242 Channels: II,” The Quarterly of Film, Radio, and Television 7 (Winter 1952): 140–49. On the development of public television more broadly, see Laurie Ouellette, Viewers Like You: How Public TV Failed the People (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002).
14. Max Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA; Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” February 1953, FC collection, box 53, folder 10, TUUA.
15. For more on the Fellowship Clubs, see Fellowship House collection, Acc 723, boxes 13, 14, 32, 33, TUUA.
16. Max Franzen, letter to Maury Glaubman, January 19, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
17. Maurice Fagan, letter to Erma Cunningham, February 10, 1953, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
18. While car ownership rates by race are unavailable, a 1957 survey of eighteen thousand high school students in Philadelphia found that 27 percent of their families did not own cars. Since this survey included a large number of higher-income college-bound white students, the rate was likely closer to 50 percent for black families. In 1952, then, the question of hot-rodding was probably an academic one for most black teenagers and many white teenagers. On this survey, see Philadelphia Commission on Higher Educational Opportunities, “Educational and Vocational Plans Survey,” June 1957, Philadelphia Commission on Higher Educational Opportunity (PCHEO) collection, box A-300, folder 60–13, PCA.
19. Maurice Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
20. John W. Adams, letter to Maurice Fagan, May 11, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
21. Maurice Fagan, “Intercultural Education Is a Process,” Education 68 (November 1948): 182–87.
22. Fagan, letter to Erma Cunningham, February 10, 1953.
23. Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953.
24. Brotherhood of Man (1946), an animated film promoting racial tolerance, was based on anthropologist Ruth Benedict’s book The Races of Mankind. Home of the Brave (1949) told the fictional story of a black Army private in World War II who suffered from a nervous breakdown and psychosomatic paralysis brought on by racism in society. On these and other postwar liberal films, see Thomas Cripps, Making Movies Black: The Hollywood Message Movie from World War II to the Civil Rights Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 151–73.
25. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953.
26. Ibid.
27. McCarthy, The Citizen Machine, 93.
28. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a number of radio performers and personalities began to experiment with televised talk shows. For a general overview of these and other national television talk shows in the 1950s, see Bernard Timberg, Television Talk: A History of the TV Talk Show (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002), 1–55.
29. Megan Pincus Kajitani, “A Product of Its Time: Youth Wants to Know, Postwar Teenagers, and 1950s Network Television,” paper delivered at annual meeting of National Communication Association, 2003.
30. Herbert Miller, letter to WCAU-TV, January 19, 1952, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
31. Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953.
32. Herbert Miller, letter to Maurice Fagan, February 4, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
33. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953.
34. Maurice Fagan, letter to Nancy Thorp, November 11, 1952, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
35. While this ideal family type was already evident in The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet in 1952, it became more prevalent in the late 1950s with programs such as Leave it To Beaver (1957) and The Donna Reed Show (1958). On the spatial relationship among living rooms, televisual images of nuclear families, and television viewers, see Lynn Spigel, Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media and Postwar Suburbs (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 31–106; Mary Beth Haralovich, “Sit-Coms and Suburbs: Positioning the 1950s Homemaker,” in Private Screenings: Television and the Female Consumer, ed. Lynn Spigel and Denise Mann (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 111–41; Lynn Spigel, Make Room for TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Cecelia Tichi, Electronic Hearth: Creating an American Television Culture (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); Ella Taylor, Prime-Time Families: Television Culture in Postwar America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
36. Among the works on television and “liveness,” see Jane Feuer, “The Concept of Live Television: Ontology as Ideology,” in Regarding Television: Critical Approaches—An Anthology, ed. E. Ann Kaplan (Frederick, MD: University Publication of America, 1983), 12–22; Rhona Berenstein, “Acting Live: TV Performance, Intimacy, and Immediacy (1945–1955),” in Reality Squared: Televisual Discourse on the Real, ed. James Friedman (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 25–49.
37. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 7, 1953.
38. Lois Labovitz, letter to Maurice Fagan, January 14, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
39. Thomas Breslin, letter to Maurice Fagan, [n.d.] [ca. February 1953], box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
40. Fagan, letter to Herbert Miller, February 3, 1953.
41. Helen Bradley, letter to Maurice Fagan, November 6, 1952, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
42. Max Franzen, letter to Helen Bradley, November 14, 1952, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
43. Max Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 20, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
44. Maurice Fagan, letter to Lois Labovitz, February 10, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
45. Maurice Fagan, letter to Margaret M. Kearney, September 2, 1953, FC collection, box 43, folder 59, TUUA.
46. The Official 1955 Bandstand Yearbook [no publication information listed], 30.
47. On the ways in which television producers and commentators classify viewer identities in terms related to gender, work, and daypart, see Haralovich, “Sit-Coms and Suburbs: Positioning the 1950s Homemaker”; Kristen Hatch, “Daytime Politics: Kefauver, McCarthy and the American Housewife,” in Reality Squared, ed. Friedman, 75–91.
48. The Official 1957 Bandstand Yearbook [no publication information listed].
49. Franzen, letter to Herbert Jaffa, April 20, 1953.
50. Clarence Pickett, letter to Donald W. Thornburgh, June 29, 1953, box 43, folder 59, TUUA. On the Fellowship Commission’s hope that the program would resume in the fall of 1953, see “Report to the Community,” May 1953, FC collection, box 53, folder 10, TUUA.
51. Fagan, letter to Margaret Kearney, September 2, 1953.
52. Callahan, Television in School, College, and Community, 263.
53. Ibid., 46, 262; Philadelphia Board of Education, “Report of Television-Radio Activities,” 1953, Division of Radio and TV, box 76, PSDA.
54. Lizbeth Cohen, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Vintage Books, 2004); Charles McGovern, Sold American: Consumption and Citizenship, 1890–1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006).
55. Lizabeth Cohen, “The New Deal State and Citizen Consumers,” in Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Society in the Twentieth Century, ed. Susan Strasser, Charles McGovern, and Matthias Judt (Washington, DC: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 114.
56. Cohen, Consumers’ Republic, 403–404.
57. Following Jürgen Habermas’s study of the social sites where meanings are articulated and contested, sociologists and media studies scholars have applied the concept of a public sphere to television talk shows, where the everyday experiential knowledge of “ordinary people” competes with, and is often privileged over, expert knowledge. Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991). Among scholars who have examined the concept of public spheres in relation to television, see Andrew Tolson, ed., Television Talk Shows: Discourse, Performance, Spectacle (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001), 7–30; Jane Shattuc, The Talking Cure: TV Talk Shows and Women (New York: Routledge, 1997); James Friedman, “Attraction to Distraction: Live Television and the Public Sphere,” Reality Squared: Televisual Discourse on the Real, ed. Friedman, 138–54.
1. On de facto school segregation in the North in the 1950s and early 1960s, see Adina Beck, “Exposing the ‘Whole Segregation Myth’: The Harlem Nine and New York City’s School Desegregation Battles,” and Jeanne Theoharis, “‘I’d Rather Go to School in the South’: How Boston’s School Desegregation Complicates the Civil Rights Paradigm,” in Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles outside the South, 1940–1980, ed. Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 65–92, 125–52; Davison Douglas, Jim Crow Moves North: The Battle over Northern School Segregation, 1865–1954 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 219–73; Jack Dougherty, More Than One Struggle: The Evolution of Black School Reform in Milwaukee (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004); Jeffrey Mirel, The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1907–81 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993), 217–92; John Rury, “Race, Space, and the Politics of Chicago’s Public Schools: Benjamin Willis and the Tragedy of Urban Education,” History of Education Quarterly 39 (Summer 1999): 117–42; John Rury and Jeffrey Mirel, “The Political Economy of Urban Education,” Review of Research in Education 22 (1997): 49–110; Alan Anderson and George Pickering, Confronting the Color Line: The Broken Promise of the Civil Rights Movement (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1986), 44–102.
2. See Matthew Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006); Kevin Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservativism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Joseph Crespino, In Search of Another Country: Mississippi and the Conservative Counterrevolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007); Joseph Crespino, “The Best Defense Is a Good Offense: The Stennis Amendment and the Fracturing of Liberal School Desegregation Policy, 1964–72,” Journal of Policy History 18 (no. 3, 2006); Robert Pratt, The Color of Their Skin: Education and Race in Richmond Virginia, 1954–89 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1992); Matthew Lassiter and Joseph Crespino, eds., The Myth of Southern Exceptionalism (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
3. Lassiter, Silent Majority, 137.
4. George Lipsitz, “Getting around Brown: The Social Warrant of the New Racism,” in Remembering Brown at Fifty: The University of Illinois Commemorates Brown v. Board of Education, ed. Orville Vernon Burton and David O’Brien (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 48.
5. On anti-prejudice work by Jewish organizations, see Stuart Svonkin, Jews against Prejudice: American Jews and the Fight for Civil Liberties (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).
6. On the lack of attention given to educational issues in the city’s newspapers and political debates, see Peter Binzen, interviewed by Walter Philips, 1979, The Walter Phillips Oral History Project file, TUUA.
7. For studies that examine the power of elites in the history of urban schools, see Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis, Schooling in Capitalist America: Educational Reform and the Contradictions of Economic Life (New York: Basic Books, 1976); David Tyack, The One Best System: A History of Urban Education in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974).
8. Albert Blaustein, Civil Rights U.S.A.: Cities in the North and West, 1962 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 121–22;
9. Marilyn Gittell and T. Edward Hollander, Six Urban School Districts: A Comparative Study of Institutional Response (New York: Frederick Praeger Publishers, 1968), 25.
10. Ibid., 28; Binzen interview, 11–12.
11. On the Commission on Human Relations’ lack of authority with regard to the public schools, see “Commission on Human Relations (CHR) Minutes,” June 9, 1955, CHR collection, box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; “CHR Minutes,” September 19, 1955, CHR collection, box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; CHR, “1957 Annual Report,” CHR collection, box A-620, folder 148.1, PCA; “1959 Achievements in Terms of the Program Goals for the Year,” 1960, CHR collection, box A-2823, folder 148.2, “Agenda & Minutes 1959,” PCA; “Minutes of Meeting of the Commission on Human Relations,” December 8, 1959, CHR collection, box A-2823, folder 148.2, “Agenda & Minutes 1959,” PCA; Christopher Edley, letter to George Schermer, January 18, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 19, TUUA; Edley, letter to Logan, January 31, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 19, TUUA.
12. Blaustein, Civil Rights U.S.A., 123.
13. Greater Philadelphia Movement, A Citizens Study of Public Education in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Greater Philadelphia Movement, 1962). Quoted in Michael Clapper, “The Constructed World of Postwar Philadelphia Area Schools: Site Selection, Architecture, and the Landscape of Inequality” (Ph.D. diss, University of Pennsylvania, 2008), 33–34.
14. “What Is the Fellowship Commission?” [n.d.] [ca. 1946], FC collection, Acc 626, box 1, folder 3, TUUA.
15. Helen Trager and Marian Yarrow, They Learn What They Live: Prejudice in Young Children (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1952), 3.
16. The Bureau on Intercultural Education’s work during this period at the national level, such as “Americans All—Immigrants All,” a nationally broadcast intercultural radio program, incorporated aspects of both cultural pluralist and assimilationist perspectives. On “Americans All—Immigrants All” and the use of radio for intercultural education, see Barbara Dianne Savage, Broadcasting Freedom: Radio, War, and the Politics of Race, 1938–1948 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). On the Bureau of Intercultural Education within the intellectual history of intercultural education, see Cherry McGee Banks, “Intercultural and Intergroup Education, 1929–1959: Linking Schools and Communities,” in Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, 2nd edition, ed. James Banks (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004), 753–69.
17. Barbara Barnes, “Prejudices Can Be Un-learned, Experiments Conducted Here Show,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, October 11, 1951.
18. Catherine Mackenzie, “Prejudice Can Be Unlearned,” New York Times, July 25, 1948. For more information on the early childhood project, see “Report of the Committee on Evaluations,” July 8, 1949, FH collection, Acc 723, box 30, folder “Early Childhood,” TUUA; “Minutes: Committee on Program Priorities,” November 12, 1951, JCRC collection, box 003, folder 015, PJAC; “Annual Meeting,” February 20, 1950, FC collection, Acc 626, box 1, folder 5, TUUA.
19. George Trowbridge, “Fellowship Commission Annual Meeting, Report of Chairman,” February 18, 1947, FC collection, Acc 626, box 1, folder 5, TUUA.
20. Maurice Fagan, letter to Clarence Pickett, October 11, 1951, PFC collection, MSS 115, sec 1, box 002, folder 005, PJAC; “Report on the Meeting at Fellowship Farm,” September 26, 1952, PFC collection, MSS 115, sec 1, box 002, folder 005, PJAC. On They Shall Be Heard, see chapter 2.
21. “Proposal to the Ford Foundation,” September 1953, FC collection, Acc 626, box 57, folder 13, TUUA. On the Fellowship Commission’s proposal to the Ford Foundation, see PFC collection, MSS 115, Sec 1, folders 002–005, PJAC; FC collection, Acc 626, box 57, folder 13, TUUA; FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 31, TUUA.
22. Walter Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience: Social Engineering and Racial Liberalism, 1938–1987 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 26–28; John Stanfield, Philanthropy and Jim Crow in American Social Science (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 140–42.
23. Jackson, Gunnar Myrdal and America’s Conscience, 17, 20, 34.
24. Frederick Keppel to Gunnar Myrdal, August 12, 1937, quoted in Stanfield, Philanthropy and Jim Crow in American Social Science, 149
25. Stephen Steinberg, Turning Back: The Retreat from Racial Justice in American Thought and Policy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1995), 49.
26. Rayford Logan, ed., What the Negro Wants (1944; New York: Agathon Press, 1969), xxxiii.
27. Ibid., 14.
28. On the influence of An American Dilemma, see David Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations: The Use and Abuse of An American Dilemma, 1944–1969 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987); Steinberg, Turning Back, 65–67; Steinberg, “An American Dilemma: The Collapse of the Racial Orthodoxy of Gunnar Myrdal,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 10 (Winter 1995–96) 64–70; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 59–62.
29. Maurice Fagan, letter to Clarence Pickett, July 21, 1952, PFC collection, MSS 115, sec 1, box 002, folder 005, PJAC. For a critique of Fagan’s faith in social science methods to address prejudice, see Isaiah Minkoff, letter to Fagan, January 5, 1953, PFC collection, MSS 115, sec 1, box 002, folder 005, PJAC.
30. Fellowship Commission, “Comments on the October 6th Discussion Memorandum on the Proposal to the Ford Foundation,” November 1952, FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 31, TUUA; Gordon Allport, letter to Clarence Pickett, October 12, 1952, FC collection, Acc 626, box 43, folder 31, TUUA. For more on Fagan’s correspondence with these social scientists, see FC collection, Acc 626, box 57, folder 13, TUUA.
31. Fellowship Commission, “Report on the Meeting at Fellowship Farm,” September 26, 1952, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 005, PJAC.
32. “Educational Equality League (EEL) History Highlights: 1932–1960” [n.d.], [ca. 1960], FL collection, Acc 469, box 1, folder 1, TUUA. On school segregation in Philadelphia before 1950, see Vincent Franklin, The Education of Black Philadelphia: The Social and Educational History of a Minority Community, 1900–1950 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979).
33. One of the teachers for whom Floyd Logan advocated was Ruth Wright Hayre, the first black high school teacher in Philadelphia. On Hayre’s work, see Matthew Delmont, “The Plight of the ‘Able’ Student: Ruth Wright Hayre and the Struggle for Equality in Philadelphia’s Black High Schools, 1955–1965,” History of Education Quarterly 50 (May, 2010), 204–230.
34. “EEL History Highlights: 1932–1960”; Doris Wiley, “Letter-Writer Logan Often Scores Where Pickets Don’t in Rights Fight,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, June 6, 1965; Acel Moore, “A Civil Rights Fighter Deserved More, Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, August 7, 1980; “Floyd Logan Dies; Crusader for Equality,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, February 12, 1979.
35. Floyd Logan, letter to Louis Hoyer, December 2, 1948, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 9, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter to Walter Biddle Saul, March 3, 1949, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 9, TUUA; Anne Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 2000), 65–67.
36. Digest of Education Statistics, 2004, National Center for Education Statistics, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d04/tables/dt04_056.asp and http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d04/tables/dt04_102.asp (accessed November 16, 2006). On the development of high schools in the first half of the twentieth century, see Edward Krug, The Shaping of the American High School (New York, Harper & Row, 1964).
37. Jack Balkin, ed., What “Brown v. Board of Education” Should Have Said (New York: New York University Press, 2002), 65–66.
38. Harrison Fry, “Teachers Advised on Ex-G.I. Pupil,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, March 6, 1946; Joseph Nolan, “Franklin Course Aids 5000 Vets,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, December 29, 1947; Joseph Nolan, “Vet Courses at Franklin Win Acclaim,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, December 30, 1947; Joseph Nolan, “Vets Praise Curricula at Franklin,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, December 31, 1947; “City High School Has Three Names,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 5, 1948; Harrison Fry, “Veterans Complete Courses in Two Years; Point Way to High School of Future,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 23, 1949; “Franklin High Tailors Courses,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 29, 1949.
39. Middle States Association of Schools and Colleges, “Report of the Visiting Committee on the Evaluation of the Benjamin Franklin High School,” May 25, 1951, FL collection, Acc 469, box 20, folder 26, TUUA.
40. The Redevelopment Authority and the Citizen’s Council on City Planning (CCCP) were watchdog agencies that oversaw the activities of the Philadelphia Housing Association (later the Housing Association of Delaware Valley), the leading urban planning authority in postwar Philadelphia. John Bauman writes that in reality the CCCP “became both a sounding board and an advertising agent for the planners’ vision of the postwar city.” John Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920–1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 99.
41. Barbara Barnes, “Pupils Learn Lessons in Alley Classroom,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, November 2, 1950. For similar comments by a teacher at the school, see Martin Rosenberg, “A School Helps to Improve Its Neighborhood,” School News and Views, January 1, 1951.
42. On the founding and goals of the life adjustment education movement, see Harl Douglass, ed., Education for Life Adjustment: Its Meanings and Implementation (New York: Ronald Press Company, 1950); Diane Ravitch, Troubled Crusade: American Education, 1945–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1983), 64–68. For a contemporary analysis of the relationship between high school curriculum tracks and students’ class status, see August Hollingshead, Elmstown Youth: The Impact of Social Classes on Adolescents (New York: Wiley, 1949).
43. Herbert Kliebard, The Struggle for the American Curriculum: 1893–1958, 3rd ed. (New York: Routledge Falmer, 2004), 250–70.
44. Floyd Logan, letter to J. Harry LaBrum, May 20, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 21, TUUA; Walter Reeder, letter to Floyd Logan, May 13, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 7, folder 12, TUUA; School District of Philadelphia, “Department of Business Statement,” September 19, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 30, folder 5, TUUA; “Jim Crow’s Sweetheart Contract,” Greater Philadelphia Magazine, 58 (February 1963).
45. “Survey Recommends That Building Be Totally Demolished,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 6, 1951; Joseph V. Baker, “‘Segregation’ Hit At Benjamin Franklin High,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 7, 1951.
46. “Report on the Proceeding of the Conference on ‘Democratization of the Philadelphia Public Schools,’” October 15, 1951, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, Philadelphia Branch (NAACP) collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 138, TUUA.
47. “Angry Parents Resent Remarks by Principal,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 23, 1951; “Negro Baiting Assembly Talk Angers Parents,” Pittsburgh Courier, October 27, 1951. For the case that precipitated the principal’s comments, see “3 Boys Confess in Taxi Slaying,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 17, 1951.
48. W. E. Morton, letter to NAACP office, October 21, 1951, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 135, TUUA.
49. EEL, “Notes on the Meeting with the Board of Education.”
50. “Slurs Create Incident,” Teacher Union News, Vol. 6, No. 2, January 1952, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 137, TUUA.
51. EEL, “A Six-Point Program for the West Philadelphia High School,” January 10, 1952, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 137, TUUA.
52. “Conference of Educational Equality League and Supporting Organization with Members of Board of Public Education in Executive Session,” June 10, 1952, FL collection, Acc 469, box 1, folder 4, TUUA. Throughout the 1950s, Logan coupled his praise for democratic education with anticommunist rhetoric. On the anticommunist rhetoric of many civil rights activists during this period, see Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000); Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–1957 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Shana Bernstein, Bridges of Reform: Interracial Civil Rights Activism in Twentieth-Century Los Angeles (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
53. “Conference of Educational Equality League and Supporting Organization with Members of Board of Public Education in Executive Session.” On the materials the EEL presented to the school board, see “Suggestions for Policy on Democratization of Philadelphia Public Schools,” June 10, 1952, FL collection, Acc 469, box 1, folder 4, TUUA; “Some Pertinent Facts about Philadelphia Schools” [n.d.], [ca. October 1951], FL collection, Acc 469, box 8, folder 27, TUUA; “History Highlights: Educational Equality League: 1932–1960.”
54. “Conference Report: Meeting with Walter Biddle Saul” [n.d.], [ca. October 4, 1952], FL collection, Acc 469, box 4, folder 30, TUUA. For examples of the school boundary information on which Logan based his claims about racial gerrymandering, see Louis Hayer, letter to Floyd Logan, February 19, 1952, FL collection, Acc 469, box 26, folder 8, TUUA.
55. Ibid.
56. Ibid.
57. “School Board Denies Charge of Jim-Crow,” Philadelphia Tribune, July
58. “Report: Review of Meetings with Board,” July 9, 1953, FL collection, Acc 469, box 1, folder 4, TUUA.
59. “Report: Educational Policies Special Committee,” June 24, 1953, FL collection, Acc 469, box 19, folder 1, TUUA.
60. Floyd Logan, letter to Mrs. John Frederick Lewis, September 19, 1953, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 13, TUUA.
61. Ibid.
62. Gary Orfield, “Segregated Housing and School Resegregation” in Dismantling Desegregation: The Quiet Reversal of Brown v. Board of Education, Gary Orfield, Susan Eaton, and the Harvard Project on School Desegregation (New York: The New Press, 1996), 312–13. On the adoption of the de facto explanation of residential segregation, see Lipsitz, “Getting around Brown,” 51–54.
63. Jeanne Theoharis, “Hidden in Plain Sight: The Civil Rights Movement outside the South,” in The Myth of Southern Exceptionalism, ed. Matthew Lassiter and Joseph Crespino (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 49–73; Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 246–48; Kathryn Necker-man, School Betrayed: Roots of Failure in Inner-City Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 81–106; Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 194–96; Adina Back, “Up South in New York: The 1950s School Desegregation Struggles” (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1997).
64. See, for example, “Conference Report: Meeting with Walter Biddle Saul” [n.d.]; “School Board Denies Charge of Jim-Crow;” “Report: Review of Meetings with Board;” “Report: Educational Policies Special Committee.”
65. David L. Ullman, memo to Members of Fellowship Commission Executive Committee, December 31, 1952, JCRC collection, box 007, folder 006, PJAC; “Fellowship Commission Fair Educational Opportunities Committee minutes,” February 6, 1953, FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 24, TUUA.
66. David Ullman, memo to Members of Fellowship Commission Executive Committee, April 22, 1955, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 16, folder 318, TUUA. On the educational issues addressed by the Fellowship Commission, see “Fellowship Commission Fair Educational Opportunities Committee Minutes 1953–56,” JCRC collection, box 007, folders 005–006, PJAC.
67. Maurice Fagan, letter to Clarence E. Pickett and Leon J. Obermayer, September 16, 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 57, folder 13, TUUA.
68. Michael Clapper, “School Design, Site Selection, and the Political Geography of Race in Postwar Philadelphia,” Journal of Planning History 5 (August 2006): 247–49.
69. CHR, “Philadelphia’s Negro Population: Facts on Housing.”
70. Charles Neville, “Origin and Development of the Public High School in Philadelphia,” The School Review 35, no. 5 (May 1927): 367–68. On the history of Central High School of Philadelphia, see David Labaree, The Making of an American High School: The Credentials Market and the Central High School of Philadelphia, 1838–1939 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988).
71. The Alumni Association of Northeast High School, “75th Anniversary Record,” 1965, Northeast High School file, Philadelphia School District Archives (PSDA).
72. Robert Wayne Clark, “To the Young Men of Edison,” http://www.philsch.k12.pa.us/schools/edison/hstclark.html (accessed October 1, 2006); Helen Oakes, “The Oakes Newsletter,” December 14, 1973, Thomas Edison High School file, PSDA. On the importance of alumni to the school, see “Northeast High Parents, Alumni Library Drive,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 22, 1960.
73. Fellowship Commission, “Summary Statement of the Northeast,” December 6, 1957, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 2, folder 33, TUUA;
74. David McAllister, “Between the Suburbs and the Ghetto: Racial and Economic Change in Philadelphia, 1933–1985” (Ph.D. diss, Temple University, 2006), 160–61.
75. Guian McKee, The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 59.
76. Jeannie Oakes, Keeping Track: How Schools Structure Inequality (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005), 226–27, 247–48.
77. “Number of Negro Teachers and Percentage of Negro Students in Philadelphia Senior High Schools, 1956–1957” [n.d.], FL collection, Acc 469, box 14, folder 10, TUUA. On the intercultural education program implemented at Northeast High School, see “Intergroup Education, Northeast High School,” 1960–61, Northeast High School file, PSDA.
78. On the construction of the new Northeast High School, see “Northeast High Opens Monday,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 7, 1957; George Riley, “Northeast to Open as City’s Newest Public High School,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, February 10, 1957; “Noted Alumni Attend Rites at New Northeast High,” Philadelphia Inquirer, May 2, 1957; “New School Buildings Provide for Growing City’s Needs,” School News and Views, February 28, 1957, Northeast High School files, PSDA; “New Northeast High School Occupies 43-Acre Site,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 1, 1957; Harrison Fry, “Northeast High Will Dedicate New School,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 28, 1957; “All-Day Program to Dedicate New Northeast High May 1,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 14, 1957. On the new schools being built in the 1950s in the suburban Delaware Valley, see “New Schools for Newcomers,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 24, 1957; Peter Binzen, “Cheltenham Twp. Prepares to Open $6,390,000 High School and Pool,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, August 17, 1959; Clapper, “School Design, Site Selection, and the Political Geography of Race in Postwar Philadelphia,” 247.
79. Robert Wayne Clark, “To the Young Men of Edison.”
80. The Alumni Association of Northeast High School, “75th Anniversary Record.”
81. Blaustein, Civil Rights U.S.A., 138.
82. For examples of Logan’s correspondence with Superintendent Allen Wetter and Business Manager Add Anderson, see “Notes on telephone conversation with Add Anderson,” May 29, 1958, FL collection, Acc 469, box 8, folder 7, TUUA; “Notes on telephone conversation with Allen Wetter,” June 7, 1958, FL collection, Acc 469, box 8, folder 7, TUUA.
83. Philadelphia Board of Education, Division of Research, “A Ten-Year Summary of the Distribution of Negro Pupils in the Philadelphia Public Schools, 1957–1966,” December 23, 1966, FL collection, Acc 469, box 23, folder 6, TUUA; “Number of Negro Teachers and Percentage of Negro Students in Philadelphia Senior High Schools, 1956–1957” [n.d.], FL collection, Acc 469, box 14, folder 10, TUUA.
84. On the curriculum options at Edison High School, see Robert Wayne Clark, “The Occupational Practice Shop,” Clearing House Magazine, April 1961, Urban League (UL) collection, URB 1, box 9, folder 145, TUUA; Philadelphia Advisory Council for Vocational Education, “Minutes of Meeting,” April 25, 1961, UL collection, URB 1, box 9, folder 145, TUUA.
85. “Educational League Wins Fight for New Franklin High,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 8, 1955; Floyd Logan, letter to Allen Wetter, September 19, 1956, FL collection, Acc 469, box 9, folder 2, TUUA.
86. In the late 1950s, the Reverend Leon Sullivan organized an employment agency for black teenagers in his North Philadelphia neighborhood. In the early 1960s, he was a leader among the four hundred ministers who organized several successful selective patronage campaigns against private employers to improve job opportunities for black workers. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 83–119.
87. “Meeting Minutes: Conference with the Board of Superintendents and District Superintendents,” September 21, 1959, FL collection, Acc 439, box 9, folder 2, TUUA.
88. Floyd Logan, letter to Dr. Carl Seifert, December 3, 1957, FL collection, Acc 469, box 11, folder 6, TUUA; Floyd Logan, “Petition to Members of the Board of Public Education,” [n.d.] [ca. 1957], FL collection, Acc 469, box 6, folder 27, TUUA; Floyd Logan, “Script for WDAS Radio Discussion of Integration in the Philadelphia Public Schools,” FL collection, Acc 469, box 9, folder 22, TUUA.
89. William Odell, “Educational Survey Report for the Philadelphia Board of Public Education,” February 1965, PSDA; School District of Philadelphia Curriculum Report, May 1963 cited in Helen Oakes, “The School District of Philadelphia” [n.d.] [ca. 1968], FL collection, Acc 469, box 24, folder 33, TUUA. For Logan’s work on behalf of parents whose children were tracked into lower-level courses based on IQ scores, see FL collection, Acc 469, box 8, folder 12, TUUA.
90. Floyd Logan, letter to Allen Wetter, February 19, 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 9, folder 2, TUUA.
91. Peter Binzen, “Class at Franklin High Drops from 151 to 21 in 3 Years,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 10, 1961. On the Philadelphia school board’s construction program in these years, see Clapper, “School Design, Site Selection, and the Political Geography of Race in Postwar Philadelphia.”
92. “Their Three Best Years,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 14, 1961.
93. Floyd Logan, letter to Allen Wetter, March 8, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 9, folder 2, TUUA.
94. Allen Wetter, letter to Elias Wolf, January 30, 1961, box 34, “Greater Philadelphia Movement” folder, PSDA.
95. Oakes, Keeping Track, 173.
96. James Conant, The American High School Today: A First Report to Interested Citizens (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959); James Conant, Slums and Suburbs: A Commentary on Schools in Metropolitan Areas (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).
97. Stephen Preskill, “Raking from the Rubbish: Charles W. Eliot, James B. Conant, and the Public Schools” (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1984), 280–82.
98. On the “great debate” regarding education in the United States in the cold war era and the influence of Conant’s reports, see David Gamson, “From Progressivism to Federalism: The Pursuit of Equal Educational Opportunity, 1915–1965,” in To Educate a Nation: Federal and National Strategies of School Reform, ed. Carl Kaestle and Alyssa Lodewick (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2007), 177–201; Steven Tozer, Paul Violas, and Guy Senese, School and Society: Educational Practice as Social Expression (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), 24–33, 187–211; and Preskill, “Raking from the Rubbish,” 264–317.
99. Conant, Slums and Suburbs, 31.
100. Ibid., 7, 145–47.
101. Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade, 152.
102. On the influence of cultural deprivation research on educational policies and practices, see James Banks, “Multicultural Education: Historical Development, Dimensions, and Practice,” Review of Research in Education, 19 (1993): 28–30; Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade, 145–81; Maris Vinovskis, The Birth of Head Start: Preschool Education Policies in the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations (Chicago University of Chicago Press, 2005).
103. Riessman’s reference to “one in three” young people being culturally deprived was influenced by the Ford Foundation’s Great Cities School Improvement Studies, published in 1960. Frank Riessman, The Culturally Deprived Child (New York: Harper, 1962), 9.
104. Ibid., 8, 80.
105. Ibid., 1–9. On the influence of Riessman’s book, see Ravitch, The Troubled Crusade, 154–60.
106. Philadelphia School Board, “The Story of the Philadelphia Public Schools in 1962 and in a Few Prior Years, with, Here and There, a Comment about the Future,” October 1, 1962, FL collection, Acc 469, box 25, folder 14, TUUA.
107. Wetter, “For Every Child: The Story of Integration in the Philadelphia Public Schools.” For Logan’s critique of Wetter’s position on integration, see “Dr. Wetter Hit for Stand on Mixing Schools,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 21, 1960; Floyd Logan, letter to Members of Board of Public Education, November 23, 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 20, TUUA.
1. Jeanne Theoharis, “Introduction” in Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940–1980, ed. Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 2.
2. Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008), xiv.
3. “Urge State Action on School Bias,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 1, 1954; Floyd Logan, letter to Governor John Fine, May 19, 1954, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 22, TUUA. On Logan’s attempts to promote integration in Philadelphia in the wake of Brown, see Floyd Logan, letter to Mercedes and William Dodds, May 18, 1955, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 14, TUUA.
4. On the importance of information networks to civil rights, see Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 541. For examples of Floyd Logan’s raising the profile of school segregation in Philadelphia through the Philadelphia Tribune, see “Desegregation in School,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 18, 1954; “School Board Asked to Redistrict for Full Integration,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 8, 1955; “Gov. Leader to Submit Logan School Plan to Commission,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 7, 1955; “Separate Schools in Penna.,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 17, 1955; “Fate of Integration in Local Courts,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 4, 1955; “Logan Sparks Drive to Learn Extent of School Bias in Pa.,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 24, 1956; “Race Segregation in Pennsylvania Schools Appears Doomed,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 26, 1957; Floyd Logan, letter to John Saunders, [n.d.] [ca. 1956], FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 14, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter to Eustace Gay, July 21, 1956, FL collection, Acc 469, box 4, folder 9, TUUA. For examples of Floyd Logan’s efforts to make Philadelphia’s school segregation a story in the mainstream press, see Floyd Logan, letter to Frank Ford, August 30, 1957, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 15, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter to Editor of Evening Bulletin, September 7, 1957, FL collection, Acc 469, box 10, folder 4, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter to Adam Clayton Powell, January 24, 1956, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 14, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter to Editor of Look Magazine, June 23, 1956, FL collection, Acc 469, box 4, folder 9, TUUA.
5. For examples of the coverage of Little Rock in the mainstream Philadelphia newspapers, see Robert Roth, “U.S. Probes Arkansas’ Use of Troops to Bar Integration; President Criticises [sic] Governor,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 3, 1957; “Guardsmen Bar Negroes from Arkansas School,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 4, 1957; “Hate for Elizabeth,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 6, 1957; “Faubus Warns against Force; Negroes Ejected at 2d School,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 9, 1957; “Eisenhower Warns He’ll Use Troops if Little Rock Terror Continues,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 24, 1957; “1000 Troops Ring Little Rock School; Fighting ‘Anarchy,’ Eisenhower Says,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 25, 1957; “Bayonets Impose Arkansas Peace,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 26, 1957; “9 in School, All Quiet in Little Rock,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 27, 1957; “Eisenhower Rejects Pledge by Faubus as Insufficient; Little Rock Troops to Stay,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 2, 1957; “President, Faubus Locked in Troop Removal Impasse; Little Rock Pupils Harass 9,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 3, 1957; “Little Rock ‘Walkout’ Fails, Guards Bar Rowdy Pupils; President Hits Faubus’ Acts,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 4, 1957.
6. For examples of the coverage of southern school segregation fights outside of Little Rock in the mainstream Philadelphia newspapers, see “Two Sisters Barred from High School in Virginia,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 5, 1957; “Score of Men Attack Minister Leading Children into Alabama School,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 9, 1957; “Dynamiters Wreck Nashville Schools,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 10, 1957; Thomas Stokes, “Demonstrations in South Painting Ugly Picture of U.S.,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 11, 1957; Payton Gray Sr., “Blame Arkansas for Riots Here: School Authorities Acting to Prevent Mass Panic in City,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 1, 1957.
7. “Exclusive! (WCAU advertisement),” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 11, 1957.
8. David Halberstam, The Fifties (New York: Villard Books, 1993), 679.
9. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 223.
10. On television news coverage of the civil rights movement, see Sasha Torres, Black, White, and in Color: Television and Black Civil Rights (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 135; Julian Bond, “The Media and the Movement” in Media, Culture, and the Modern African American Freedom Struggle, ed. Brian Ward (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 16–40; University of Virginia Center for Digital History “Television News of the Civil Rights Era 1950–1970,” http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/civilrightstv/ (accessed November 15, 2007).
11. On the southern campaign of massive resistance, see Numan Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics in the South during the 1950’s (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969); James Ely Jr., The Crisis of Conservative Virginia: The Byrd Organization and the Politics of Massive Resistance (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976); Matthew Lassiter and Andrew Lewis, eds., The Moderates Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998); Clive Webb, ed., Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). For a similar campaign of violence in the North related to housing, see Arnold Hirsch, “Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953–1966,” Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522–50.
12. Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Viking, 2002), 179.
13. Saul Kohler, “Police Commissioner Gibbons Talks on Delinquency,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 4, 1957; “1000 Pupils Riot on S. Broad St.; 15 Are Arrested,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 25, 1957; “Schoolgirls Protected from S. Phila. Crowd,” Philadelphia Inquirer, September 27, 1957; “Youth Fights Erupt Anew,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 25, 1957; “Residents Air Racial Tension,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, October 1, 1957.
14. Art Peters, “Negroes Break Barrier of TV Bandstand Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 5, 1957. On this protest of American Bandstand, see chapter 7.
15. On the influence of Little Rock on white newspapers outside the South, see Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Vintage Books, 2006), 213–14.
16. Saul Kohler, “A Discussion on Integration Problem in Phila. Schools,” Philadelphia Inquirer, October 13, 1957. For similar statements by school officials praising Philadelphia’s antidiscrimination efforts, see Allen Wetter, letter to Floyd Logan, June 3, 1958, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 10, TUUA; “Phila. Moving to Fore in School Integration,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 31, 1959; Commission on Human Relations, “A Statement of Concern for Public Education in Philadelphia,” May 17, 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 40, folder 19, TUUA.
17. Floyd Logan, letter to Carl Morneweck, October 14, 1957, FL collection, Acc 469, box 11, folder 6, TUUA.
18. For examples of the Philadelphia Tribune’s coverage of struggles over southern school segregation after Little Rock, see “The ‘Desegregation Front,’” Philadelphia Tribune, August 30, 1958; “Ceaseless Fight for School Desegregation Highlight of 1958,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 3, 1959; “New Orleans Police Official: ‘The Worst Is Yet to Come,’” Philadelphia Tribune, November 18, 1960; “Further Delay Would Only Worsen Climate for Ending Segregation,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1960.
19. “Brief Supporting Petition to Board of Public Education of the School District of Philadelphia,” February 10, 1959, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 10, TUUA.
20. Albert Blaustein, “Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,” in Civil Rights U.S.A.: Public Schools, Cities in the North and West, 1962, United States Commission on Civil Rights (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 125; also quoted in Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennylvania, 2000), 68–70.
21. “Minutes of October 5, 1959 Meeting,” October 5, 1959, FL collection, Acc 439, box 1, folder 5, TUUA.
22. Theodore Graham, “Educational Equality League Sparked Fight to Halt School Discrimination,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 11, 1959.
23. On the resistance to the Fellowship Commission’s work on housing discrimination, see West Philadelphia Fellowship Commission, “Angora Civic Association,” November 18, 1954, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
24. Fellowship Commission, “The Philadelphia Childhood Relations Seminar: Three Years of Action-Research in Intergroup Education,” November 1956, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 5, folder 107, TUUA.
25. Fellowship Commission Committee on Community Tensions meeting minutes, January 13, 1960, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 008, PJAC.
26. “Commission Asks School Survey,” Jewish Exponent, February 19, 1960; David Horowitz, letter to Maurice Fagan, February 29, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Emma Bolzau, Assistant to Associate Superintendent, letter to David Horowitz, April 12, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Irving Shull, letter to friend, June 23, 1960, JCRC collection, box 003, folder 021, PJAC.
27. Curriculum Office, Philadelphia Public Schools, “A Guide to the Teaching of American History and Government,” 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 12, folder 16, TUUA.
28. Curriculum Office, Philadelphia Public Schools, “A Guide to the Teaching of American History and Government.”
29. Maurice Fagan, letter to David Horowitz, May 18, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Jules Cohen, letter to Maurice Fagan, May 13, 1960, PFC collection, box 002, folder 010, PJAC.
30. Fellowship Commission, “Meeting of Social Studies Department Heads and Fellowship Commission Representatives,” June 30, 1960, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Jules Cohen, July 18, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Charles Benham, July 15, 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 39, folder 22, TUUA; Peter Binzen, “Social Studies Textbooks in Public School Assailed,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 5, 1960; “Dateline: Delaware Valley U.S.A.,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 5, 1960; “Fellowship Group Demands More Spunk in School Texts,” Philadelphia Daily News, July 5, 1960; “Fellowship Unit’s Probe Attacks School Textbooks,” Jewish Times, July 8, 1960; “The Fellowship Survey of Textbooks,” Jewish Exponent, July 8, 1960.
31. Peter Binzen, “Phila. Schools to Add Course about Bigotry,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 6, 1960. While later articles in the Philadelphia Tribune and the Jewish Exponent quoted Fagan and Horowitz, respectively, regarding this course, Peter Binzen’s article in the Evening Bulletin did not cite a source for his story on the new school units. For these related stories, see “Public School Anti-bigotry Courses Set,” The Philadelphia Tribune, July 9, 1960; “Public Schools to Implement Textbook Work,” Jewish Exponent, July 15, 1960.
32. “Indoctrination Course,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 10, 1960.
33. Allen Wetter, “Public Schools vs. Bigotry,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1960.
34. “Less Puritanical Approach,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1960.
35. “By What Authority?” and “Free-Thinking Migrants,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1960.
36. See chapter one for a discussion of defensive localism in relation to housing.
37. On the social warrant of consumer citizenship that underwrites this language of privatization, see George Lipsitz, “Getting around Brown: The Social Warrant of the New Racism,” in Remembering Brown at Fifty: The University of Illinois Commemorates Brown v. Board of Education, ed. Orville Vernon Burton and David O’Brien (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 54–59.
38. Maurice Fagan, “Controversy Leads to Exploration of Views,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 24, 1960.
39. On the Fellowship Commission’s community college public relations campaign, see “Junior College in Phila. Urged,” Philadelphia Inquirer, November 4, 1960; “McBride Announces Start of Campaign to Establish Junior College in Philly,” Sons of Italy Times, November 7, 1960; “Fellowship Commission Spurs Move for Junior College in Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Dispatch, November 13, 1960; “Drive Is Started to Set Up Community College Here,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 5, 1961; “Fellowship Conference to Discuss City College,” Jewish Exponent, March 31, 1961; “Fellowship Commission Sparks Drive for Junior Colleges,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 5, 1961; “Phila. AFL-CIO Endorses Plan for Junior College Here,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, June 15, 1961; Fellowship Commission, “Report to the Community,” November 1960, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 17, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” February 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA; “Report to the Community,” April 1961, FC collection, Acc 626, box 53, folder 18, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Charles Sunstein, February 1, 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 26, folder 5, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Georges Carousso, July 27, 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 13, TUUA; Maurice Fagan, letter to Edmund Glazer, July 17, 1962, FC collection, Acc 626, box 27, folder 13, TUUA.
40. E. Washington Rhodes, “The Man of the Year,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 2, 1960.
41. On the NAACP’s limited role in educational issues in the 1950s, see “The Philadelphia Branch in Retrospect for the Past Three and a Half Years,” 1957, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 6, folder 151, TUUA; “Annual Report of the Phila. Branch of the NAACP for 1959,” 1960, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 30, folder 37, TUUA.
42. Floyd Logan, “Statement to the Governor’s Committee on Education,” May 24, 1960, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 18, TUUA.
43. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 75. On Logan’s efforts to ensure that these policies were implemented, see Floyd Logan, letter to Charles Boehm, January 9, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 10, TUUA; Floyd Logan, letter Charles Boehm, April 27, 1962, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 26, TUUA; EEL, “Report on Meeting with Charles Boehm,” February 7, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 3, folder 26, TUUA.
44. Charles Beckett, “Report of the Education Committee for the Months of January and February 1961,” March 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA.
45. Floyd Logan, letter to Allen Wetter, April 20, 1961, Acc 469, box, 4, folder 7, TUUA.
46. Ibid.
47. Cecil Moore, letter to Dr. Charles Boehm, May 29, 1961, FL collection, Acc 469, box 4, folder 7, TUUA.
48. On the New Rochelle case, see Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty, 190–99; John Kaplan, “New Rochelle, New York,” in Civil Rights U.S.A.: Public Schools, Cities in the North and West, 1962, United States Commission on Civil Rights (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 33-103. On the lawsuits filed against school districts in the North and West after New Rochelle, see Gary Orfield, Must We Bus? Segregated Schools and National Policy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1978), 363–87.
49. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 86. On the NAACP’s approach to Chisholm v. Board of Public Education, see Blaustein, “Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,” 111–73; “School Board OKs $15 Million Bond Sale for Construction; Objects to Answering 75 Questions in NAACP Bias Suit,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 9, 1963.
50. Orfield, Must We Bus? 364.
51. Gittell and Hollander, Six Urban School Districts: A Comparative Study of Institutional Response—Baltimore, Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis (New York: Praeger, 1968), 26.
52. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 117.
53. William Lee Akers, letter to Cecil B. Moore, January 9, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA.
54. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 118.
55. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 149.
56. Ibid., 134.
57. “Summary of the Fifth Meeting of Discussion Group on Negro-Jewish Relationships,” June 10, 1963, JCRC collection, box 012, folder 005, PJAC; Philadelphia Fellowship Commission AGEX meeting minutes, January 25, 1954, JCRC collection, box 002, folder 001, PJAC. On the grassroots protests that challenged this educational and employment discrimination, see Thomas Sugrue, “Affirmative Action from Below: Civil Rights, the Building Trades, and the Politics of Racial Equality in the Urban North, 1945–1969,” Journal of American History 91 (June 2004): 145–73; Countryman, Up South, 130–48.
58. Bonaparte, “‘Average Joes’ Star in Demonstrations.”
59. “The Only Thing That We Did Wrong Was to Let Segregation Stay So Long,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 28, 1963.
60. Countryman, Up South, 138–39.
61. “Education Is Vital to Solution of Explosive Civil Rights Struggle,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 18, 1963.
62. “School Board Doubts Duty in Promoting Integration,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 8, 1963; Peter Binzen, “School Board Won’t File Plan on Integration,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 17, 1963; “School Decision to Contest Suit Vexes Judge,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 18, 1963; Peter Binzen, “Facing the Issue: Can the Schools Offset Housing Segregation?” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, July 21, 1963; Lawrence O’Rourke, “School Board to Get Formal Biracial Plan,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 8, 1963; Lawrence O’Rourke, “Secret Integration Plan for Schools Disclosed: NAACP Aide OKd It,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 12, 1963; Mark Bricklin, “School Board Members Wonder Who’s Running Things,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 14, 1963; Philadelphia Coordinating Council on School Integration, “School Integration Bulletin,” September 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 12, TUUA.
63. Lawrence O’Rourke, “400 Ministers Start ‘Direct Action’ on Schools,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 9, 1963; “Negro Pastors Begin Secret School Action,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, September 10, 1963; Floyd Logan, “Statement on Judge Raymond Pace Alexander’s Plea to the 400 Negro Ministers,” September 14, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA. On Logan’s opposition to Walter Biddle Saul’s refusal to file the desegregation plan, see Floyd Logan, letter to Member of the Board of Public Education, August 23, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 29, folder 1, TUUA.
64. Mark Bricklin, “NAACP Wins as School Board Bows to Demands,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 28, 1963.
65. Mark Bricklin, “NAACP Pickets Continue Despite Bd. Surrender,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 22, 1963.
66. Mark Bricklin, “Meade School Boycott Spearheads NAACP Victory,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 22, 1963.
67. Bill Alexander, “Denial of NAACP Pact by Saul Shocks Judge, Moore into Disbelief,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1963. On the community meetings to discuss school integration, see Urban League of Philadelphia, “Report on School Integration Forum,” October 28, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 43, folder 13, TUUA.
68. “96 School Borders Face Revision to Foster Integration,” Philadelphia Inquirer, April 1, 1964; “Crippins Calls Boundary Plan ‘Not Detailed,’” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 2, 1964; Peter Binzen, “Board Discloses New Boundaries for City Schools,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 7, 1964; “Boundary Plan Called ‘Farce,’ ‘A Fine Start,’” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, April 8, 1964; School District of Philadelphia, “Is There Room for Me?” [n.d.] [ca. April 1964], FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 22, TUUA; Philadelphia Public School, “Press Release,” April 7, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 27, folder 31, TUUA.
69. Bill Alexander, “2 Adversaries Blast Edict as Fraud, Disgrace,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1964.
70. “Set Feb 3 Deadline for Pennell Desegregation,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1964; Mark Bricklin, “Pennell School Parents to Picket Board of Education,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 8, 1964; Henry Benjamin, “School Board Has Emergency Meet,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 1, 1964; Mark Bricklin, “Board of Education Refuses to Take Students from Gaston Church Classes,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 14, 1964; Coordinating Council on School Integration, “Meeting Minutes,” December 9, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 37, folder 12, TUUA; Florence Cohen, open letter, January 2, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 39, folder 5, TUUA; Ogontz Area Neighborhood Association, “Statement on Integration of the Pennell School,” November 12, 1963, FL collection, Acc 469, box 39, folder 5, TUUA.
71. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 184. On these busing protests, see “Wetter Hears 100 Protest Busing Pupils,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, January 24, 1964; “Crowd Heckles Dr. Wetter on Busing Program,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 8, 1964; “School Busing Problem,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 31, 1964; Floyd Logan, “Problems in Democracy of Philadelphia Public Schools,” August 2, 1965, FL collection, Acc 469, box 15, folder 4, TUUA.
72. Chris Perry, “Episcopal Pastor Blasts D’Ortona’s Two-Way Position,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 6, 1964.
73. Gaeton Fonzi, “Crisis in the Classroom,” Greater Philadelphia Magazine, January 1964, 30.
74. Ibid., 31, 64.
75. Ibid., 64, 73. On the intersection of gender and race in postwar attacks on welfare, see Jennifer Mittelstadt, From Welfare to Workfare: The Unintended Consequences of Liberal Reform, 1945–1965 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
76. Ibid., 64.
77. Ibid., 77.
78. Floyd Logan, “Answer to ‘Crisis in the Classroom,’” January 21, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 9, folder 16, TUUA. For the Philadelphia Tribune’s coverage of the controversy surrounding the article, see Mark Bricklin, “Educational Equality League Says Article Libels All Tan Youth,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1964; Floyd Logan, “Answer to ‘Crisis in the Classroom,’” January 28, 1964. On Floyd Logan’s opposition to the cultural deprivation paradigm, see Floyd Logan, “Urban Reconstruction: Human Resources,” January 1963, RWH collection, box 11, folder 20, AAMP.
79. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 138.
80. Floyd Logan, letter to James Tate, July 13, 1964, FL collection, Acc 469, box 2, folder 22, TUUA.
81. Mark Bricklin, “ ‘ Negroes Can’t Wait for Neighborhoods to Be Integrated,’” Philadelphia Tribune, May 16, 1964.
82. Fred Bonaparte, “‘Neighborhood Rights Northern Version of States Rights’—NAACP,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 26, 1964. For similar critiques of neighborhood school groups as segregationists, see “Negro Likens Parents’ Group to Racist Unit,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, May 13, 1964.
83. On these white homeowners associations and housing discrimination, see chapter 1.
84. Matthew Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 122–23. On the use of the “freedom of choice” strategy in the South, see Charles Bolton, The Hardest Deal of All: The Battle over School Integration in Mississippi, 1870–1980 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005), 117–66; Kevin Kruse, “The Fight for ‘Freedom of Association’: Segregationist Rights and Resistance in Atlanta,” in Massive Resistance: Southern Opposition to the Second Reconstruction, ed. Clive Webb (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 99–116.
85. Phillips, “The Struggle for School Desegregation in Philadelphia, 1945–1967,” 143.
86. For example, 78 percent of the students were the first generation in their families to pursue post–high school education, and 54 percent of students came from families that were below the city’s median income level. And whereas less than 1 percent of students at the University of Pennsylvania and Temple University were black students from Philadelphia high schools, black students made up 23 percent of the community college student body, and Puerto Rican students composed another 2 percent. Community College of Philadelphia, “Progress and Self-Evaluation Report Prepared for the Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, Middle States Association of College and Secondary Schools, November 1, 1967, Community College (CC) collection, Acc 378.154 C734s1, Community College of Philadelphia Archives (CCPA); Fellowship Commission, “Joint Meeting of the Committee on Opportunities for Higher Education minutes,” July 8, 1964, FC collection, Acc 626, box 28, folder 39, TUUA; Community College of Philadelphia, Civitas, A Yearbook, June 1967, CC collection, Acc A378.748 C734ci, CCPA.
87. James Clay, “West Philadelphia School’s New Gym to Be Named after Floyd Logan,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 30, 1979.
88. On the Girard College protest, see Countryman, Up South, 168–78; Art Peters, “NAACP Girds for Girard College Battle,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 5, 1965; Mark Bricklin, “1000 Police ‘Protect’ Girard College from 50 NAACP Pickets,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 4, 1965; Mark Bricklin and Fred Bonaparte, “Girard College Operating Illegally Leading Constitutional Atty. Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 8, 1965; Mark Bricklin, “No Settlement of Girard College Demonstration in Sight,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 15, 1965; Ray McCann, “Moore, Woods Lead 1000 on Girard College, Philadelphia Tribune, January 5, 1965; Jim Magee, “AMEs Stage 22-Block Girard March,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 22, 1965; “Experts See City Plan to Integrate Girard Doomed,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 18, 1965; Jacob Sherman, “NAACP Calls off Girard College Picketing as Lawsuit for 7 N. Phila. Boys Is Filed,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 18, 1965.
89. On these school protests, see Countryman, Up South, 223–57.
90. On Rizzo’s opposition to school desegregation efforts, see Orfield, Must We Bus? 160, 172, 191–95; Countryman, Up South, 255; Fred Hamilton, Rizzo (New York: Viking, 1973), 14, 106–10.
91. Orfield, Must We Bus? 172.
92. On the Philadelphia school desegregation case, see Orfield, Must We Bus? 172–75; Malik Morrison, “An Examination of Philadelphia’s School Desegregation Litigation,” Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education 3 (no. 1, 2004); School District of Philadelphia, “News Release: School Desegregation Case Almost 40 Years Old, Comes to End,” July 13, 2009, www.phila.k12.pa.us/desegregation/rel-deseg-case-7–09.pdf (accessed August 15, 2010); Valerie Russ, “Today: Hearing to Fight Jim Crow Education in Philly Schools: Officials Agree to Make Improvement Changes in ‘Racially Isolated’ Schools,” Philadelphia Daily News, July 13, 2009.
93. Danielle Allen, Talking to Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship since Brown v. Board of Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 5.
1. Barlow, Voice Over, 211. On the importance of radio deejays in black communities, see Brian Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004); Mark Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit and Pride: From Black-Appeal to Radio Soul (New York: Praeger, 1988); Johnny Otis, Upside Your Head! Rhythm and Blues on Central Avenue (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1993); Johnny Otis, Listen to the Lambs (1968; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009); George Lipsitz, Midnight at the Barrelhouse: The Johnny Otis Story (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010); Magnificent Montague, Burn Baby! BURN! The Autobiography of Magnificent Montague (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003); Richard Stamz, Give ‘Em Soul, Richard! Race, Radio, and Rhythm and Blues in Chicago (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010); Louis Cantor, Wheelin’ on Beale: How WDIA-Memphis Became the Nation’s First All-Black Radio Station and Created the Sound That Changed America (New York: Pharos Books, 2002).
2. On the development of black-appeal radio, see Barlow, Voice Over, 108–33; Newman, Entrepreneurs of Profit and Pride, 79–92; Robert Weems, Jr., Desegregating the Dollar: African American Consumerism in the Twentieth Century (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 42–55.
3. Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, “Introduction,” in Groundwork: Local Black Freedom Movements in America, ed. Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard (New York: New York University Press, 2005), 3.
4. Quoted in Barlow, Voice Over, 124.
5. Philadelphia deejay Georgie Woods used rock and roll to describe the artists who performed at his concerts and the music he played on his radio show. While this music can also be described as rhythm and blues, throughout this chapter I use rock and roll because it was the term preferred by Woods and the common term used by the Philadelphia Tribune. For example, see Georgie Woods, “Rock and Roll with Georgie Woods,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1955; “The George Woods Rock ‘‘n Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 23, 1955; “Rock ‘‘n Roll,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 30, 1955.
6. James Spady, Georgie Woods: I’m Only a Man (Philadelphia: Snack-Pac Book Division, 1992), 15–19, 40–41; Chris Perry III, “Leading Philly D-J’s Writing for Tribune,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 22, 1955.
7. Georgie Woods, “Rock and Roll with Georgie Woods,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1955.
8. “The George Woods Rock ‘N Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 23, 1955; “In Person George Woods Rock ‘N Roll,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 8, 1955; Archie Miller, “Fun and Thrills in Philly,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 29, 1955; “Big Rock and Roll Show at Mastbaum,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 10, 1955; “All New Rock ‘N Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 13, 1955.
9. John Albert, “Georgie Woods’ ‘Rock and Roll Show’ Draws 5,000 at Academy,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 18, 1955.
10. “Mystery Shrouds Rift between DeeJay George Woods and WHAT,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 15, 1955; “‘King’ Woods on New Throne,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1956.
11. “Georgie Woods Takes over Top Spot at Station WDAS,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 24, 1956.
12. Spady, Georgie Woods, 94–95.
13. Quoted in John Roberts, From Hucklebuck to Hip-Hop: Social Dance in the African American Community in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Odunde Inc., 1995), 46–47.
14. Guthrie Ramsey Jr., Race Music: Black Cultures from Bebop to Hip-Hop (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 4. On dance spaces in Philadelphia, see Benita Brown, “ ‘Boppin’ at Miss Mattie’s Place’: African-American Grassroots Dance Culture in North Philadelphia from the Speakeasy to the Uptown Theater during the 1960s” (Ph.D. diss, Temple University, 1999).
15. “Teenagers Welcome Disc Jockeys,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 12, 1954.
16. “Crediting the Philadelphia Tribune” [Re-Vels picture], Philadelphia Tribune, August 2, 1955; “Smiles of Appreciation” [Re-Vels picture], Philadelphia Tribune, May 19, 1956; Art Peters, “Huge Crowd Sees Talent Contest at Allen Homes Auditorium,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 14, 1957; “Guest Artists,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 17, 1957; “If You’re Confused,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 7, 1958; Dolores Lewis, “Philly Date Line,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 4, 1958.
17. Weldon McDougal, interviewed by author, March 27, 2006.
18. Anthony Gribin and Matthew Schiff, Doo-Wop: The Forgotten Third of Rock ‘N Roll (Iola, WI: Krause Publications, 1992)
19. On the development of vocal harmony groups, see Stuart Goosman, Group Harmony: The Black Urban Roots of Rhythm and Blues (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005); Robert Pruter, Doowop: The Chicago Scene (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1996); Philip Groia, They All Sang on the Corner: A Second Look at New York City’s Rhythm and Blues Vocal Groups (New York: Phillie Dee Enterprises, 1983); Montague, Burn Baby! BURN! 67.
20. On the Philadelphia Tribune’s coverage of local singing groups, see “Appearing in Tribune Home Show” [Guytones picture], Philadelphia Tribune, May 22, 1956; “Quintet Hailed by Rock and Roll Fans,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 9, 1956; “Winners of Talent Show” [the Satellites photo], Philadelphia Tribune, March 19, 1957; “Dynatones,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 11, 1956; “Teen-Age ‘Superiors’ Debut on M.T. Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1957; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1957; Art Peters, “Rosen Homes Teenage Vocal Group Gets Recording Contract,” December 21, 1957; “Lee Andrews and the Hearts” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 19, 1958; Gil Zimmerman, “Person to Person,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 3, 1958; “Lee Andrews and the Hearts” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, June 7, 1958; “Fast Rising Vocal Group” [the Five Sounds photo], Philadelphia Tribune, February 10, 1959; “The Decisions,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 5, 1959; “Their Big Day” [Dee Jays photo], Philadelphia Tribune, January 12, 1960; Malcolm Poindexter, “Local Vocal Group Sets Their Sights on Stardom,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 15, 1960; “‘The Presidentials’ Set Sights on Instrumentals and Vocal Success,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 29, 1960; “The Da’prees” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, March 25, 1961; “Chirpers” [Joyettes photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 2, 1963; “Big Sound” [the Supremes photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 6, 1963; “The Exceptions,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 16, 1964; “Members of One of Philly’s Swingingest Young Groups” [Bobby and the Lovetones photo], Philadelphia Tribune, June 23, 1964.
21. On the recreation activities sponsored by black community centers and religious institutions, see V. P. Franklin, “Operation Street Corner: The Wharton Centre and the Juvenile Gang Problem in Philadelphia,” in W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and the City: The Philadelphia Negro and Its Legacy, ed. Michael Katz and Thomas Sugrue (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 195–215; “Sigma Iota Gamma Sorority” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1957; Theodore Graham, “300 Youths Enjoying St. Matthew’s Program,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 16, 1957; Muriel Bonner, “St. Monica’s Teens Have Active Program,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 23, 1957; Theodore Graham, “300 Youths, Adults Hail Program at Zion Church,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 30, 1957; Theodore Graham, “Youth Recreation Haven at Tasker Street Church,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 3, 1957; Theodore Graham, “Program of St. Charles Parish Asset to Youths,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 10, 1957; Theodore Graham, “Zion Community Center Meeting Youth Challenge,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 21, 1957; Graham, “Wharton Center Program Has Aided Over 55,000,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 21, 1957; “Rho Phi Omega Fraternity” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, December 31, 1957; Jack Saunders, “I Love a Parade,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1958; Charles Layne, “St. Rita’s Rock ’n’ Roll Revival a Real Swingeroo,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 26, 1961.
22. Weldon McDougal interview.
23. Eustace Gay, “Pioneer in TV Field Doing Marvelous Job Furnishing Youth with Recreation,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 11, 1956; Gary Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars,” The News Journal Papers (Wilmington, DE), January 28, 1986, D4.
24. “The NAACP Reports: WCAM (Radio),” August 7, 1955, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 21, folder 423, TUUA.
25. Otis Givens, interviewed by author, June 27, 2007.
26. Quoted in Roberts, From Hucklebuck to Hip-Hop, 37.
27. On the Philadelphia Tribune’s “Teen-Talk” coverage of Mitch Thomas’s show, see “They’re ‘Movin’ and Groovin,’” Philadelphia Tribune, July 31, 1956; Dolores Lewis, “Talking with Mitch,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1957; Dolores Lewis, “Stage Door Spotlight,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 9, 1957; “Teen-Age ‘Superiors’ Debut on M.T. Show” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1957; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 7, 1957; Dolores Lewis, “Philly Date Line,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 7, 1957; “Queen Lane Apartment Group” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, December 7, 1957; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 21, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 1, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 8, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Talk of the Teens,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 22, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 22, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 5, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 22, 1958; “Presented in Charity Show” [Mitch Thomas photo], Philadelphia Tribune, April 22, 1958; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 26, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 29, 1958.
28. Art Peters, “Negroes Crack Barrier of Bandstand TV Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 5, 1957; “Couldn’t Keep Them Out” [photo], Philadelphia Tribune, October 5, 1957; Delores Lewis, “Bobby Brooks’ Club Lists 25 Members,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 14, 1957.
29. On the crossover appeal of black-oriented radio, see Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South; Barlow, Voice Over; Susan Douglas, Listening In, 219–55.
30. As noted in chapter one, The Grady and Hurst Show was a televised version of Joe Grady and Ed Hurst’s 950 Club. The teens who danced during the 950 Club radio broadcast influenced WFIL’s decision to develop Bandstand. On The Grady and Hurst Show, see John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ’n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 28, 48.
31. “Black Philadelphia Memories,” dir. Trudi Brown (WHYY-TV12, 1999).
32. “Teen-Age ‘Superiors’ Debut on M.T. Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1957.
33. On Mitch Thomas’s concerts, see Archie Miller, “Fun and Thrills,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 4, 1956; “Rock ‘n Roll Show and Dance,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 19, 1958; “Swingin’ the Blues,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 5, 1958; “Mitch Thomas Show Attracts over 2000,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 18, 1958; “Don’t Miss the Mitch Thomas Rock and Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, July 2, 1960.
34. Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars.”
35. Ray Smith, interviewed by author, August 10, 2006.
36. Herbert Howard, Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting (New York: Arno Press, 1979), 142–47.
37. Ibid.
38. Barlow, Voice Over, 129; Giacomo Ortizano, “On Your Radio: A Descriptive History of Rhythm-and-Blues Radio during the 1950s” (Ph.D. diss, Ohio University, 1993), 391–423.
39. Art Peters, “Mitch Thomas Fired from TV Dance Party Job,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 17, 1958.
40. Howard, Multiple Ownership in Television Broadcasting, 146.
41. Gerry Wilkerson, Broadcast Pioneers of Philadelphia, http://www.geocities.com/broadcastpioneers/whyy1957.html (accessed March 1, 2007).
42. Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars.”
43. J. Fred MacDonald, Blacks and White TV: Afro-Americans in Television Since 1948 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1983), 17–21, 57–64; Jannette Dates, “Commercial Television,” in Split Image: African Americans and the Mass Media, ed., Jannette Dates and William Barlow (Washington, DC: Howard University Press, 1993), 267–327; Christopher Lehman, A Critical History of Soul Train on Television (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2008), 28; Stamz, Give ‘Em Soul, Richard!, 62–63, 77–78; Barlow, Voice Over, 98–103; Clarence Williams, “JD Lewis Jr., A Living Broadcasting Legend,” ACE Magazine, October 2002, http://www.cbc-raleigh.com/capcom/news/2002/corporate_02/williams_lewis_story/williams_lewis_story.htm (accessed August 15, 2010).
44. Jackson, American Bandstand, 2–7.
45. Ibid., 30–32.
46. On the protests against rock and roll, see Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 90–113; Glenn Altschuler, All Shock Up: How Rock ’n’ Roll Changed America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 39, 72–77; Linda Martin and Kerry Seagrave, Anti–Rock: The Opposition to Rock ’n’ Roll (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993), 41–43; “Segregation Wants Ban on ‘Rock and Roll,’” New York Times, March 30, 1956; George Leonard, “Music or Madness?” Look, June 26, 1956, 48; “rock ’n’ Roll,” Time, July 23, 1956, 34; “White Council vs. Rock and Roll,” Newsweek, April 23, 1956. On white citizens’ councils, see Neil McMillen, The Citizens’ Council: Organized Resistance to the Second Reconstruction, 1954–64 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994).
47. On the moral panic over juvenile delinquency, see James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America’s Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Thomas Doherty, Teenagers and Teenpics: The Juvenilization of American Movies in the 1950s (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2002), 54–82; David Hadju, The Ten-Cent Plague: The Great Comic-Book Scare and How It Changed America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2008). On moral panics and youth more broadly, see Joel Best, Threatened Children: Rhetoric and Concern about Child-Victims (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Gerard Jones, Killing Monsters: Why Children Need Fantasy, Super Heroes, and Make-Believe Violence (New York: Basic Books, 2003); John Springhall, Youth, Popular Culture, and Moral Panics (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1999).
48. Dick Clark and Richard Robinson, Rock, Roll and Remember (New York: Popular Library, 1976), 71.
49. Jackson, American Bandstand, 40.
50. Clark, Rock Roll and Remember, 71.
51. Ibid., 82.
52. Jackson, American Bandstand, 41.
53. Ibid., 50.
54. Christopher Anderson, “Disneyland,” in Television: The Critical View, 6th ed., ed. Horace Newcomb (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 20.
55. Quoted in ibid.,” 21; Herman Land, “ABC: An Evaluation,” Television magazine, December 1957, 94.
56. The Official Bandstand Yearbook 1957, [no publication information listed].
57. Jackson, American Bandstand, 52.
58. Harry Harris, “WFIL’s ‘Bandstand’ Goes National—Not without Some Strain,” Philadelphia Inquirer, August 6, 1957; Jackson, American Bandstand, 66.
59. Bob Bernstein, “ ‘Bandstand’ Sociology but Not Entertainment,” Billboard, August 12, 1957, 48.
60. J. P. Shanley, “TV: Teenagers Only,” New York Times, August 6, 1957, 42.
61. Lawrence Laurent, “If It’s Keen to Teens It Goes on Television,” The Washington Post, August 10, 1957.
62. George Pitts, “TV’s ‘American Bandstand’ a Noisy Menagerie!” Pittsburgh Courier, July 12, 1958.
63. Jackson, American Bandstand, 67–68.
64. Richard Peterson, “Why 1955? Explaining the Advent of Rock Music,” Popular Music 9 (January 1990): 97-116.
65. Jon Hartley Fox, King of Queen City: The Story of King Records (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 59.
66. On the importance of American Bandstand to record sales, see John Broven, Record Makers and Breakers: Voices of Independent Rock ‘ n’ Roll Pioneers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009); Anthony Musso, Setting the Record Straight: The Music and Careers of Recording Artists from the 1950s and early 1960s … in Their Own Words (Bloomington, IN: Author-House, 2007).
67. Joe Smith, Off the Record: An Oral History of Popular Music (New York: Warner Books, 1988), 103; Jackson, American Bandstand, 85.
68. On the history of payola, see Kerry Segrave, Payola in the Music Industry: A History, 1880–1991 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 1994).
69. Quoted in David Szatmary, Rockin’ in Time: A Social History of Rock-and-Roll (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2000), 59.
70. “Newest Music for a New Generation: Rock ’n’ Rolls On ‘n’ On,” Life, April 18, 1958, 166–68.
71. Quoted in John Jackson, Big Beat Heat: Alan Freed and the Early Years of Rock & Roll (New York: Schirmer Books, 1991), 288.
72. Quoted in Jackson, American Bandstand, 179.
73. Clark and Robinson, Rock, Roll and Remember, 268.
74. Jackson, American Bandstand, 182. On the payola hearings, see Segrave, Payola in the Music Industry, 100–58; Jackson, Big Beat Heat, 238–327; Ward, Just My Soul Responding, 161–69.
75. Anthony Lewis, “Dick Clark Denies Receiving Payola; Panel Skeptical,” New York Times, April 30, 1960, 1.
76. Pete Martin, “I Call on Dick Clark,” Saturday Evening Post, October 10, 1959, 70.
77. Bill Davidson, “The Strange World of Dick Clark,” Redbook, March 1960, 111.
78. Jackson, American Bandstand, 153–96; Ward, Just My Soul Responding, 165; “Guilty Only of Success,” TV Guide, September 10–16, 1960.
79. Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay: The History and Politics of the Music Industry (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), 57–60; Jackson, American Bandstand, 197–98.
80. Chapple and Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay, 51.
81. Clark and Robinson, Rock, Roll and Remember, 140; Jim Dawson, The Twist: The Story of the Song and Dance that Changed the World (Boston: Faber and Faber, 1995), 21–29; Jackson, American Bandstand, 170–71, 218.
82. Chapple and Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay, 49.
83. Ibid.; Peter Guralnick, Feel Like Going Home: Portraits in Blues and Rock ’n’ Roll (1971; New York: Little, Brown and Company, 1999), 20.
84. Michael Shore and Dick Clark, The History of American Bandstand (New York: Ballantine Books, 1985), 81–84, 127–32.
85. Jackson, American Bandstand, 225.
86. On the economics of television reruns in the 1950s and 1960s, see Phil Williams, “Feeding Off the Past: The Evolution of the Television Rerun,” in Television: The Critical View, 6th ed., ed. Horace Newcomb (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000),, 52–72.
87. Jackson, American Bandstand, 227–87.
88. Office of City Representative Division of Public Information Board of Trade and Conventions, The Song of Philadelphia [n.d.] [ca. 1962] (MacDonald and Associates, Chicago).
89. Georgie Woods hosted dozens of concerts from 1956 through 1965 at the Uptown and elsewhere. For a sample of these concerts, see “Disc Jockey’s Rock and Roll Show Attracts 4500 Teenagers,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 11, 1956; “The Biggest Show of Stars for ‘58,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 1 and 12, 1958; “Georgie Woods Rock, Roll Show Lures 80,000 Fans to Uptown,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 10, 1958; “40,000 Teenagers Await Big Uptown Theater Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 18, 1959; “Georgie Woods Presents a Gala Holiday Rock ’n Roll Show at the Uptown Theater,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 21, 1959; “Georgie Woods Presents 5th Anniv. Rock ’n Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 22, 1960; “Georgie Woods of WDAS Presents All-Star Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 20, 1961; “Georgie Woods 8th Anniversary Rock n’ Roll Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 20, 1962; “Georgie Woods Presents 9th Anniversary Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 19, 1963; Lucille Alexander, “Pips, Tops, Impressions Impressive in Georgie Woods’ Show at Uptown,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 9, 1964; “Georgie Woods Presents His Rock ’n Roll Convention,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 25, 1964; “Uptown,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 28, 1965.
90. Art Peters, “Woods’ Rock, Roll ‘Thriller’ Lures 60,000 to Uptown Theatre,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 1, 1958.
91. “40,000 Teenagers Await Big Uptown Theater Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 18, 1959.
92. On the record hops that Georgie Woods and Mitch Thomas hosted, see “Teenagers Welcome Disc Jockeys,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 12, 1954; Jimmy Rivers, “Mitch Thomas at Skating Rink,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 7, 1958; Tommy Curtis, “Elmwood Teenagers,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 18, 1958; Billy Johnson, “Teen Social Whirl,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 25, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 1, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 6, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 10, 1958; Gil Zimmerman, “Person to Person,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 10, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 13, 1958; Edith Marshall, “Current Hops,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 17, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 20, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, August 18, 1958; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 4, 1958; Laurine Blackson, “Penny Sez,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 6, 1958; Jimmy Rivers, “Crickets’ Corner,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 6, 1959; “Fortieth Street Youth Committee Entertained 1200 Children,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 6, 1959; “ ‘ Mobbed by Teenagers,’” Philadelphia Tribune, April 18, 1959. On other record hops for black teenagers in the Philadelphia area, see Billy Johnson, “Teen Social Whirl,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 26, 1958; Muriel Bonner, “Teen Chatter,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 20, 1958; Veronica Hill, “Jamming with Ronnie,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 1, 1958; Veronica Hill, “Jamming with Ronnie,” Philadelphia Tribune, November 22, 1958; Veronica Hill, “Jamming with Ronnie,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 31, 1959.
93. On these local youth programs, see V. P. Franklin, “Operation Street Corner,” in W. E. B. Du Bois, Race, and the City: The Philadelphia Negro and Its Legacy, ed. Michael Katz and Thomas Sugrue (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1998), 195–215.
94. Georgie Woods, “Geo. Woods Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 19, 1959.
95. Ibid.
96. Georgie Woods, “Geo. Woods Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 3, 1959.
97. Georgie Woods, “Geo. Woods Says,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 10, 1959.
98. Ibid.
99. Woods, “Geo. Woods Says,” October 3, 1959.
100. Mark Bricklin, “DJ’s Georgie Woods, Reggie Lavong Join Local Businessmen to Establish New Commercial TV Station for Philadelphia, Philadelphia Tribune, August 22, 1964; “City’s New TV Station Seeks Huge Juice Boost,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 30, 1965; “Georgie Woods Seventeen Canteen,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 30, 1965; Masco Young, “The Notebook,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 14, 1965; Masco Young, “Notebook,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 1, 1966.
101. Spady, Georgie Woods, 114, 120, 162.
102. Quoted in Barlow, Voice Over, 206.
103. Art Peters, “‘Sermons,’ Songs Blend into Revival Atmosphere,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 18, 1963.
104. Ibid.
105. Ibid.
106. Fred Bonaparte, “‘Average Joes’ Star in Demonstrations,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 28, 1963.
107. “NAACP Slates Saturday Rally for Slain Birmingham Girls,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 21, 1963.
108. Mark Bricklin, “14,000 Jam NAACP Convention Hall Freedom Show; $30,000 Raised,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 21, 1964; Mark Bricklin, “$16,000 Given to Four Groups at Mon. Lunch,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 24, 1964. On Leon Sullivan and the Opportunities Industrialization Center, see Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 112–19.
109. “Freedom Show of ‘64” [concert ad], Philadelphia Tribune, March 7, 1964.
110. Bricklin, “14,000 Jam NAACP Convention Hall Freedom Show; $30,000 Raised.”
111. “Snipers Wound 2 Marchers in Selma Vigil,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 16, 1965.
112. Mark Bricklin and Jim Magee, “12,000 Ring City Hall in Protest Demonstration,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 16, 1965.
113. Ibid.
114. Jack Saunders, “Georgie Woods: Disc Jockey, Rights Fighter, Humanitarian,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 23, 1965.
115. Barlow, Voice Over, 207–11. See also Ward, Radio and the Struggle for Civil Rights in the South.
116. Countryman, Up South, 170. On the concurrent development of the New Left on Philadelphia area college campuses, see Paul Lyons, The People of This Generation: The Rise and Fall of the New Left in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).
117. Ibid., 171.
118. On the Girard College protest, see Countryman, Up South, 168–78; Art Peters, “NAACP Girds for Girard College Battle,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 5, 1965; Mark Bricklin, “1000 Police ‘Protect’ Girard College from 50 NAACP Pickets,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 4, 1965; Mark Bricklin and Fred Bonaparte, “Girard College Operating Illegally Leading Constitutional Atty. Says, Philadelphia Tribune, May 8, 1965; Mark Bricklin, “No Settlement of Girard College Demonstration in Sight,” Philadelphia Tribune, May 15, 1965; Ray McCann, “Moore, Woods Lead 1000 on Girard College, Philadelphia Tribune, January 5, 1965; Jim Magee, “AMEs Stage 22-Block Girard March,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 22, 1965; “Experts See City Plan to Integrate Girard Doomed,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 18, 1965.
119. Jacob Sherman, “NAACP Calls off Girard College Picketing as Lawsuit for 7 N. Phila. Boys Is Filed,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 18, 1965.
120. John A. Jackson, A House on Fire: The Rise and Fall of Philadelphia Soul (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 14–16.
121. Kenny Gamble, “Introduction,” in James Spady, Georgie Woods: I’m Only a Man (Philadelphia: Snack-Pac Book Division, 1992), 111.
122. Ward, Just My Soul Responding, 418.
123. Jackson, A House on Fire, 92–151; Ward, Just My Soul Responding, 418.
124. Gamble, “Introduction,” iii.
1. Dick Clark and Richard Robinson, Rock, Roll and Remember (New York: Popular Library, 1976), 81.
2. Josh Kun, Audiotopia: Music, Race, and America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), 2.
3. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (New York: Verso, 1991), 35.
4. Diana Mutz, Impersonal Influence: How Perceptions of Mass Collectives Affect Political Attitudes (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), xvi. Quoted in Sarah Igo, The Averaged American: Surveys, Citizens, and the Making of a Mass Public (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 12.
5. On the locally televised teenage dance programs that competed with American Bandstand, see Tom McCourt and Nabeel Zuberi, “Music on Television,” Museum of Broadcast Communications, http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/M/htmlM/musicontele/musicontele.htm (accessed July 1, 2007); Laura Wexler, “The Last Dance,” Style: Smart Living in Baltimore magazine, September/ October 2003, 130–35, 166–69; Gary Kenton, “Cool Medium Hot,” Television Quarterly 36 (Winter 2006): 36–41; Clay Cole, Sh-Boom! The Explosion of Rock ‘ n’ Roll 1953–1968 (New York: Morgan James Publishing, 2009), 26, 43, 46, 72; Jake Austen, TV a-Go-Go: Rock on TV from American Bandstand to American Idol (Chicago: Chicago Review Press, 2005), 42; Matt Schudel, “Milt Grant: Dance Host, TV Station Entrepreneur,” Washington Post, May 3, 2007; Richard Harrington, “Before Dick Clark, Washington Had Boogied on Milt Grant’s Show,” Washington Post, May 2, 2007; “J. D. Lewis Jr. obituary,” News and Observer (Raleigh, NC), February 20, 2007; “Bud Davies obituary,” Detroit News, October 28, 2006; “Bill Craig Jr. obituary,” Star Press (Muncie, IN), March 23, 2006; “Clark Race Popular Radio DJ and Host of KDKA-TV’s ‘Dance Party,’” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, July 28, 1999; “David Hull, 66, Host of ‘Chicago Band Stand,” Chicago Tribune, May 4, 1999; “KPTV Premieres High Time, Portland’s First Music Show for Teenagers, with Host Ed Gilbert,” KPTV (Portland, OR) Timeline, http://home.comcast.net/~kptv/timeline/timeline.htm (accessed July 1, 2007).
6. “Milt Grant Pitches His Show to Sponsors,” May 27, 1957, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJLTQ-3Mgik (accessed, October 15, 2010).
7. Michael Shore and Dick Clark, The History of American Bandstand: It’s Got a Great Beat and You Can Dance to It (New York: Ballantine Books, 1985), 13.
8. “American Bandstand,” December 17, 1957 (video recording), Acc T86:0318, Museum of Radio and Television (MTR).
9. Ibid.
10. “American Bandstand,” December 18, 1957 (video recording).
11. On the concept of imagined communities, see Anderson, Imagined Communities. On the production strategies through which television constructs its national audience, see Victoria Johnson, Heartland TV: Prime Time Television and the Struggle for U.S. Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2008); Sasha Torres, Black, White, and in Color: Television and Black Civil Rights (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); Marita Sturken, “Television Vectors and the Making of a Media Event,” in Reality Squared: Televisual Discourse on the Real, ed. James Friedman (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2004), 185–202. For related studies of imagined communities with respect to radio, see Susan Douglas, Listening In: Radio and the American Imagination (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004); Jason Loviglio, Radio’s Intimate Public: Network Broadcasting and Mass-Mediated Democracy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005);.
12. American Bandstand Yearbook, 1958 [no publication information listed].
13. “American Bandstand,” December 2, 1957 (video recording), Acc T86:0317, MTR; “American Bandstand,” December 17, 1957; “American Bandstand,” December 18, 1957.
14. On the development of teenage girls’ consumer culture in decades before World War II, see Kelly Schrum, Some Wore Bobby Sox: The Emergence of Teenage Girls’ Culture, 1920–1945 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006).
15. Louis Kraar, “Teenage Customers: Merchants Seek Teens’ Dollars, Influence Now, Brand Loyalty Later,” Wall Street Journal, December 6, 1956, 1, 11.
16. Schrum, Some Wore Bobby Sox, 2. On Eugene Gilbert, see Dwight MacDonald, “A Caste, A Culture, and A Market—I, “ New Yorker, November 22, 1958; James Gilbert, A Cycle of Outrage: America’s Reaction to the Juvenile Delinquent in the 1950s (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986, 205–10; Eugene Gilbert, Advertising and Marketing to Young People (Pleasantville, NY: Printers’ Ink Books, 1957); Grace Palladino, Teenagers: An American History (New York: Basic Books, 1996), 96-115.
17. Gilbert, Advertising and Marketing to Young People, 4.
18. Igo, The Averaged American, 4, 18.
19. “Challenging the Giants,” Newsweek, December 23, 1957, 70.
20. American Bandstand, December 18, 1957.
21. On interpolated television advertising in this era, see Lawrence Samuel, Brought to You By: Postwar Television Advertising and the American Dream (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001); Susan Murray, Hitch Your Antenna to the Stars: Early Television and Broadcast Stardom (New York: Routledge, 2005); and Lynn Spigel, Make Room for TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992).
22. Clark, Rock, Roll and Remember, 112–13.
23. Melvin Maddocks, “Television,” Christian Science Monitor, May 29, 1958.
24. “American Bandstand: Review,” TV Guide, October 19, 1957, 3; John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ’n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), . 69
25. On the construction of women as the ideal consumers in the 1950s, see Haralovich, “Sit-Coms and Suburbs: Positioning the 1950s Homemaker,” in Private Screenings: Television and the Female Consumer, ed. Lynn Spigel and Denise Mann (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1992), 111–41.
26. “American Bandstand: Review,” 22–23.
27. Arlene Sullivan, interviewed by author, July 7, 2006.
28. Pat Molittieri, “My Farewell to Bandstand,” Teen, June 1959. For other American Bandstand coverage, see Teen Magazine Presents—My Bandstand Buddies, 1959; Teen Magazine Presents—My Bandstand Blast! 1960; Teen magazine, August 1958, November 1958, February 1959, June 1959, October 1959, December 1960.
29. “Meet ‘Bandstand’s Dance Queen,” ‘Teen, June 1959.
30. American Bandstand Yearbook, 1958
31. Ray Smith, interviewed by author, August 10, 2006. In a documentary about the dance the Twist, Jimmy Peatross and Joan Buck tell a related story about learning how to do the Strand from black teenagers. Twist, dir. Ron Mann (Sphinx Productions, 1992).
32. Gary Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars,” The News Journal Papers (Wilmington, DE), January 26, 1986.
33. “Black Philadelphia Memories,” dir. Trudi Brown (WHYY-TV12, 1999).
34. On the black dance cultures out of which dances like the Stroll emerged, see Katrina Hazzard-Gordon, Jookin’: The Rise of Social Dance Formations in African-American Culture (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990); Lynne Fauley Emery, Black Dance from 1619 to Today, 2nd rev. ed. (Hight-stown, NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1988); Barbara Glass, African American Dance (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2006). On teen dances like the Stroll, see Tim Wall, “Rocking around the Clock: Teenage Dance Fads from 1955 to 1965” in Ballroom, Boogie, Shimmy Sham, Shake: A Social and Popular Dance Reader, ed. Julie Malnig (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009).
35. Quoted in Jackson, American Bandstand, 211. Clark also discusses the Stroll in his autobiography, see Clark and Robinson, Rock, Roll, and Remember, 133–36.
36. American Bandstand, December 17, 1957.
37. Mullinax, “Radio Guided DJ to Stars.”
38. On ethnicity in early and mid-1950s network television, see George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990), 39–75.
39. Arlene Sullivan interview.
40. Frank Spagnuola, interviewed by author, July 27, 2006.
41. Shore and Clark, The History of American Bandstand, 39.
42. Francis Ianni, “The Italo-American Teen-Ager,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 338 (November 1961): 78.
43. Thomas Guglielmo, White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890–1945 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 6–13.
44. Thomas Guglielmo, “‘No Color Barrier’: Italians, Race, and Power, in the United States,” in Are Italians White? How Race Is Made in America, ed. Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno (New York: Routledge, 2003), 41.
45. Jordan Stanger-Ross, Staying Italian: Urban Change and Ethnic Life in Postwar Toronto and Philadelphia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009); Stefano Luconi, From Paesani to White Ethnics: The Italian Experience in Philadelphia (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001); Carmen Teresa Whalen, From Puerto Rico to Philadelphia: Puerto Rican Workers and Postwar Economies (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001); Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
46. Anita Messina, interviewed by author, June 29, 2006.
47. Carmella Gullon (Mulloy), interviewed by author, July 24, 2006.
48. Christopher Small, Musicking: The Meanings of Performance and Listening (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press, 1998), 13.
49. Darlina Burkhart (McCormick), interviewed by author, June 14, 2006.
50. Anita Messina interview.
51. Ray Smith interview; Anita Messina interview; Carmella Gullon (Mulloy) interview; Dick Clark and Fred Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand (New York: Collins Publishers, 1997), 27; Francis Burke, “Stonehurst Priest’s Social Center Marks 3 Years of Success in Youth Guidance,” Philadelphia Evening Bulletin, December 6, 1959.
52. Carmella Gullon (Mulloy) interview.
1. My approach to the study of historical memory is influenced by Renee Romano and Leigh Raiford, eds., The Civil Rights Movement in American Memory (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006).
2. Joan Cannady (Countryman), interviewed by author, February 27, 2006.
3. Iona Stroman (Billups), interviewed by author, July 16, 2007.
4. Weldon McDougal, interviewed by author, March 27, 2006.
5. Julian Bond, “The Media and the Movement,” in Media, Culture, and the Modern African American Freedom Struggle, ed. Brian Ward (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 27.
6. On the coverage of American Bandstand in the black press, see “Dick Clark ‘Bandstand’ Spotlights Sepia Aces,” Chicago Defender, August 8, 1959; “TV Guide,” New York Amsterdam News, February 28, 1959; “Television Program,” Atlanta Daily World, November 21, 1957; “Tonight’s Pix-Viewing,” Chicago Daily Defender, May 12, 1959; “Dick Clark Spotlight James Brown’s Flames,” Chicago Defender, October 29, 1960; “Dick Clark TV Guests ‘Names,’” Chicago Defender, January 14, 1961; “TV Guide,” New York Amsterdam News, February 18, 1961; “Bobby Bland Set for ‘American Bandstand,’” Chicago Daily Defender, March 15, 1961; “TV Guide,” New York Amsterdam News, March 25, 1961; “TV Tapes,” Chicago Daily Defender, August 7, 1961; “What’s on TV?” New York Amsterdam News, December 9, 1961; “TV Hi-Lites,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 13, 1962; “TV Hi-Lites,” Philadelphia Tribune, March 17, 1962; “TV Hi-Lites,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 28, 1962.
7. Walter Palmer, interviewed by author, June 29, 2007.
8. Ibid.; CHR, “Present Status of Current ‘C’ Cases,” May 4, 1954, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; CHR, “Intergroup Tensions in Recreation Facilities,” March 7, 1955, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 4, folder 104, TUUA. On these efforts to integrate Bandstand in the early 1950s, see chapter one.
9. Art Peters, “No Negroes on Bandstand Show, TV Boss Says They’re Welcome,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 22, 1956.
10. Ibid.
11. Danielle Allen, Talking to Strangers: Anxieties of Citizenship since Brown v. Board of Education (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004), 4.
12. Stroman (Billups) interview.
13. On the controversy of interracial dancing on Alan Freed’s show, see John A. Jackson, Big Beat Heat: Alan Freed and the Early Years of Rock and Roll (New York: Schirmer Books, 1991), 168–69. On the related concerns over interracial themes in film, see Susan Courtney, Hollywood Fantasies of Miscegenation: Spectacular Narratives of Gender and Race, 1903–1967 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).
14. Gael Greene, “Dick Clark,” New York Post, September 24, 1958.
15. “Mr. Clark and Colored Payola,” New York Age, December 5, 1959, 6.
16. Johnny Otis, “Johnny Otis Says Let’s Talk,” Los Angeles Sentinel, January 28, 1960; Masco Young, “They’re Talking About,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 20, 1960.
17. Arlene Sullivan, interviewed by author, July 6, 2006.
18. Joe Fusco, interviewed by author, August 8, 2006.
19. Ray Smith, interviewed by author, August 10, 2006.
20. “Teen Agers Claim Discrimination on Clark’s Band Stand,” Philadelphia Tribune, September 8, 1959; “Girl, 14, Says She, Friends Were Barred from Dick Clark TV Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, October 21, 1961.
21. Dorthy Anderson, “Strictly Politics,” Philadelphia Tribune, December 23, 1958; “Readers Say: ‘All the Uncle Toms Have Moved up North,’” Philadelphia Tribune, July 12, 1960; “Teenagers Talented,” Philadelphia Tribune, April 2, 1963; E. Washington Rhodes, “Where Are the Parents of ‘Bandstand’s’ Youth?” Philadelphia Tribune, January 14, 1958; “Tribune Readers Say: Stop Imitating Others’ Errors,” Philadelphia Tribune, February 4, 1958; “Tribune’s Open Forum,” Philadelphia Tribune, January 2, 1960; “Readers Say: Protests Same Old White Faces on Dick Clark TV Show,” Philadelphia Tribune, June 17, 1961.
22. Henry Gordon, interviewed by author, June 6, 2006.
23. “dick clark media archives,” http://www.dickclarklicensing.com (accessed October 15, 2010).
24. The list of available clips from American Bandstand in this era include “American Bandstand,” December 2, 1957 (video recording), Acc T86:0317, Museum of Television and Radio (MTR); “American Bandstand,” December 17, 1957 (video recording), Acc T86:0318, MTR; “American Bandstand: 25th Anniversary,” February 4, 1977 (video recording), Acc T79:0274, MTR; “American Bandstand: 40th Anniversary,” May 13, 1992 (video recording), Acc B:25885, MTR; “American Bandstand: 50th Anniversary,” May 3, 2002 (video recording), Acc B71426, MTR; Twist, dir. Ron Mann (Sphinx Productions, 1992); Bandstand Days (Teleduction, 1997); American Dreams, dir. Jonathan Prince (Universal Studios, 2004; DVD, 7 discs). The “Bandstand Moments” DVD included with the 50th Anniversary boxed set only includes footage from the period after the show moved to Los Angeles.
25. One of the pictures appears in both of Dick Clark’s histories of the show, see Michael Shore and Dick Clark, The History of American Bandstand: It’s Got a Great Beat and You Can Dance to It (New York: Ballantine Books, 1985), 46; Dick Clark and Fred Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand (New York: Collins Publishers, 1997), 56–57. The second picture is in the 50th Anniversary boxed set booklet; see Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary, 40.
26. Richard Robinson and Dick Clark, Dick Clark 20 Years of Rock ’n’ Roll Yearbook (New York: Buddah Records, Inc., 1973).
27. Clark, Rock, Roll, and Remember, 110–12.
28. Lawrence Redd, Rock Is Rhythm and Blues: The Impact of Mass Media (Lansing: Michigan State University, 1974); Peter Guralnick, Feel Like Going Home: Portraits in Blues and Rock ’n’ Roll (New York: Vintage Book, 1971); Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay: The History and Politics of the Music Industry (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1977), 231–69; Stephen Walsh, “Black-Oriented Radio and the Civil Rights Movement,” in Media, Culture, and the Modern African American Freedom Struggle, ed. Brian Ward, 67–81; Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 339–450.
29. Ben Fong-Torres, “‘Soul Train’ vs. Dick Clark; Battle of the Bandstands,” Rolling Stone, June 7, 1973, 10.
30. Stanley Williford, “Don Cornelius, Dick Clark Feud Ends,” Los Angeles Sentinel, June 7, 1993. On the competition between American Bandstand and Soul Train, see Christopher Lehman, A Critical History of Soul Train on Television (Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2008); John Jackson, American Bandstand: Dick Clark and the Making of a Rock ’n’ Roll Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 255–80; Christine Acham, Revolution Televised: Prime Time and the Struggle for Black Power (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004), 54–84.
31. Dick Clark with Allen Daniel Goldblatt, Dick Clark Remembers 25 Years of Rock ’n’ Roll, Happy Days, and American Bandstand (Hopkins, MN: Imperial House, 1979), 11.
32. Henry Schipper, “Dick Clark,” Rolling Stone, April 19, 1990, 126
33. Jackson, American Bandstand, 140–41.
34. Clark and Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand, 19, 21. Clark’s coauthor, Fred Bronson, repeats parts of this quotation in Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary (2007).
35. Dick Clark, “Behind the Scenes at Bandstand” in American Bandstand the Rock ’n’ Roll Years: 1956–1962 (New York: AMI Specials, Inc., 2003).
36. Andrew Goodman, “Dick Clark, Still the Oldest Living Teenager,” New York Times, March 25, 2011.
37. Clark and Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand, 10.
38. Ibid., 10–24.
39. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006).
40. On the racial discrimination in housing and neighborhood housing fights, see CHR, “A Report on the Housing of Negro Philadelphians,” 1953, CHR collection, box A-620, folder 148.4, PCA; ACA; “To Residents of This Section of West Phila.,” March 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA; ACA, “Help!! Help!!” May 19, 1955, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 34, TUUA.
41. On the racial discrimination in youth recreation, see “Investigation of Skating Rink: Interim Report,” 1952, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 20, folder 383, TUUA; Spence Coxe, letter to Joseph Barnes, December 12, 1952, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 20, folder 383, TUUA; CHR, “Recommendation for Closing Case: Concord Skating Rink,” January 11, 1955, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; Commission of Human Relations, Meeting Minutes, September 21, 1953, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; “NAACP Radio Report on WCAM,” September 27, 1953, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 21, folder 421, TUUA; West Philadelphia Fellowship Council, Minutes, October 27, 1953, FC collection, Acc 626, box 61, folder 36, TUUA; CHR, “Minutes of Meeting on Skating Rink Project,” March 30, 1954, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 21, folder 421, TUUA; CHR, “Minutes of Meeting on Skating Rink Project,” March 30, 1954, NAACP collection, URB 6, box 20, folder 383, TUUA; CHR, “Recommendation for Closing Case: Crystal Palace Roller Skating Rink,” January 19, 1955, CHR collection, Box A-2860, folder 148.2 “Minutes 1953–1957,” PCA; “Recommendation for Closing Case: Concord Skating Rink;” CHR, Annual Report, 1954, CHR collection, Box A-620, folder 148.1, PCA.
42. Matthew Frye Jacobson, “‘Richie’ Allen, Whitey’s Ways, and Me: A Political Education in the 1960s,” in In the Game: Race, Identity, and Sports in the Twentieth Century, ed. Amy Bass (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 19–46; William Kashatus, September Swoon: Richie Allen, the ‘64 Phillies, and Racial Integration (University Park: Penn State University Press, 2004).
43. On school segregation in Philadelphia, see Philadelphia Board of Education, Division of Research, “A Ten-Year Summary of the Distribution of Negro Pupils in the Philadelphia Public Schools, 1957–1966,” December 23, 1966, FL collection, Acc 469, box 23, folder 6, TUUA; “Number of Negro Teachers and Percentage of Negro Students in Philadelphia Senior High Schools, 1956–1957” [n.d.], FL collection, Acc 469, box 14, folder 10, TUUA.
44. James Baughman, Same Time, Same Station: Creating American Television, 1948–1961 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007), xiii.
45. Jackson, Big Beat Heat, 168–69.
46. Miscegenation laws remained in place in seventeen southern states until they were overturned by the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Loving v. Virginia (1967). Additionally, a number of other states repealed their laws before Loving, but after American Bandstand started broadcasting nationally: California (1959), Nevada (1959), Idaho (1959), Arizona (1962), Nebraska (1963), Utah (1963), Indiana (1965), and Wyoming (1965).
47. On miscegenation laws, see Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009); Fay Botham, Almighty God Created the Races: Christianity, Interracial Marriage, and American Law (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009); Jane Dailey, “Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred after Brown,” Journal of American History 91 (June 2004), 119–44.
48. Dailey, “Sex, Segregation, and the Sacred after Brown,” 125.
49. New York deejay Clay Cole suggests that his locally broadcast Clay Cole Show (1959–68) was racially integrated, but he does not indicate when this integration began, and I was unable to verify his memory with other sources. See Clay Cole, Sh-Boom: The Explosion of Rock ’n’ Roll, 1953–1968 (New York: Morgan James, 2009), 55, 186.
50. Otis, “Johnny Otis Says Let’s Talk.”
51. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91 (March 2005): 1235.
1. Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary (12 compact discs; Time Life; 2007); “Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary,” http://www.timelife.com/webapp/wcs/stores/servlet/ProductDisplayPcatalogId=10001&storeId=1001&langId=-i&productId=10506 (accessed January 10, 2008).
2. On the fiftieth anniversary coverage of American Bandstand, see Ken Emerson, “The Spin on ‘Bandstand,’” Los Angeles Times, August 5, 2007, M9; David Hinckley, “50 Years Ago, Show Put Rock Squarely in the Mainstream,” New York Daily News, August 4, 2007, 67.
3. David Lieberman, “Dan Snyder Buys Dick Clark’s TV, Music Company,” USA Today, June 19, 2007, 2B.
4. Thomas Heath and Howard Schneider, “Snyder Adds a TV Icon to His Empire,” Washington Post, June 20, 2007, D01.
5. Rick Kissell, “Peacock ‘Dreams’ up Powerful Sunday Perf,” Daily Variety, October 8, 2002, 4; Stephen Battaglio, “CBS Pulls out a Narrow Nielsen Victory: NBC Still Leads Youth Market,” New York Daily News, November 6, 2002, 99; Gail Shister, “Competition May Kill ‘Dreams,’ Despite Critics’ Acclaim,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 7, 2004, C5.
6. Hairspray box office data, http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/2007/HAIRS.php (accessed October 15, 2010); Pamela McClintock, “‘Hairspray’ Sings Its Way to Top 5 Overseas,” Variety, September 30, 2007, 16; John Dempsey, “‘Hairspray’ Gets USA All Lathered Up,” Daily Variety, October 5, 2007, 5; Susan King, “If You Want Some More ‘Hairspray,’” Los Angeles Times, November 5, 2007, E2; Cristoph Mark, “‘Hairspray’ Cast Gels in New Production,” The Daily Yomiuri (Tokyo), October 19, 2007, 14; Ong Sor Fern, “Hairspray Has Heart,” The Straits Times (Singapore), August 22, 2007; Karen Price, “Major New Role for Ball as Broadway Smash ‘Hairspray’ Prepares to Hit London’s West End,” The Western Mail (London), June 23, 2007, 3; “Bit of Bounce,” The Irish Times, July 13, 2007, 10; Fiona Byrne, “Hairspray Premiere—South Yarra,” Sunday Herald Sun (Australia), 177.
7. For a selection of the film reviewers who likened the Corny Collins Show to American Bandstand, see Susan King, “If You Want Some More Hairspray,” Los Angeles Times, November 20, 2007, E2; David Ansen, “ ‘Hairspray’ Is a Plus-Size Pleaure,” Newsweek, July 23, 2007, http://www.newsweek.com/id/33063 (accessed September 15, 2007); Randy Cordova, “Hairspray,” The Arizona Republic, July 20, 2007, http://www.azcentral.com/ent/movies/articles/0720hairspray0720.html (accessed September 15, 2007); Dana Stevens, “Not a Drag,” Slate.com, July 19, 2007, http://www.slate.com/id/2170730/nav/tap3/(accessed September 15, 2007); Steve Persall, “‘Hairspray’ Sticks with Success,” St. Petersburg Times (Florida), July 19, 2007, 22W.
8. Fred Bronson, Dick Clark’s American Bandstand 50th Anniversary (New York: Time Life, 2007), 9.
9. My use of the term mediated history is influenced by Steve Anderson, “Loafing in the Garden of Knowledge: History TV and Popular Memory” Film and History 30, no.1 (March 2000): 14–23; Gary Edgerton, ed., Television Histories: Shaping Collective Memory in the Media Age (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2001); Derek Kompare, Rerun Nation: How Repeats Invented American Television (New York: Routledge, 2005); George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Robert Rosenstone, History on Film/Film on History (Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2006); Lynn Spigel, “From the Dark Ages to the Golden Age: Women’s Memories and Television Reruns,” Screen 36, no.1 (Spring 1995): 16–33.
10. “‘Pilot’ Commentary with Executive Producer Dick Clark and Creator and Executive Producer Jonathan Prince,” in American Dreams, dir. Jonathan Prince (Universal Studios, 2004) (DVD, 7 discs), disc 1.
11. Quoted in Mark O’Donnell et. al., Hairspray: The Roots (New York: Faber and Faber, 2003), 92.
12. Caryn James, “For Fall, TV Looks Back, and Back,” New York Times, May 18, 2002, B7–8; Jeff Giles, “American Dreams,” Newsweek, September 16, 2002.
13. Lynn Spigel, “Entertainment Wars: Television Culture after 9/11,” American Quarterly 56, no. 2 (June 2004).
14. Michiko Kakutani, “And Now, Back to Our Regularly Scheduled Programming,” New York Times, September 11, 2002, 35.
15. Marita Sturken, Tourists of History: Memory, Kitsch, and Consumerism from Oklahoma City to Ground Zero (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007), 7.
16. Malini Johar Schueller, “The Borders and Limits of American Studies: A Picture from Beirut,” American Quarterly 6,. no. 4 (December 2009): 843; Sunaina Maira, Missing: Youth, Citizenship, and Empire after 9/11 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009); Evelyn Alsultany, “Selling American Diversity and Muslim American Identity through Nonprofit Advertising Post-9/11,” American Quarterly 59, no. 3 (September 2007): 593–622; Ashley Dawson and Malini Johar Schueller, eds., Exceptional State: Contemporary U.S. Culture and the New Imperialism (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007).
17. Herman Gray, “Remembering Civil Rights: Television, Memory, and the 1960s,” in The Revolution Wasn’t Televised: Sixties Television and Social Conflict, ed. Lynn Spigel and Michael Curtin (New York: Routledge, 1997), 356.
18. Ibid., 353.
19. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, “The Long Civil Rights Movement and the Political Uses of the Past,” Journal of American History 91, no. 4 (March 2005): 1237. Among other studies on the use of color-blind rhetoric to justify racial inequality, see Hazel Rose Markus and Paula Moya, “Doing Race: An Introduction,” in Doing Race: 21 Essays for the 21st Century, ed. Hazel Rose Markus and Paul Moya (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2010); Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010).
20. Jonathan Prince, “National Association of Broadcasters Keynote Address,” April 18, 2005. See also Carla Hay, “Music and Showbiz,” Billboard, September 7, 2002; Carla Hay, “Sound Tracks,” Billboard, October 26, 2002.
21. On I’ll Fly Away and Homefront, see Mimi White, “‘Reliving the Past Over and Over Again,’: Race, Gender, and Popular Memory in Homefront and I’ll Fly Away,” in Living Color: Race and Television in the United States, ed. Sasha Torres (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 118–39. On other television civil rights dramas in this era, see Jennifer Fuller, “Recovering the Past: Race, Nation, and Civil Rights Drama in the Nineties” (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2004).
22. John Levesque, “‘American Dreams’ Strikes Timely Chord,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 26, 2002.
23. “New Frontier,” in American Dreams, disc 1.
24. Ibid.
25. On the struggle over the memory of segregation on American Bandstand, see chapter 7.
26. Jonathan Storm, “Philadelphia Dreamin’ (out in L.A.),” Philadelphia Inquirer, January 4, 2004, H1.
27. On the North Philadelphia riot, see Leonora Berson, Case Study of a Riot: The Philadelphia Story (New York: Institute of Human Relations Press, 1966); Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), 154–64.
28. The original performance of “Jenny Take a Ride” by Mitch Ryder and the Detroit Wheels took place in January 1966. Michael Shore and Dick Clark, The History of American Bandstand: It’s Got a Great Beat and You Can Dance to It (New York: Ballantine Books, 1985), 135.
29. “Past Imperfect,” in American Dreams, disc 5; “The Carpet Baggers,” in American Dreams, disc 5.
30. “City on Fire,” in American Dreams, disc 7.
31. “‘City on Fire’ Commentary with Executive Producer Dick Clark and Creator and Executive Producer Jonathan Prince,” in American Dreams, disc 7.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. Ibid.
35. Jennifer Hochschild, Facing Up to the American Dream: Race, Class, and the Soul of the Nation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 55.
36. Darren K. Carlson, “Civil Rights: A Profile in Profiling,” Gallop, July 9, 2002, http://www.gallup.com/poll/6361/civil-rights-profile-profiling.aspx (accessed October 15, 2010).
37. On how race and class shaped ways of seeing the 1992 Los Angeles riots, see Darnell Hunt, Screening the Los Angeles ‘Riots’: Race, Seeing, and Resistance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
38. Gray, “Remembering Civil Rights,” 351.
39. “‘City on Fire’ Commentary with Executive Producer Dick Clark and Creator and Executive Producer Jonathan Prince,” in American Dreams, disc 7.
40. Barry Goldwater, “Peace through Strength: Private Property, Free Competition, Hard Work,” Vital Speeches of the Day 30 (October 1, 1964): 746.
41. Gerald Horne, The Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1995); Steve Macek, Urban Nightmares: The Media, the Rights, and the Moral Panic over the City (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006), xii.
42. George Lipsitz, “Foreword,” in Listening to the Lambs, Johnny Otis (1968; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009), ix.
43. Laura Wexler, “The Last Dance,” Style: Smart Living in Baltimore, September/October 2003, 130–35; 166–69; John Waters, Crackpot: The Obsessions of John Waters (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986), 97; “The Roots of Hairspray,” in Hairspray, dir. Adam Shankman (New Line, 2007; DVD, 2 discs), disc 2; “Buddy Dean, 78, TV Host and Inspiration of ‘Hairspray,’” New York Times, July 27, 2003, N30.
44. Wexler, “The Last Dance,” 167.
45. Aljean Harmetz, “John Waters Cavorts in the Mainstream,” New York Times, February 21, 1988, 84.
46. Hairspray was reviewed more widely and, in general, more favorably than Waters’s earlier films. On these reviews, see Julie Salamon, “On Film: ‘Hairspray’ and ‘Frantic,’” Wall Street Journal, February 1988, 24; Alan Bell, “ ‘Hairspray’ Settles on 60s Integration,” Los Angeles Sentinel, March 10, 1988, B8; Janet Maslin, “Film: ‘Hairspray,’ Comedy from John Waters,” New York Times, February 26, 1998, C17; Rita Kempley, “‘Hairspray’: John Waters’ Baldly Comic Look Back,” Washington Post, February 26, 1988, Bi; David Sterritt, “Two Films Dealing Unconventionally with Concerns of Blacks,” Christian Science Monitor, February 26, 1988, 21.
47. My use of fat rather than overweight is influenced by The Fat Studies Reader. Marilyn Wann, writes: “Currently in mainstream U.S. society, the O-words, ‘overweight’ and ‘obese,’ are considered more acceptable, even more polite, than the F-word, ‘fat.’ In the field of fat studies, there is agreement that the O-words are neither neutral nor benign. … In fat studies, there is respect for the political project of reclaiming the word fat, both as the preferred neutral adjective (i.e., short/tall, young/old, fat/thin) and also the preferred term of political identity. There is nothing negative or rude in the word fat unless someone makes the effort to put it there; using the word fat as a descriptor (not a discriminator) can help dispel prejudice.” Marilyn Wann, “Foreword,” in The Fat Studies Reader, ed. Esther Rothblum and Sondra Solovay (New York: New York University Press, 2009), xii.
48. Hairspray, dir. John Waters (New Line Cinema, 1988; DVD; New Line Home Entertainment; 2002).
49. “John Waters Commentary,” in Hairspray (1988); “The Roots of Hairspray,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 2; O’Donnell et. al., Hairspray: The Roots, 11. On John Waters’s revision of the history of the Buddy Deane Show, see Renee Curry, “Hairspray: The Revolutionary Way to Restructure and Hold Your History,” Literature Film Quarterly 24 no. 2 (1996): 165–68.
50. “John Water interview with Terry Gross,” Fresh Air (NPR, 1988), July 19, 2007, transcript available on Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe.
51. O’Donnell et. al., Hairspray: The Roots, 6–13.
52. Jesse McKinley, “Baltimore Embraces Its Offbeat Child, ‘Hairspray,’” New York Times, September 18, 2003.
53. “The Roots of Hairspray,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 2.
54. On the use of music to increase the commercial potential of popular films, see Jeff Smith, The Sounds of Commerce: Marketing Popular Film Music (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998); Jonathan Romney and Adrian Wootton, ed., Celluloid Jukebox: Popular Music and the Movies since the 50s (London: British Film Institute, 1995).
55. Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
56. Ibid; O’Donnell et. al., Hairspray: The Roots, 22–26. On the comic uses of music in film, see Jeff Smith, “Popular Songs and Comic Allusion in Contemporary Cinema,” in Soundtrack Available, ed. Pamela Robertson Wojcik and Arthur Knight (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001), 407–30.
57. “Commentary with Producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron,” in Hairspray, dir. Adam Shankman (New Line, 2007; DVD, 2 discs), disc 1.
58. Ibid.
59. “Commentary with Producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
60. Ibid.
61. Ibid.
62. Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
63. On the financial exploitation of black musicians, see Redd, Rock Is Rhythm and Blues; Guralnick, Feel Like Going Home; Chapple and Garofalo, Rock ’n’ Roll Is Here to Pay, 231–69; Walsh, “Black-Oriented Radio and the Civil Rights Movement,” 67–81; Brian Ward, Just My Soul Responding: Rhythm and Blues, Black Consciousness, and Race Relations (Berkeley: University of California, 1998), 339–450.
64. “Commentary with Director Adam Shankman,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 1; “Commentary with Producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
65. Hairspray (2007).
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. “Commentary with Producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
69. “You Can’t Stop the Beat: The Long Journey of Hairspray,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 2.
70. See note 48.
71. “The Roots of Hairspray,” in Hairspray (2007), disc 2.
72. “Adam Shankman Interview with Terry Gross,” Fresh Air (NPR), July 19, 2007, transcript available on Lexis-Nexis Academic Universe.
73. Allison Graham, “Reclaiming the South: Civil Rights Films and the New Red Menace,” in Brian Ward, ed., Media, Culture, and the Modern African American Freedom Struggle (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001), 82–103; Fuller, “Recovering the Past.”
74. Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid.
77. Ibid.
78. “Commentary with Producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron,” in Hair- spray (2007), disc 1.
79. Hairspray (2007), disc 1.
80. Ibid.
81. Richard Dyer, “Entertainment and Utopia,” in Hollywood Musicals, The Film Reader, ed. Steven Cohan (New York: Routledge, 2002), 19–29.
82. On Mississippi Burning and Forrest Gump, see Robert Rosenstone, Visions of the Past: The Challenges of Film to Our Idea of History (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), 72–73; Sumiko Higashi, “Walker and Mississippi Burning: Postmdernism versus Illusionist Narrative,” in The Historical Film: History and Memory in Media, ed. Marica Landy (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2001), 218–31; Vincent Rocchio, Reel Racism Confronting Hollywood’s Construction of Afro-American Culture (Boulder: Westview Press, 2000), 95–113; Robert Burgoyne, Film Nation: Hollywood Looks at U.S. History (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 104–19.
83. “Commentary with Producers Craig Zadan and Neil Meron,” in Hairspray (2007).
84. Joseph Cermatori, Emily Coates, Kathryn Krier, Bronwen MacArthur, Angelica Randle, and Joseph Roach, “Teaching African American Dance / History to a ‘Post-Racial’ Class: Yale’s Project O,” Theatre Topics 19, no. 1 (2009): 11.
1. Nina Simone with Stephen Cleary, I Put a Spell on You: The Autobiography of Nina Simone (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993), 89.
2. Nina Simone, “Mississippi Goddam,” 1964, Nina Simone: Anthology, disc 1 (compact disc; RCA/BMG; 2003).
3. Simone, I Put a Spell on You, 90.
4. Thomas Sugrue, Not Even Past: Barack Obama and the Burden of Race (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), 4.
5. Robert Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003); David Freund, Colored Property: State Policy and White Racial Politics in Suburban America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007); Becky Nicolaides, My Blue Heaven: Life and Politics in the Working-Class Suburbs of Los Angeles, 1920–1965 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002); Eric Avila, Popular Culture in the Age of White Flight: Fear and Fantasy in Suburban Los Angeles (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
6. Thomas Sugrue, Sweet Land of Liberty: The Forgotten Struggle for Civil Rights in the North (New York: Random House, 2008); Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles outside the South, 1940–1980 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003); Jeanne Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Groundwork: Local Black Freedom Movements in America (New York: New York University Press, 2005); Martha Biondi, To Stand and Fight: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Postwar New York City (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003).
7. Lynn Spigel, Welcome to the Dreamhouse: Popular Media and Postwar Suburbs (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001); Lynn Spigel, Make Room for TV: Television and the Family Ideal in Postwar America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Anna McCarthy, Ambient Television: Visual Culture and Public Space (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001); Steven Classen, Watching Jim Crow: The Struggles over Mississippi TV, 1955–1969 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004); Mark Williams, “Entertaining ‘Difference’: Strains of Orientalism in Early Los Angeles Television,” in Living Color: Race and Television in the United States, ed. Sasha Torres (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 12–34; Victoria Johnson, Heartland TV: Prime Time Television and the Struggle for U.S. Identity (New York: NYU Press, 2008).
8. George Lipsitz, Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1990); Mimi White, “‘Reliving the Past Over and Over Again’: Race, Gender, and Popular Memory in Homefront and I’ll Fly Away,” in Living Color: Race and Television in the United States, ed. Sasha Torres (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998), 118–39; Jennifer Fuller, “Recovering the Past: Race, Nation, and Civil Rights Drama in the Nineties” (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 2004); Herman Gray, “Remembering Civil Rights: Television, Memory, and the 1960s,” in The Revolution Wasn’t Televised: Sixties Television and Social Conflict, ed. Lynn Spigel and Michael Curtin (New York: Routledge, 1997), 349–58.
9. Kelly Schrum, Some Wore Bobby Sox: The Emergence of Teenage Girl’s Culture, 1920–1945 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Susan Douglas, Where the Girls Are: Growing up Female with the Mass Media (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1994); Aniko Bodroghkozy, Groove Tube: Sixties Television and the Youth Rebellion (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001); Matt Garcia, “‘Memories of El Monte’: Intercultural Dance Halls in Post-World War II Greater Los Angeles,” in Generations of Youth: Youth Cultures and History in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Joe Austin and Michael Nevin Willard (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 157–72.
10. Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006); Matthew Countryman, “‘From Protest to Politics’: Community Control and Black Independent Politics in Philadelphia, 1965–1984,” Journal of Urban History 32 (September 2006): 813–61; James Wolfinger, Philadelphia Divided: Race and Politics in the City of Brotherly Love (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); James Wolfinger, “The Limits of Black Activism: Philadel- phia’s Public Housing in the Depression and World War II,” Journal of Urban History 35 (September 2009): 787–814; Guian McKee, The Problem of Jobs: Liberalism, Race, and Deindustrialization in Philadelphia (Chicago: University Chicago Press, 2008); Guian McKee, “ ‘I’ve Never Dealt with a Government Agency Before’: Philadelphia’s Somerset Knitting Mills Project, the Local State, and the Missed Opportunities of Urban Renewal,” Journal of Urban History 35 (March 2009): 387–409; Lisa Levenstein, A Movement without Marches: African American Women and the Politics of Poverty in Postwar Philadelphia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009).