Abdelrahman, Eman, 75–77, 78, 100, 239
Abdullah (Saudi king), 92
aboriginal communities, building collective identity, 145
AccessNow, 165
affordances, 44, 219, 240, 295
Afghanistan: anarchy in, 94; corruption in, 142–43; heroin trade in, 96
Africa: banking sector in, 102–3, 159–60; wiring of, 251–52
Aga Khan Foundation, 164
Agha-Soltan, Neda, 136–37
Aidra, 4
Al-Khateeb, Hamza Ali, 137
al Saud, Nayef, 91–92
al Saud, Salman, 92
al-Sheikh, Ali Jawad, 137
altruism, social media and, 17–18, 21–22, 195, 240
American Association of Public Opinion Researchers, 210
American Empire, 231
Amnesty International, 169, 201
anarchy, 94
Anderson, Lisa, 216
Anonymous (online activists), 43, 44–45, 117, 164
Ansar Eddine, 80
anti-cnn.com, 218
Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement, 164–65
antiestablishment movements, xx
Apache, 64
April 6 Movement, 238
Arabs, cyberwarfare by, 154–55
Arab Spring, xx, 20, 28, 38, 45, 53, 60, 221, 229; Algeria’s response to, 121; arrival in Egypt, 79; attracting new protestors, 174–75; born digital, 38, 51; coalescing of, 131; first protestors in, 172; governments’ responses to, 155–56; organization of, 52; organizers of, 52; regulation and, 58. See also Egypt; Tunisia
Aramco, 40
Arriagada, Arturo, 122
Assad, Bashar al-, 28, 82, 116
asset-transfer systems, 105
astroturf campaigns, 202
Australia, minorities in, building collective identity, 145
authoritarianism, xxii–xxiii
authoritarian regimes: altruism in, 195; big data in, 195; building political futures in, 234; civil society rising under, 98–99; democratization of, 50; device networks as challenge to, 134; digital devices and, 42–43; facing digital dilemmas, 86–88; leaders of, 93; links between, 94–96; organized crime in, 96–97; rigged events in, 127; social media strategies of, 200–201; succession plans in, 92–93; tactics of, 78, 134; technology for, 162, 166, 183; technology policy in, 113, 133, 134, 157; using bots, 205–7; youth disenfranchisement in, 175
automated calling banks, 207
autonomy, cultural, 144–45
Azerbaijan, 201; activist bloggers in, 84–85; bots in, 205
Bahrain: Arab Spring in, 156; bots in, 205–7; police violence in, 137; using Facebook, 43
Baidu, 125
Bailard, Catie, 122
bandwidth, demand for, 10–11
banking: device networks and, 102–3; mobile, 158, 159. See also M-Pesa
Barlow, John Perry, 163
behavior, prediction of, 141
Beinecke, Jessica, 194
Belgium, minorities in, building collective identity, 145
Ben Ali, Zine el-Abidine, 50, 216, 221
Bennett, Lance, 138–39
Berners-Lee, Tim, 37–38
big data, 61, 295; analyzing, 176, 179, 180–81; in authoritarian regimes, 195; bringing stability, 68; collection of, overseeing, 112; definition of, 141; growth of, 179, 256; management of, 256; providing collective security, 112, 140–45; providing connective security through, 107; solving social problems with, 176, 178; taking down dirty networks, 99; tracking international criminal activity, 177–78
bin Laden, Osama, 38, 53, 60–61, 114, 176
Bitcoins, 56
Black Code (Deibert), 179
blogging, 76–78, 84–85, 127, 130, 171
Bloomberg News, 192
Blue Coat Systems, 215
Bolivia, 215
Bosykh, Alexander, 198–99
bots: attacking security companies, 32; dominating digital networks, 34; evolution of, 203–4; in financial markets, 34; identifying, 210–11; political, 204–11, 233, 234; as political tools, 29–33; pro-regime, 29–30; threats posed by, 208, 209–11; Twitter-based, 30–31; types of, 203; usage of, by country, 206–7; use of, 203–8; wartime use of, 34
bot wars, 53
Bouazizi, Mohamed, 50–51, 137, 221
Bouteflika, Abdelaziz, 92
Brazil: elections in, 128–29; internet rights in, 165
Breivik, Anders Behring, 216
Bretton Woods system, 231
Bring Back Our Girls, 81
British Empire, 1, 4–5, 15, 67, 107–8, 146–47, 231
broadcast licenses, 249–50
Brown Moses. See Higgins, Eliot
Burma, protests in, 86. See also Myanmar
Bush, George W., 128
camps, international, 179
Canada: elections in, 205; minorities in, building collective identity, 145; surveillance in, 133
CANVAS, 164
Castels, Manuel, 126
Castro, Raúl, 92
Catalans, self-governance and, 145
CCTV, 201
censorship, 157; programs and systems for, 87, 133–34, 253
Center for Democracy and Technology, 163
Chad, 94
Chávez, Hugo, 92
Chiapas, uprising in. See Zapatistas (Zapatista Liberation Army)
Chiapas 95 listservs, 49
Chile, Facebook use in, 122
China: attacking outside networks, 190; attempting open government, 195; bloggers in, 122, 185, 196; bots in, 31, 207; business-government reporting structures in, 64; cadre sourcing in, 195; carbon emissions data from, 143–44; censors in, 180, 185–86, 187–90, 192; citizens in, using social media to push free speech limits, 192–93; civil disobedience in, 124–25; Communist Party of, 127, 129–30, 186; content strategy of, 191, 192; corruption in, 192, 193; cyberarmy of, 38–41; cyberespionage by businesses in, 117; cybernationalism in, 218; cyberwarfare by, 154, 155; device networks in, 186; digital media in, 9; dissent in, 191–92; 18th Communist Party Congress of, 184–85; expanding its online network, 190–91; fighting piracy, 98; generating pro-government messages on social media, 31; hardware manufacture in, 194–95; information infrastructure of, 13; internet in, 87, 162, 183, 186–92, 222–23; military of, 185; mobile phone business in, 187; news strategy of, 191, 192; nuclear arsenal of, 193–94; political activism in, types of, 127; propaganda strategy of, 191; public diplomacy of, 194; SARS in, 180; selling infrastructure to Africa, 251; servers in, 188–89; Sichuan earthquake in, 192–93; social media in, 187–88, 192–93, 220; surveillance in, 43, 186, 189–90, 191, 220; telecommunications firms in, 113–14; Tiananmen Square protests, 124–25; training other nations in network building, 215; Western cultural outreach to, 194; Western tech firms cooperating with, 248
Cisco, 248
Cité Soleil, 83
citizenship, modern definition for, 242
civic networks, creativity of, 225
civic society, taking down dirty networks, 99–100
civilizations, clash of, 162
civil society: campaigning against technology firms’ dominance, 64; cyberattacks on, 33, 201–2; data access for, 149; information activism and, 164–66; internet work of, 253–54; online presence of, 49–50; rise of, under authoritarian governments, 98–99; in Russia, 198
clans, formation of, 173–74
clicktivism, 221
cognitive liberation, 78
Cohen, Jared, 62
Cold War, 179
collective action, 84–86, 107, 111–12, 136–39
Colombia, surveillance and, 117, 215
color revolutions, 60, 238. See also Green Movement/Revolution (Iran)
computational propaganda, 205
Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo): anarchy in, 94; elections in, 117; governance in, 104–5
connective action, 149, 168–73, 175–76, 230; China’s censors blocking, 188; downsides of, 218–19; qualities of, 173–74
connective insecurity, 182
connective security, 176, 218, 230
consumer electronics: market for, 57–58; uploading usage data, 212–14
copyright infringement, 214
core, 147
corruption, 82–83, 96–97, 142–43, 216
criminal organizations, 96; dictators’ support of, 93–94; IT support for, 236; operating in place of governments, 80
crisis, information control following, 120–21
crisis mapping, 70–71, 101, 239
crowd sourcing, 21, 70, 101, 195, 295
crypto-clans, 149, 173–74, 239, 295
Cuba, 92; digital dilemma in, 87; dissidence in, 62; pro-regime social media in, 201; protests in, 86; USAID involvement in, 31
cultural production, 15
cyberattacks, 38–39, 41, 190, 201–2, 295
cybercrime, 97
cyberdeterrence, 110, 148, 153–57, 233–34
cyberespionage, 40, 41, 117, 190
cybernationalism, 218
cybersecurity, partners in, 41
cyberterrorism, 43
cyberwarfare, 34, 153–54, 203, 295
dark data, 140
data: access to, xiii–xiv; aftermarket for, 245–47; beneficiaries of, 247–48; categorizing of, 141; compromised, 247; exchange value of, 55; global trade in, 181; hoarding of, 246; levels of, 141; mining of, 144, 179, 181, 245–47; monitoring systems for, 212; sharing of, 233
data shadow, 242
Datys, 215
dead pool, for dictators, 91–92
default passwords, 3
Deibert, Ron, 179
democracies: elections in, technology and, 127–28; law enforcement in, technology leaking to, 222; leaders in, susceptible to viral public outrage, 128; political independence from, 145; technology policy in, 133, 134; threats in, to internet of things, 184
democracy: xxii–xxiii, 296; adapting expectations for, 243; advocates of, keeping political memes alive, 124; bots as threat to, 208, 209–11; early stages of, 108; exporting of, 148; internet linked to, 167–68; political victories in, 128–29; predictors of, 167; technology diffusion and, 8
democratization, 50
denial-of-service attacks, 2, 4, 201, 203, 204, 208, 237
development projects, 101–2
device networks, 52; adoption patterns for, 168; battles over, 47; competition between, 162; data trails from, 114; eliminating market discrimination, 123; expansion of, botnets and, 234; filter bubbles and, 202; foreign affairs and, 249–50; governance delivery and, 100–102; governments’ attempts to control, 56–59; human security and, 175–76; impact of, on global crises, 20; linking civic groups to groups in need, 68; malware on, 113–14; market efficiency and, 158; political information and, 175; relevance of, 8; risks of, weighed against benefits, 219; spread of, 45–46, 53; standards setting for, 229; weaponizing of, 112–13
devices: betraying owners’ behavior, 227; consuming most internet bandwidth, 233; networked, attacks on, 115–16; relationships between, and the political order, 34; sharing information, 236
dictators: aging of, 73, 86, 91–93, 99; changes for, 67–68, 72–73, 91; control by, 78; facing digital dilemma, 73, 86–88; hardware and software for, 162
digital activism, 86, 169, 221, 296
digital cosmopolitanism, 138
digital dilemma, 73, 84–88, 151–52, 252, 296
digital images, undermining political ideology, 125
digital mapping, 139
digital media: aligned with social networks, 138; government use of, 1–2; impacts of, on international affairs, 230; learning cycles with, 155–57; as research tool, 240; as sources and conduits of power, 231
digital natives, 46–47
digital networks: bots’ domination of, 34; connections exposed by, 71–72; decentralized, 117–18; domestic political battles on, 116; moderating political opinion, 130
digital rights management, 213–14, 226–27
digital technology: flow of, 10–11; usage patterns for, 9
dirty networks, 67, 72, 177–78, 296; adapting device networks, 216; collapse of, 98–99; connections among, 97; demise of, 92; exposure of, 98; nodes in, 93–94. See also organized crime
dissent, device networks weaponized against, 114–15
dissidence, new definition for, 61–62
DoctorBeet, 212–13
DRM. See digital rights management
drones, xii, 34, 43, 86, 118, 222
drug gangs, 216
drug wars, 17–22
Dubbin, Rob, 204
Dudayev, Dzhokhar, 114
Duvalier, François (Papa Doc), 82
Duvalier, Jean-Claude (Baby Doc), 82
East India Company, 6
eggs, bots and, 29
Eghna Development and Support, 30
e-government services, 123
Egypt, 20, 45, 238; Arab Spring in, 131–32; digital dilemma in, 86–87; dissidence in, 62; Kolena Laila blog in, 76–78, 79; modernization pressures in, 73–75; protests in, before Arab Spring, 135; responding to Arab Spring, 121–22; state telecom in, 74, 115
Egypt Telecom, 74
elections: bot usage and, 205–7; fraud in, 134, 170; monitoring of, 100–101, 199–200
Electronic Frontier Foundation, 163
electronic surveillance, 25
el-Zayat, Latifa, 76
empire, internet as, 149–53
empires: infrastructure of, 1, 5, 6–7, 16–17; networked devices as example of, 17; nodes for, 15; technology and, 1
English Defense League, 216–17
Ericsson, 115
espionage, corporate vs. state, 41. See also cyberespionage
Estrada, Joseph, 127
Ethiopia, 215
Euromaidan protests (Ukraine), 114–15
Europe, political parties in, defending internet freedom, 166
European Union, 98
export controls, 252
extremism, resilience of, 131
extremist groups, 216–17, 219, 220
Facebook: xiii–xiv, 8, 9, 122; facilitating clan formation, 173, 174; governments requesting data from, 26; used as recruiting tool, 216–17
failed states, 72, 80–84, 94, 159; data from, 110–11; technology use in, 134
fair-trade coffee movement, 49–50
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 39
Femen network (Ukraine), 86
feudalism, 63–64
filter bubble, 202
financial markets, bots in, 34
Finfisher, 201
Firefox, 64
firms, rise of, 6
FISA. See Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act
Flame (virus), 40
Flemish, self-governance and, 145
Flickr, 9
foreign affairs, device networks and, 249
Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act, 24
foreign policy, technology policy and, 8
fourth wave, 51
Freegate, 30
Free Syria Army, 62
Frischmann, Brett, 243
Fukuda, Hareaki, 253
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant, 177
Fukuyama, Francis, 12, 52, 129
Gauss (virus), 40
gender politics, 76–77
geographic information systems, 48
geolocation, xiii–xiv
Georgia, 238
Gibbon, Edward, 232
GIS. See geographic information systems
Global Network Initiative, 248, 249
global networks, shift in, 10–11
Global Voices network, 163
GNI. See Global Network Initiative
gold, wealth measured by, 53–55
Golden Shield Project, 188–89
gold standard, 54
Google, xiii–xiv, 8, 248, 249; commitment to, 63–64; governments requesting data from, 26; sovereignty of, 64; transparency reports and, 134
Google Earth, 252
Google+, 9
Gorbachev, Mikhail, 37
governance: improvements in, 107; internet of things and, 110–11, 119–23, 157–61; open-data movements and, 144; technology enabled, 103–6; technology’s effect on, 100, 101–2
governance goods, 83, 158, 159, 232
governments: attempting to control device networks, 56–59; crisis control by, 121; digital strategy of, 107; e-government services of, 123; as employers, 142–43; fragile, 233; illegitimate, 71–73; losing influence, 129; losing internet control, 53–54; monitoring of, 143; overreach of, 235; as technical systems, xxi–xxiii; technological attacks on, 33–34; types of, 79–80 (see also authoritarian regimes; democracies); using corporate information structure, 63; wealth of, measuring, 53–55; working with technology firms, 64–65, 248
Great Britain: bots as political tool in, 31; minorities in, building collective identity, 145
Great Firewall of China. See Golden Shield Project
Green Movement/Revolution (Iran), 105, 115, 161, 221–22
growth, internet-led, ideology of, 126
Guatemala, autonomous zones in, 81
Guinea-Bissau, 97
Gül, Abdullah, 116
hackers, 117; government-sponsored, 40–42
Haiti: Cité Soleil in, 83; failed government in, 82
halcons, 20–21
Haradheere, 98
hashtags: bots battling against, 29; community development of, 20, 22
Hassid, Jonathan, 122
Havel, Václav, 52
Heartbleed bug, 237
Hezbollah, 135
Higgins, Eliot, 168–69, 173, 239
Hispaniola, earthquake in, aftermath of, 68–71
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, The (Gibbon), 232
Hudson’s Bay Company, 6
Huffington Post, 116–17
human rights, 233
Human Rights Watch, 118
human security, device networks and, 175–76
Huntington, Samuel, 162
Huntley, Jason, 212–13
Hurricane Katrina, 176
Hussain, Muzammil, 165
ICANN. See International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
identity theft, 236
ideology, 125, 296; competing, 162; losing influence, 129; online battles over, 129; radical, undermining of, 111, 123–24, 126, 130–33; technology’s dominance over, 162
IGF. See Internet Governance Forum
ignorance, pluralistic, 78
Ikenberry, John, 12
India: fighting piracy, 98; legal database in, 170; markets in, 123; prostitution in, 103
Indonesia, 81; army control in, 94; corruption in, 96; Islamists moderating message in, 132; online journalism in, 60
industrial espionage, 40
information activism, 162–66
informationalism, 126
information economy, value of, measuring, 55
information infrastructure: battles over, xx–xxi; competition of, 220–23; control of, 56–57, 230; disconnecting of, 134; privatization of, 57; targeting of, 239
information technology: determining political battles, 126–27; export controls on, 252; new world order and, 11–12; sanctions on, 252–53; servicing power, 126; standards setting for, 135, 231–32; substituting for bad governance, 72–73. See also internet of things
infrastructure, 107–8; competition over, 228–29; control of, 119–20; flaws in, 237; political power and, 101–2; stability and, 146–47; technological, 119–20
Infrastructure (Frischmann), 243
Innis, Harold, 16
Innu, building collective identity, 145
intellectual property, 154, 166, 214
International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers, 13, 33
International Telecommunications Union, 32–33, 164
internet: access to, 46; China building its own, 87, 162, 183, 186–92, 222–23; cognitive liberation and, 78; collective action and, 84–85; democracy linked to, 167–68; desire for, 45; effects of, on society, 219; as empire, 149–53; feudalism of, 63–64; founding of, 112; freedoms for, 234; freedoms of, as a human right, 162–63; governance and, 103–6; government control of, 53, 58–59; national identity and, 144–45; physical structure of, 26–27; planning for, xiii; political roles for, 73, 107–8; regulation of, 163; size of, 2–3, 8–9, 46; as surveillance state, 22–27; transformation of, xix; unhappiness with, xii–xiii; Westphalian, 63. See also internet of things; political internet
internet exchange point, 2, 296
Internet Governance Forum, 33
internet interregnum, xxiv, 42, 66, 110, 220, 229
internet of things, xi, xix, 297; affecting current events, 142; bot usage easier in, 205; civic strategy for, xvii, 234–35, 243; civil society groups and, 202; collective action and, 111–12, 136–39; conflict in, dynamics of, 155; connective action and, 168–73; consequences of, 148–49, 219; control of, 224, 226–27; defined by communication between devices, xiv; design of, 228–29; diffusion of, 34–35; encoding with democratic virtues, 232–33; evolution of, 45–46, 65–66; expression and experimentation in, 243; governance and, 110, 119–23, 148, 157–61; growing the size of big data, 140; human security and, 65; ideological package of, 125–26; market for, 57; numbers of devices in, xi–xii; openness of, 111, 226–27; open sharing of data from, 244–46; opting out of, 246–48; political culture in, 230, 232, 233; political impact of, xiv, xxi, 65, 66, 68, 99, 174–75; as political tool, 224; preparing for, xxiii–xxiv; stability and, 68, 88, 112, 158, 253; structural threats to, 183; surveillance and censorship tasks, 223; taking on dirty networks, 99; tithing for the public good, 243–46; weakening radical ideology, 111, 123–24, 126, 133; weaponizing of, 110, 112–19
internet revolution, 60
Internet Society, 13
interoperable networks, 162
I Paid a Bribe project, 170–71
IRA (Northern Ireland), 83
Iran, 115; bots in, 205–7; developing network infrastructure, 183; doctoring images, 123–24; fighting piracy, 98; Green Movement in, 105, 115, 161, 221–22; hacking by, 40; nuclear program of, cyberattack on, 115–16; protests in, 136–37; social media of, 31, 43, 201, 220
Iraq War, 20
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), 81, 82, 118, 217
Islamists, moderating positions of, 131–32
Israel: cyberwarfare by, 40, 41, 154–55; Pillar of Defense assault, 59
Israeli Defense Forces, 59
Israel Security Agency, 114
ITU. See International Telecommunications Union
Japan, fighting piracy, 98
Joint Threat Intelligence Group, 31
Jordan, Arab Spring in, 156
Jubilee 2000, 49–50
Karber, Phillip, 193
Kenya: Map Kibera project in, 88–91; money transfer in, 159–60; slums in, 83
Kiberia mapping project, 120
Kiirti platform, 171
Kissinger, Henry, 12
Kony, Joseph, 81
Kony 2012, 81
Kosovo Liberation Army, 83
Kovačič, Primož, 88, 89–91, 100
Kraken Botner, 32
Kyrgyzstan, 20
Latin America, drug wars in, 216
Lavabit, 26
Lawful Interception Gateway device, 115
Lee Hoi-chang, 128
LG televisions, 212–13
liberation technologies, 256–57
Li Chengpeng, 192–93
life expectancy, in failing and failed states, 95
Lim, Merlyna, 121
Liu Ya-Zhou, 129
Liza Alert, 170
Logic of Collective Action (Olson), 137
Lonely Planet Guide, 75
Lord’s Resistance Army, 178
Los Zetas, 216
Louis Philippe, 108
machine learning, 141
MacKinnon, Rebecca, 234
Maduro, Nicolas, 93
mafia states, 96–97
Maher, Ahmed, 136, 139, 168, 173
Malaysia: digital dilemma in, 87; elections in, 128–29; Islamists moderating message in, 132
Malaysian Airlines Flight 370, 211–12
Maldives, revolution in, 238
Mali, rebel groups in, 80–81
Maluf, Paulo, 253
Mandela, Nelson, 52
Manning, Chelsea, xxii, 235, 238
Map Kibera, 88–91
mapping, 70–71, 88–91, 101; of dirty networks, 98; refuting government claims, 176–77; social-media, 157–58
maps: disconnection with, 67; of nations, 67; political power and, 67, 101–2, 120, 160
Marco Civil, 165
marquee slums, 89
Marx, Karl, 241
McLuhan, Marshall, 16
media monopolies, 228
media use, political change and, 167
media-watchdog organizations, 56–57
Mexico: bots as political tool in, 31; drug wars in, 17–22, 94, 161
Miami Herald, 181
Microsoft, xiv, 8, 248, 249; commitment to, 63–64; partnering with Egypt, 74–75; sovereignty of, 64
military: defining periods of political history, 153; losing control over technology, 118–19; media strategies of, 117
Milošević, Slobodan, 238
Mirim College, 40
mobile phones: company ownership, xxiv; production of, 58; providing new political structure, 73; surveillance of, 133
Mobilization Lab, 119
modernity, 125–26
money-transfer systems, 159
Montenegro, 97
Monterrey (MX), 161; public alert system in, 120; social media in, 17–22
MOOC (massive open online course), 252
Morocco, Arab Spring in, 156
Morozov, Evgeny, 44
MS-13, 216
Mubarak, Hosni, 45, 74, 121, 221, 252
Mugabe, Robert, 92
Muhammad, Feiz, 217
Mukuru kwa Reuben, 83
Muslim Brotherhood, 131–32
Myanmar, 45; digital dilemma in, 87; organized crime in, 97. See also Burma, protests in,
Nairobi, digital mapping of slums in, 89–91, 160
nanosats, xii
Napoleon, 117
National Democratic Institution, 100–101
national security, 23–26, 113; crises in, bot usage and, 205
National Security Agency (U.S.), 13, 23, 24–25, 237; spying on Chinese communications, 193; surveillance by, 113, 220
National Security Council, xiv
national security organizations, 233–34, 247
nations, sovereignty of, 144
NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), 98
Nawaat, 164
Nest, xiv
net neutrality, xxiv, 184, 228, 297
Netsweeper, 252
networks: closed, 183, 223; competing, 184; limited-access, 184; open, 162, 226, 238; politics of, 172
networks of networks, 172
Neuwirth, Bob, 89
news, consumption of, 45
new world order: changes in, 11–12; defining, 12–13; dissidence defined in, 61–62
NGOs. See nongovernmental organizations
Nigeria, 83; corruption investigations in, 122; elections in, 170; military raids in, 118
Nishiguchi, Shigeo, 253
Nokia Siemens Networks, 115
noncash transactions, 140–41
nongovernmental organizations, 89, 91, 143, 201
nonviolence, 229
Nonviolent Struggle: 50 Crucial Points (Popovicć), 238
North Korea: digital dilemma in, 87; hacking by, 40
Norway, minorities in, building collective identity, 145
NSA. See National Security Agency (U.S.)
Obama, Barack, presidential campaign of, 33
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development), 121
OMG! Meiyu, 194
open data, 244–45
open-data movements, 144
Open Door, The (el-Zayat), 76
open education platforms, 252
OpenNet Initiative, xxii
open networks, 162; evolution of, 226; strengthening of, 238
open society, 243–49
Open Society Foundation, 163
open software movement, 64
Orange Revolution, 238
organized crime, 96–97, 177. See also dirty networks
Pakistan: autonomous zones in, 81; national firewall in, 165
paper currency, 54
Pariser, Eli, 202
passwords, 3
path-dependent development, 7
Pax Americana, 7–8, 15. See also American Empire
Pax Britannica, 4–7. See also British Empire
Pax Romana, 7, 14–15. See also Roman Empire
pax technica, xix–xx, xxiv–xxv, 297; Chinese internet rivaling, 191; combating the empire of, 184; consequences of, 146; cyberespionage and, 40; defining, 145–47; democracies in, xxii; as empire, 228; evolution of, 34; promise of, 255–57; stability and, xix–xxii, 147, 214, 223, 230; states in, sharing security knowledge, 41–42; threat to, 162; thriving in, 254–55
People’s Daily (China), 186
People’s Liberation Army Unit 61398, 38–39
periphery, 147
personal identity, 248
Peru, autonomous zones in, 81
Pew Internet and American Life Project, 45
Pfaff, Steve, 110
Philippines: autonomous region in, 81; cybercrime laws in, 165; digital dilemma in, 87; protests in, 127; vigilante groups in, 103–4, 160; working with Anonymous, 43
phone companies, privatization of, 56–57, 74
Piggipedia, 164
piracy, combating, 98
police, technologies leaking to, 222
political bots, 31, 204–11, 233, 234
political communication, 13
political data, xxi
political groups, digital infrastructure and, 135
political information, consumption of, 45
political order, 53, 108–10: and relationships between devices, 34; rethinking, 224–25
politics: criminal organizations disrupting, 80; digital engagement with, 9–10; face-to-face contact and, 44; global, 44, 62, 149
Polity IV Project, 92
poor people, global distribution of, 97
Popović, Srđa, 238
Popular Party (Spain), 128
Premise, 142
PRI party (Mexico), 51
privacy groups, 163
privacy violations, 179–80
process tracing, 110
propaganda: bots used for, 205; computational, 29–30; digital media weakening, 124; geotagged, 114–15
prostitution, digital media and, 103
public alert systems, 18–19
public good, 250–51
public opinion, manipulation of, 43
public spectrum, public auctions for, 250
Putin, Vladimir, 171, 197, 201
Qtiesh, Anas, 204
Radonski, Henrique, 93
Rassd News Network, 20
reality-based research, 179
Recollections (Tocqueville), 108
Reporters Without Borders, 163
revolutions: histories of, 61; nature of, 108–9
Rheingold, Howard, 85
robocalls, 207
Roh Moo-hyun, 127–28
Rolls-Royce, 212
Roman Empire, 1, 67, 107–8, 146, 231. See also Pax Romana
Romania, hacking by, 41
Romney, Mitt, 205
Rose Revolution, 238
Russia: bots in, 205; broadcast media in, 198–99; civil society in, 171, 198; counterpropaganda in, 200; developing network infrastructure, 183; election fraud in, 134; election monitoring in, 199–200; fighting piracy, 98; generating pro-government messages on social media, 31, 196, 200; hacking by, 41; internet in, 171, 198, 201; online civic projects in, 199; Snowden in, 44; social media in, 198–99, 200, 220; summer camps, social media training at, 196–97, 200; surveillance infrastructure of, 43
Russian Business Network, 236
Russian mafia, 97, 117, 181, 218
Russia Today, 201
Sami, building collective identity, 145
Samsung, 213
Sánchez, Yoani, 62
SARS, 180
Saudi Arabia: Arab Spring in, 156; fighting piracy, 98; leaders’ deaths in, 91–92; surveillance infrastructure of, 43
Scheier, Bruce, 24
Scherman, Andrés, 122
Schmidt, Eric, 62
Schneier, Bruce, 113
Scots, self-governance and, 145
Scott, James, 120
scripts, automated, 30
SEA. See Syrian Electronic Army
security: big data providing, 112, 140–45; expanding definition of, 66
security agencies, responsible behavior of, 108
security industry, 23–26
Segerberg, Alexandra, 138–39
Serbia, protests in, 60
shadow networks, 244
Shahani, Arjan, 17–18
shell companies, 247
Shining Path, 81
Sholokov University, 197–98
Silent Circle, 26
Silicon Valley, 13, 16, 87; building products for dictators, 162; collaboration with the U.S. State Department, 165
Silicon Valley Human Rights Conference, 165
Silva, Rangel, 253
Singapore, elections in, 133
Slaughter, Anne-Marie, 12
smartphones, apps for, 140
Smith, Adam, 241
smuggling, 96
Snowden, Edward, xxii, 23–27, 43–44, 187, 235, 237
social life, patterns in, 241–42
social media: allowing maintenance of nonviolent strategies, 229; altruism and, 17–18, 21–22, 240; authoritarian regimes’ strategies for, 200–201; bringing stability, 68; competing, 220; constructing new institutions via, 68; as coping mechanism, 21–22; evolution of, 229–30; fact checking via, 135–36; mapping projects and, 91; marginalizing bad ideas, 130; monitoring governments via, 198–99; as news source, 207; political actors’ use of, 33; political change and, 38; reframing events through, 177; reprisals against, 20; in Russia, 197–200; taking down dirty networks, 99; U.S. politics and, 208–9
social-media mapping, 157–58
social movement: structure of, 171–72; success of, 42
social networks, digital media aligned with, 138
Social Physics (Pentland), 179
social problems, mapping of, 71
social scientists, new training for, 240–42
sociotechnical system, xxi, 179, 198, 222, 225, 240, 243, 297
Somalia, 80, 81; anarchy in, 94; piracy from, 98
South America, drug violence in, 177
South Korea, election in, 127–28
Soviet Union: collapse of, 79, 96; reforms in, 36
Spain: Madrid bombings in, 128; minorities in, building collective identity, 145
Spamhaus, 32
stability: cyberdeterrence and, 110, 153–57; economic, 54–55; empires and, 1, 5, 7, 14, 15, 146–47; internet of things and, 68, 88, 112, 158, 253; pax technica and, xix–xxii, 147, 214, 223, 230; resulting from new information infrastructure, 146–47; threats to, 93, 94, 214–16, 220, 223
steganography, 217
Stop Online Piracy Act and Protect IP Act, 64, 164
subnationalism, 173–74
sub-Saharan Africa, banking in, 102–3, 159–60
Sudan, anarchy in, 94
Suharto, 60
supply chains, locking in, 226
surveillance, 157, 220, 236, 245; fighting against, 27–33; programs for, 133–34; promulgation of, 22–27
Syria, 28; autonomous zones in, 80; bots in, 205–7; civil war in, 45, 137, 168–69; cyberespionage by, 117; rebel victories in, 82; using Facebook, 43
Syrian Electronic Army, 116, 204–5
Tactical Technology Collective, 117, 119, 163, 239
Tajikistan, autonomous zones in, 80
Tamil Tigers, 83
Tanzania, elections in, 122
tealeafnation.com, 191–92
Tea Party, xx
technology: companies, 64–65, 233, 248; diffusion of, 34; design of, locations for, 12–13; dominance of, over ideology, 162; exchange value of, 55; government bans on, 118; ideology of, 125; leaking across markets and jurisdictions, 214–15; policies, reflecting political values, 133; power of, 8–9; sharing of, 215; standards for, 58–59, 148, 149; use of, as political act, 230–31
technology tithe, 244
Tencent QQ, 127
Thailand, computational propaganda in, 205
Tiananmen Square, protests in, 124–25
Tobin, James, 208
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 108–9
Tor network, 105, 163, 165, 252, 297
transparency, 133–34
Treaties of Westphalia, 63
trust networks, building of, 168
Tsarnaev, Dzhokhar, 217
Tsarnaev, Tamerlan, 217
Tufekci, Zeynep, 121
Tunisia: Arab Spring in, 50–51, 131, 137; corruption in, 216; dissidence in, 62
Turkey: autonomous zones in, 80; computational propaganda in, 205; coup-by-website attempt in, 116; Islamists moderating message in, 132; Twitter in, 45, 116; YouTube in, 116
Twitter, 9, 252; altruism and, 17–18; announcing ground battle, 59–60; attack on, 116; bots for, 29, 30–31, 203; clans and, 174; crisis data published on, 118; eggs, 203; governments requesting data from, 26; impact of, in global crises, 20–21; political bots and, 205–7; traffic statistics for, 30–31; in Turkey, 116
Uchaguzi, 170
UglyGorilla, 38–42
Ukraine, 238; computational propaganda in, 205; geotagged propagandizing in, 114–15; hacking by, 41; organized crime in, 97; protests in, 86
United Nations, 101; High Commissioner for Refugees, 8; investigating extrajudicial groups, 104; Organization for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 104
United States: buying data from internet service providers, 24; Defense Department, recognizing cyberterrorism threat, 43; hacking by, 40–41; losing control of digital project, 8; media targets in, 116; online content in, scanned and copied, 189; political campaigning in, 207–11; spying by, 118; State Department, 8; surveillance in, 133, 237; technology design in, 12–13, 14, 16; voter turnout in, 207; weak government performance in, 105. See also Pax Americana
universal service funds, 250–51
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), 31, 104
Valenzuela, Sebastián, 122
Venezuela, 92–93; bots in, 205; data on citizens of, 215; generating pro-government messages on social media, 31; housing data in Cuba, 181; organized crime in, 97; pro-government social media in, 31, 200
virtual currencies, 55–56
VOA. See Voice of America
Vodafone, 121
Voice of America, 194
Voina, 86
Voix de Kivus, 104
voter registration data, 245–46
Wałęsa, Lech, 52
Wang Dong. See UglyGorilla
wars: announced on Twitter, 59–60; informational attacks during, 34
weaponry, defining periods of political history, 153
We Are All Khaled Said, 79
We Are All Laila, 239
“We Are All” meme, 78–79
Wen Jiabao, 192
West, media targets in, 116–17
whistle blowers, 235–36, 237, 238. See also Assange, Julian; Manning, Chelsea; Snowden, Edward; WikiLeaks
wicked problems, 112
WikiLeaks, 13, 43–44, 201, 216
Wilson, Chris, 121
Witness Project, 20
World Social Forum, 49–50
Xi Jinping, 192
Xinhua news agency, 191
Yahoo!, 248
Yang, Guobin, 186
Yeltsin, Boris, 37
youth, attraction of, to digital media, 239–40
YouTube, 8–9, 45; in Turkey, 116; white supremacist videos on, 217
Zapatistas (Zapatista Liberation Army), 38, 47–53, 135, 229
zero-day exploits, 236
Zhang, Haiyan, 177a
Zimbabwe, 92; anarchy in, 94; infrastructure deals with China, 114; receiving Chinese training on networks, 215
ZTE, 113–14
Zuckerman, Ethan, 138