Jewish New York

NOTES

ABBREVIATIONS

AJH	American Jewish History
AJHQ	American Jewish Historical Quarterly
AJAJ	American Jewish Archives Journal
PAJHS	Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society

INTRODUCTION

1. Milton Lehman, “Veterans Pour into New York to Find That Its Hospitality Far Exceeds Their Dreams,” New York Times, 8 July 1945, 51.

2. Rosenwaike, Population History of New York City, 98, 101.

3. Stern, Mellins, and Fishman, New York 1960, 10, 13–19, 27–28.

4. Kenneth T. Jackson, “Robert Moses and the Rise of New York: The Power Broker in Perspective,” in Ballon and Jackson, Robert Moses and the Modern City, 67.

5. Milton Klonsky, “The Trojans of Brighton Beach,” Commentary, May 1947, 466.

6. Richard I. Cohen, “Urban Visibility and Biblical Visions: Jewish Culture in Western and Central Europe in the Modern Age,” in Cultures of the Jews: A New History, ed. David Biale (New York: Schocken Books, 2002), 741.

7. Moore, At Home in America, 3.

8. Bialystok, with a majority Jewish population in the late nineteenth century, produced similar identification by Jews with the city. See Rebecca Kobrin, Jewish Bialystok and Its Diaspora (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010).

9. Rischin, Promised City, 294.

10. “Levi Strauss,” Wikipedia, accessed 13 July 2011, http://en.wikipedia.org.

11. In this and the following pages, the text draws on the three volumes of City of Promises: A History of the Jews of New York (New York: NYU Press, 2012).

12. See, for example, Martin Shefter, ed., Capital of the American Century: The National and International Influence of New York City (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1993).

CHAPTER 1. FOUNDATIONS

1. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 1.

2. On the expulsion of Jews from Spain, see Salo W. Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, 2nd ed., 18 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1952–1985), 10:167–219.

3. Miriam Bodian, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 6–17; Daniel M. Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam (London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2000), 57–64; Jonathan Israel, European Jewry in the Age of Mercantilism, 1550–1750 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1989), chap. 1; Baron, Social and Religious History, vol. 10, chaps. 44–45; Faber, Time for Planting, 7.

4. Jonathan Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), chaps. 11–15; Israel, European Jewry, 2–3, chap. 2; Swetschinski, Reluctant Cosmopolitans, 102–130; Simon Schama, An Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (New York: Knopf, 1987); Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 14–17. Leo Hershkowitz, in “By Chance or Choice,” notes that Jews constituted 4 percent of major investors in 1656 (5, 8).

5. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 29–40; Russell Shorto, The Island at the Center of the World (New York: Vintage, 2004), chap. 6.

6. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, chap. 4; Henry Kessler and Eugene Rachlis, Peter Stuyvesant and His New York (New York: Random House, 1959), chap. 3.

7. David Franco Mendes, as quoted in Samuel Oppenheim, “The Early History of the Jews in New York, 1654–1664: Some New Matter on the Subject,” PAJHS 18 (1909): 80; Oppenheim’s version of the story is on 37–51.

8. On messianism, see Leibman, Messianism, Secrecy, and Mysticism; Samuel Oppenheim, “More about Jacob Barsimon, the First Jewish Settler in New York,” PAJHS 29 (1925): 39–49.

9. Bernard Fernow, Records of New Amsterdam, as quoted in Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 9, 67; Hershkowitz, “New Amsterdam’s Twenty-Three Jews,” 172; Hershkowitz, “By Chance or Choice,” 1–2.

10. Fernow, Records of New Amsterdam, as quoted in Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 68–69, 71–72; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 1:217; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 9–12. It is unclear how much property emigrants were permitted to take from Brazil and to what extent the twenty-three were victims of sharp practices by the captain. It is likely that they did not have the means to pay off their debt. The newly arrived Jewish merchants did not feel responsible to assume the debts of fellow Jews. Hershkowitz, “By Chance or Choice,” 2.

11. Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 1:217; Peter Stuyvesant to Amsterdam Chamber of the West India Company, 22 September 1654, and approval of the burgomasters on 1 March 1655, in Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 4–5; Hershkowitz, “By Chance or Choice,” 2–3; Jaher, Scapegoat in the Wilderness, 89–91.

12. Hershkowitz, “New Amsterdam’s Twenty-Three Jews,” 172.

13. “Request of the Parnassim of Amsterdam to the Mayors of Amsterdam in Behalf of the Jews of New Netherland,” in I. S. Emmanuel, “New Light on Early American Jewry,” AJAJ 7 (January 1955): 17, 53–54.

14. “Reply of the Amsterdam Chamber of the West India Company to Peter Stuyvesant, 26 April 1655,” in Schappes, Documentary History, 4–5; Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 8; Hershkowitz, “New Amsterdam’s Twenty-Three Jews,” 172–179; James Homer Williams, “An Atlantic Perspective on the Jewish Struggle for Rights and Opportunities in Brazil, New Netherland and New York,” in The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800, ed. Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (New York: Berghahn Books, 2001), 378.

15. Hershkowitz, “New Amsterdam’s Twenty-Three Jews,” 176; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 1:236, 239–240; Oppenheim, “More about Jacob Barsimon,” 47. On the changing status of Jews in Livorno, see Francesca Bregoli, Mediterranean Enlightenment: Livornese Jews, Tuscan Culture and Eighteenth-Century Reform (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014).

16. Letter of Peter Stuyvesant to Board of Directors of the West India Company, 26 May 1655, 6 June 1656, in Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 20, 21, 72–73.

17. William Pencak, Jews and Gentiles in Early America, 1654–1800 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 29–32; Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 7, 19, 24, 32, 61; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 1:233, 3:1226, 1418n3, 1419; Jonathan D. Sarna, “Colonial Judaism,” in Myer Myers: Jewish Silversmith in Colonial New York, by David Barquist (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press Art Gallery, 2001), 12; “Naphtali Phillips,” PAJHS 21 (1913): 183–184; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 7–8.

18. For details of the petitions and responses to them, see “Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 24–25, 27, 29, 31–37. See also “Naphtali Phillips,” 179, 177, 182; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 1: 226. Marcus sees the assessments not as discrimination but as signs that the wealthy Jews had brought considerable capital to New Netherland (Colonial American Jew, 1:238). In 1655, New Amsterdam’s burghers implemented a second form of discrimination. Imposing a special assessment on city residents “to guard inhabitants against attack by the Indians,” the city fathers assessed the seaport’s prominent Jewish merchants, who made up only 5 out of the 210 citizens with ratable assets, the sum of one hundred guilders each. These merchants, composing one-thirtieth of the taxable population, had to pay one-twelfth the required amount.

19. For details of the petitions and responses to them, see Oppenheim, “Early History of the Jews,” 37, 62–67; petition for citizenship, 1657, in Kohler, “Civil Status of the Jews,” 88–89; Hershkowitz, “Amsterdam’s Twenty-Three Jews,” 178–179.

20. Kohler, “Civil Status of the Jews,” 99; Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 41–44, 55; Samuel Oppenheim, “The Jews and Masonry in the United States before 1810,” PAJHS 19 (1910): 1–16; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 3:1214. On religious and ethnic diversity in New York under the British, see Binder and Reimers, All the Nations under Heaven, chap. 1.

21. David Sorkin, “Is American Jewry Exceptional? Comparing Jewish Emancipation in Europe and America,” AJH 96 (2010): 178–186.

22. Lois C. Dubin, Port Jews of Hapsburg Trieste: Absolutist Politics and Enlightenment Culture (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999); Bregoli, Mediterranean Enlightenment, chap. 3–4.

23. Assessment rolls term the dwelling the “Jew synagogue” and list the house next door as rented to “the Jew Rabby [teacher].” Rent was eight British pounds.

24. Leo Hershkowitz, “The Mill Street Synagogue Reconsidered,” AJHQ 53 (1963–1964): 404–414; N. Taylor Phillips, “Unwritten History: Reminiscences of N. Taylor Phillips,” AJAJ 6 (1954): 78; Albion Morris Dyer, “Site of the First Synagogue of the Congregation Shearith Israel, of New York,” PAJHS 8 (1900): 25; Jacob R. Marcus, “The Oldest Known Synagogue Record Book in North America,” in Studies in American Jewish History (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1969), 44–53.

25. Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 40–45; Doris Groshen Daniels, “Colonial Jewry: Religion, Domestic and Social Relations,” AJHQ 66 (1976–1977): 381–382. There was, of course, no rabbi. Nor would there be one for a hundred years. The sand that covered the floor, similar to the synagogue in Barbados, may have symbolized the sand that the Israelites crossed on their journey from Egypt to Palestine or may have been a remnant from the medieval era, when sand covered unheated public buildings for hygiene. Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 2:890–892. Miscellaneous letters on fund-raising can be found in “Manuscripts: Items Relating to Congregation Shearith Israel,” PAJHS 27 (1920): 1–5. This includes a request from the hazan in Curaçao that “the asquenazum or Germans” who were “more in number” than the Sephardim in New York not be permitted “any More Votes nor Authority than they have had hitherto.” The congregation ignored this request.

26. Faber, Time for Planting, 28.

27. Hershkowitz, “Some Aspects of the Merchant Community,” 10–11, 19–20, 25–27; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 2:636; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 197–201, 218–223; Max J. Kohler, “Jewish Activity in American Colonial Commerce,” PAJHS 10 (1902): 58–66; Kohler, “Phases of Jewish Life before 1800,” PAJHS 3 (1895): 79–80.

28. Leo Hershkowitz, “Original Inventories of Early New York Jews (1682–1763),” AJH 88 (2002): 297–315, 316–322.

29. Michael Ben-Jacob, “Nathan Simson: A Biographical Sketch of a Colonial Jewish Merchant,” AJAJ 51 (1999): 16–17. The importance of these early Jewish merchants is captured in Governor Bellomont’s complaint to the Board of Trade that he was ill treated by most of the city’s merchants: “were it not for one Dutch merchant and two or three Jews that have let me have money, I should have been undone.” Quoted in Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 461.

30. Hershkowitz, “Some Aspects of the Merchant Community,” 22–24; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 2:542–545, 779–783.

31. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 126–129, 375; Graham Russell Hodges, Root and Branch: African Americans in New York and East Jersey, 1613–1863 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 272–275.

32. Faber, Jews, Slaves, and the Slave Trade, 132–135; Leo Hershkowitz, Wills of Early New York Jews, 1704–1799 (New York: American Jewish Historical Society, 1967), 15, 21–23, 60, 79n1, 129, 135–136, 158n1; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 477, 468–469; Leo Hershkowitz, “Anatomy of a Slave Voyage, New York, 1721,” de Halve Maen 76 (Fall 2003): 45–51; Ben-Jacob, “Nathan Simson,” 26–30; Hodges, Root and Branch, 98; James G. Lydon, “New York and the Slave Trade, 1700 to 1774,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 35, no. 2 (1978): 375–394. New York represented a minor part of the Atlantic slave trade, which was centered in the Caribbean. David Brian Davis, “The Slave Trade and the Jews,” New York Review of Books, 22 December 1994.

33. Leo Hershkowitz, “Original Inventories,” 293–296; Hershkowitz, Wills of Early New York Jews, 11–14, 79; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 2:538; Snyder, “Queens of the Household,” 18.

34. Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 3:1188–1190; Marc D. Angel, Remnant of Israel: A Portrait of America’s First Jewish Congregation (New York: Riverside, 2004), 33; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 7; Hershkowitz, “Original Inventories,” 297, 299; Hershkowitz, “Some Aspects of the Jewish and Merchant Community,” 13, 20. Pencak, in Jews and Gentiles, 45, sees election to the lower offices as a sign of discrimination. However, constables were exempt from militia service and jury duty, and the willingness of a number to run and serve may indicate that they did not see the office as dishonorable. In the New York Journal of 8 May 1749, the Coentjes Club declined to congratulate a Jewish neighbor who had lately moved to “Fudge Corner” because he had the habit of paying too much rent and raising the rent for the neighborhood.

35. Kohler, “Civil Status of American Jews,” 94; Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 41–44, 55 (quotes on the Assembly are from Pencak).

36. “The Earliest Extant Minutes of the Spanish and Portuguese Congregation Shearith Israel in New York, 1728–1786,” PAJHS 21 (1913): 74 (10 October 1755); Sheldon Godfrey and Judith Godfrey, “The King vs. Gomez et al.: Opening the Prosecutor’s File over 200 Years Later,” AJH 77 (1991): 40.

37. Godfrey and Godfrey, “King vs. Gomez,” 41–42; Snyder, “Queens of the Household,” 17.

38. “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 83–84 (30 January 1760); “From the 2nd Volume of Minute Books of the Congn: Shearith Israel in New York,” PAJHS 21 (1913): 83, 84, 87 (17 July 1760, 6 August 1760, 11 September 1763); Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 54–55; Snyder, “Queens of the Household,” 16–17. Trouble in the women’s gallery was not over. In 1760, what seemed more like a comic opera roiled the synagogue again. This time Judah Hays’s wife, Josse, was “turned” out of her seat by Judah Mears, who wanted it for his daughter. The congregation tried to make peace by widening the seat so both could be accommodated, but to no avail. Judah, refusing to settle, was fined and threatened with excommunication. He refused to pay. Three years later, after Josse’s death, Jacob Franks paid the fine, and Judah was readmitted to the “Rights and Ceremonies of the Synagogue,” though his name no longer appeared in congregational minutes. In 1796, the synagogue removed the offending banca, “the cause of much dissatisfaction.” “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 83–84 (24 June 1760).

39. Faber, Time for Planting, 55–56; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 264–267, 502; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 2:906–911.

40. “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 4 (15 September 1728); Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 259, 286–287; Jacob Rader Marcus, The Handsome Young Priest in a Black Gown: The Personal World of Gershom Seixas (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1970), 4.

41. Faber, Time for Planting, 58–66; “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 3 (15 September 1728), 53 (9 September 1746), 62–63 (22 October 1748).

42. Phillips, “Unwritten History,” 96–97; Doris Groshen Daniels, “Colonial Jewry: Religion, Domestic and Social Relations,” AJHQ 66 (1976–1977): 399–400; Frank Zimmerman, “A Letter and Memorandum on Ritual Circumcision, 1772,” PAJHS 42 (1952–1953): 71–80.

43. Leo Hershkowitz and Isidore S. Meyer, eds., The Letters of the Franks Family, 1733–1748 (Waltham, MA: American Jewish Historical Society, 1966), 87 (21 June 1741); Peter Kalm, Travels in North America: The English Version of 1770, 2 vols. (New York: Dover, 1964) 1:631; Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 52. For a discussion of limitations of what can be known of Jewish religious practice in colonial America, see Gurock, Orthodox Jews in America.

44. “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 79–80 (28 March 1758), 70–72 (13 September 1752), see also 68–70 (9 October 1747, 10 April 1752); “From the 2nd Volume of Minute Books,” 111–112 (23–24 December 1771). Throughout the minutes, there is discussion of the appointment and pay of the shochet and bodeck. Letter from Hazan of Curaçao to Shearith Israel, 1753, in “Manuscripts: Items Relating to Congregation Shearith Israel,” 6–7. See also letter from Kingston, Jamaica, 1758, expressing concern over kashrut because Shearith Israel was temporarily without a hazan. “Manuscripts: Items Relating to Congregation Shearith Israel,” 10–11; “From the 2nd Volume of Minute Books,” 111–112 (23–24 December 1771); Daniels, “Colonial Jewry,” 400; Hershkowitz and Meyer, Letters of the Franks Family, 7–8 (9 July 1733); Edith Gelles, introduction to The Letters of Abigaill Levy Franks, 1733–1748, ed. Edith Gelles (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004), xxi–xxii.

45. “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 75 (7 December 1755); Faber, Time for Planting, 71; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 211–214; Jacob Kabakoff, “The Use of Hebrew by American Jews during the Colonial Period,” in Hebrew and the Bible in America: The First Two Centuries, ed. Shalom Goldman (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press and Dartmouth College, 1993), 19; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, vol. 3, chap. 68.

46. “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 3 (27 May 1729), 29 (11 September 1730), 76 (7 July 1756), 84 (30 January 1760); “From the 2nd Volume of Minute Books,” 92 (17 November 1765); Faber, Time for Planting, 71–72; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 341–347.

47. “Earliest Extant Minutes,” 3 (15 September 1728), 16 (27 September 1731), 54–55 (1 December 1746), 61–62 (22 October 1748); Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 48, 53 Hershkowitz, Wills of Early New York Jews, 118.

48. Hershkowitz, Wills of Early New York Jews, 1, 15, 33, 65, 75; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 161; Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 2:949–950; Marcus, American Jewry, 14–17.

49. Joseph Jeshurun Pinto, The Form of Prayer Which Was Performed at the Jews Synagogue in the City of New York on Thursday October 23, 1760 (New York, 1760), 1, 4; Prayers for the Shabbath, Rosh-Hashanah, and Kippur …, trans. Isaac Pinto (New York, 1766), iii–iv, 20; “Miscellaneous Items Relating to New York,” PAJHS 28 (1920): 392–393; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 88.

50. Kalm, Travels in North America, 1:130; Lee M. Friedman, “Dr. Hamilton Visits Shearith Israel,” PAJHS 57 (1949): 183–184.

51. Hershkowitz and Meyer, Letters of the Franks Family, 66 (17 October 1739), 76 (6 July 1740), 78 (31 August 1740), 9 (9 July 1733), 87 (21 June 1741); Leo Hershkowitz, “Another Abigail Franks Letter and a Genealogical Note,” AJHQ 59 (1969–1970): 224.

52. Phillips, “Unwritten History,” 82.

53. Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 48; Robert Cohen, “Jewish Demography in the Eighteenth Century: A Study of London, the West Indies and Early America” (PhD diss., Brandeis University, 1976), chaps. 5–6 (on intermarriage, see 112); Daniels, “Colonial Jewry,” 389–392; Snyder, “Queens of the Household,” 26–27.

54. Phillips, “Unwritten History,” 87–88, 92; Snyder, “Queens of the Household,” 24–25.

55. Daniels, “Colonial Jewry,” 403; Hershkowitz, Wills of Early New York Jews, 12, 51, 81; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 44. The sixty-five seats were adequate for weekly services but not for High Holiday services. Goldman, Beyond the Synagogue Gallery, 37–45, 59.

56. Snyder, “Queens of the Household,” 23–24.

57. Leibman, Messianism, Secrecy, and Mysticism, 28–37, 50–51.

58. Barquist, Myer Myers, 35–40, 47–62.

59. Leibman, Messianism, Secrecy, and Mysticism, 182, 204.

60. Paul Needham, The Celebrated Franks Family Portraits (New York: Sotheby’s, 2008), 20; Erica E. Hirshler, “The Levy-Franks Family Portraits,” Antiques, November 1990, 1021.

61. For different interpretations of the parade, see Diner, Jews of the United States, 57; Moore, Urban Origins of American Judaism, 82; Sarna, American Judaism, 38; Beth S. Wenger, Jewish Americans: Three Centuries of Voices in America (New York: Doubleday, 2007), 11. The Christian observer was Dr. Benjamin Rush.

62. N. Taylor Phillips, “The Levy and Seixas Families of Newport and New York,” PAJHS 4 (1896): 206; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 350–351. Jacob Marcus argues that while Seixas was “a whole-hearted Whig,” there is “no evidence whatsoever to substantiate the legend of patriotic leadership.” He was one of the many who joined the American cause. Marcus, Handsome Young Priest, 15.

63. Phillips, “Unwritten History,” 84–85. Patriots had to abandon the city. During the hasty retreat, amid the noise of cannon and musket fire, the merchant Isaac Moses began to walk northward, refusing to ride on the Sabbath. Reaching the present Twenty-Third Street, he found a farm to shelter him. Saturday night, he and his family boarded a wagon and followed the army into Westchester. Like so many other New York Jews, he later made his way to Philadelphia.

64. Marcus, Colonial American Jew, 3:1257–1261, 1280–1282; Jay, quoted in Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 68–69; Jaher, Scapegoat in the Wilderness, 121.

65. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 242–256; Stephen Birmingham, The Grandees: America’s Sephardic Elite (New York: Harper and Row, 1971), 175.

66. Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 46, 169–170; Samuel Rezneck, Unrecognized Patriots: The Jews in the American Revolution (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1975), 143; Abram Vossen Goodman, “A German Mercenary Observes American Jews during the Revolution,” AJHQ 59 (1969–1970): 227; Cecil Roth, “A Jewish Voice of Peace in the War of American Independence: The Life and Writings of Abraham Wagg, 1719–1803,” PAJHS 31 (1928): 33–74; Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 63–64.

67. Edwin Wolf and Maxwell Whiteman, History of the Jews of Philadelphia from Colonial Times to the Age of Jackson (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1957), chap. 7; Jacob Rader Marcus, ed., “Jews and the American Revolution: A Bicentennial Documentary,” AJAJ 27 (November 1975): 141–144, 194–198.

68. Wolf and Whiteman, History of the Jews of Philadelphia, 146–152; Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 202–230; Memorial of Rabbi Gershom Seixas and others to Council of Censors, December 1783, in Marcus, “Jews and the American Revolution,” 214–216. Pennsylvania had a long strain of anti-Semitism (which may have caused many of New York’s Jews to leave Philadelphia after the war). The Test Act was in part the work of the Lutheran senior minister Henry Muhlenberg, who accused the Jews of both atheism and declaring that the Christian messiah was an “imposter.”

69. Herbert Friedenwald, “A Letter of Jonas Phillips to the Federal Convention,” PAJHS 2 (1894): 107–109.

70. Gershom Seixas to Shearith Israel, 21 December 1783, in Marcus, “Jews and the American Revolution,” 217–219; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 353–354; Marcus, Handsome Young Priest, 12; “Items Relating to Gershom Seixas,” PAJHS 27 (1920): 130–131.

71. A discussion of law may be found in Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 45–46; Isaac Jerushalmi, “Cultures, Practices, and Ideals of a New York Sephardic Congregation as Reflected in the Minutes of Shearith Israel, 1784–1789” (unpublished paper), 1–4, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 260–262; Gershom Seixas to Board of Trustees of Shearith Israel, 22 September 1785, Seixas Papers, American Jewish Historical Society, New York.

CHAPTER 2. SHAKING OFF CONSTRAINTS

1. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, chap. 21. For a useful overview of the Hamiltonian-Jeffersonian debate, see Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic 1788–1800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995); and Sean Wilentz, The Rise of American Democracy: The Crisis of the New Order, 1787–1815 (New York: Norton, 2006).

2. Morris U. Schappes, “Anti-Semitism and Reaction, 1795–1800,” PAJHS 38 (1948–1949): 145; Pencak, Jews and Gentiles, 74.

3. Marcus, American Jewry, 150–154, 157–158, 161–166. See also Sarna, American Judaism, 43; Faber, Time for Planting, 118–119, 123.

4. Jacob Rader Marcus, United States Jewry, 1776–1985, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989) 1:240; Hannah Adams quotes Hazan Seixas that there were seventy to eighty subscribers out of fifty families plus some unmarried, in Joseph L. Blau and Salo W. Baron, eds., The Jews of the United States 1790–1840: A Documentary History, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), 1:91; Minutes of the Board of Trustees of Congregation Shearith Israel, 28 May 1815, 27 July 1817, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati.

5. Bye Laws of the Congregation of Shearith Israel as Ratified on the 24 June 1805, Lyons Collection, American Jewish Historical Society, New York; Minutes of the Board of Trustees, 21 July 1805, 12 October 1806, 11 January 1807, 6 October 1807, 16 April 1809, 22 October 1809, 8 May 1814, 8 March 1818, 5 April 1818, 16 January 1824. The board had its own rules of procedure, including a requirement of personal notification of every trustee at least six hours before a meeting, a $2.50 fine for speaking out of turn, and a $10 fine for leaving the meeting without permission. With regard to finances, only in the 1820s did the synagogue regain fiscal health. Hendrik Hartog, Public Property and Private Power: The Corporation of the City of New York in American Law, 1730–1870 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 419–422; Sarna, American Judaism, 47.

6. “Manuscripts: Items Relating to Congregation Shearith Israel, New York,” PAJHS 27 (1920): 19 (27 and 26 April 1796); Minutes of the Board of Trustees, 14 July 1814, 12 April 1815, 13 April 1815, 23 April 1815. None of the 1811 trustees was a member of the 1812 board. The new body included Hayam Solomon, son the of the famed revolutionary, representing Ashkenazim critical of laxity in religious observance, and Benjamin Judah, a synagogue gadfly who resigned in 1824 after being expelled on Yom Kippur eve for defying the parnas regarding an open door.

7. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 456–459; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 48.

8. “Division in the New York Community, 1825,” in Blau and Baron, Jews of the United States, 2:542–545.

9. Minutes of the Board of Trustees, 19 and 26 October 1825; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 48–49. The city’s Jewish population did not significantly increase until after 1825.

10. Israel Goldstein, A Century of Judaism in New York: B’nai Jeshurun, 1825–1925 (New York: Congregation B’nai Jeshurun, 1930), 54–62.

11. Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 44–45, 49; Pool, Portraits Etched in Stone, 305.

12. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 748; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 469.

13. Diner, Time for Gathering, 42–49. Population figures for 1860 are tentative. Some estimates are as low as eighteen thousand. Sarna, American Judaism, 63.

14. Moore, B’nai B’rith, 1–13.

15. Grusd, B’nai B’rith, chap. 1; Diner, Time for Gathering, 109–113; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 109–114; Moore, B’nai B’rith, 39–42.

16. Moore, B’nai B’rith, 13–23; Grusd, B’nai B’rith, 33–48; Julius Bien, “History of the Independent Order of B’nai B’rith,” Menorah (1886–1889): 123–125.

17. Tina Levitan, Islands of Compassion: A History of the Jewish Hospitals of New York (New York: Twayne, 1964), 27; Burrill B. Crohn, “The Centennial Anniversary of the Mount Sinai Hospital (1852–1952),” PAJHS 42 (September 1952–September 1953): 113–130.

18. Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 49–53, 472–478.

19. N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 42; Sefton D. Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise: Shaping American Judaism (New York: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 1992), 36.

20. Blau and Baron, Jews of the United States, 2:484–493; Asmonean, 22 February 1850, 3 March 1850, 6 December 1850, 6 February 1851, 16 April 1851, 29 August 1851, 12 September 1851, 10 October 1851, 7 November 1851, 12 December 1851, 4 February 1853, 8 September 1854, 12 December 1854, 14 September 1855, 22 February 1856, 16 October 1857; New York Times, 27 December 1858; Jewish Messenger, 30 January 1857, 11 November 1859, 11 May 1860.

21. New York Times, 27 December 1858; Asmonean, 16 April 1851, 8 September 1854, 12 December 1854, 14 September 1855, 22 February 1856.

22. New York Times, 28 October 1855; Asmonean, 23 February 1855, 16 May 1856; Jewish Messenger, 11 March 1859, 20 May 1859, 10 September 1859, 21 June 1861, 3 September 1864.

23. Jewish Messenger, 3 March 1860, 20 March 1863, 20 October 1863; Philip Goodman, “The Purim Association of the City of New York, 1862–1902,” PAJHS 40 (1950–1951): 134–144.

24. “The Sabbath,” Jewish Messenger, 12 February 1848, 28; “To Correspondents,” Jewish Messenger, 25 November 1859, 158; Bernard Drachman, The Unfailing Light (New York: Rabbinical Council of America, 1948), 227.

25. Alexis McCrossen, Holy Day, Holiday: The American Sunday (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000), 41–46.

26. “The Jew Wot Goes Ahead,” Asmonean, 19 May 1854, 78; Emanuel Brandeis, “Desecration of Sabbath,” Asmonean, 22 May 1854, 46; Nadel, Little Germany, 101; Dorothee Schneider, Trade Unions and Community: The German Working Class in New York City, 1870–1900 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 32.

27. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, chap. 22; Howard B. Rock, Artisans of the New Republic: The Tradesmen of New York City in the Age of Jefferson (New York: NYU Press, 1979), chap. 6.

28. Edmund Clarence Stedman, ed., The New York Stock Exchange (New York: Stock Exchange Historical Company, 1905), 1:23; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 416–419; Marcus, United States Jewry, 1:181–182, 199, 358–359, 560, 642.

29. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, chap. 38.

30. Ibid., chap. 27.

31. Shane White, Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 1770–1810 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1991); Malcolm M. Stern, “Some Additions and Corrections to Rosenwaike’s ‘An Estimate and Analysis of the Jewish Population of the United States in 1790,’ ” AJHQ 53 (1963–1964): 385; “Manumitting Slaves, 1806–1809,” excerpts from the minutes of the Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves and Protecting Such of Them as Have Been or May Be Liberated, New York 1806–1809, in Schappes, Documentary History, 118–121; “A Slave Promised His Freedom,” legal paper promising freedom to George Roper from Jacob Levy, Jr., April 8, 1814, in Schappes, Documentary History, 134; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 483; Jerome C. Rosenthal, “A Study of Jewish Businessmen in New York City as Reflected in the City Directories, 1776–1830” (unpublished paper, 1977), American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati; Ira Rosenwaike, “The Jewish Population of the United States as Estimated from the Census of 1820,” AJHQ 53 (1963–1964): 131–135; Rosenwaike, On the Edge of Greatness, 95–96; Birmingham, Grandees, 191–199; Theodore Cohen, “Walter Jonas Judah and New York’s 1798 Yellow Fever Epidemic,” AJAJ 48 (1996): 23–34.

32. Burrow and Wallace, Gotham, 735–737; Diner, Time for Gathering, 8–13, 24–36.

33. Nadel, Little Germany, chap. 2; New York Times, 14 March 1856.

34. Asmonean, 30 October 1857; Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana, 128–131; Feldman, “Jews in the Early Growth,” 7–14; Vincent Carosso, “A Financial Elite: New York’s German-Jewish Investment Bankers,” AJHQ 66 (1976): 67–74; Birmingham, “Our Crowd,” chaps. 2–9; The New York City Directory, 1856–57 (New York, 1857), available at ancestry.com. There were no Jews listed in the 1845 New York Sun’s list of property owners with more than $100,000 in real estate. Stedman, New York Stock Exchange, 1:106–108. By 1855, a fourth of the city’s top ten thousand taxpayers were immigrants. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 739.

35. Ernst, Immigrant Life in New York City, 63–64.

36. Asmonean, 2 November 1849, 7 December 1849, 8 February 1850, 22 February 1850, 7 March 1851, 19 March 1852; Jewish Messenger, 3 March 1865.

37. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 476, 745; Ernst, Immigrant Life in New York City, 46; Nadel, Little Germany, 99–103; Diner, Time for Gathering, 91; Beverly Hyman, “New York Businessmen, 1831–1835” (unpublished manuscript, 1977), American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati; New York Times, 14 March 1856; shearithisrael.org (accessed 16 February 2016).

38. Anbinder, Five Points, 17, 45.

39. Ibid., 17–19.

40. Ibid., 47, 98; 1860 Census, 2nd District, 6th Ward, Dwelling #608.

41. Ernst, Immigrant Life in New York City, 63–64.

42. See, for example, Philip Cowen, Memories of an American Jew (New York: International, 1932), 24–26, 36–37.

43. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, chaps. 31–47; Robert Greenhalgh Albion, The Rise of New York Port, 1815–1860 (New York: Scribner, 1939), 736–777 (figures on population growth and immigration).

44. Ernst, Immigrant Life in New York City, 69, 72.

45. Phyllis Dillon and Andrew Godley, “The Evolution of the Jewish Garment Industry, 1840–1940,” in Chosen Capital: The Jewish Encounter with American Capitalism, ed. Rebecca Kobrin (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2012), 38, 42; Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana, 126; Barkai, Branching Out, 86; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 128; Nadel, Little Germany, 44–46, 63; Schneider, Trade Unions and Community, 9, 14–16.

46. N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 29; Feldman, “Jews in the Early Growth,” 9; Dillon and Godley, “Evolution of the Jewish Garment Industry,” 38–39. For overviews, see Hasia R. Diner, Roads Taken: The Great Jewish Migrations to the New World and the Peddlers Who Forged the Way (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015).

47. Feldman, “Jews in the Early Growth,” 5; Barkai, Branching Out, 45–46; Nadel, Little Germany, 81; Jesse Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1905), 7–8. See also Mendelsohn, Rag Race.

48. Mathew Hale, Wonders of a Great City (Chicago: People’s, 1877), 845; Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana, 126; N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 29; Pope, Clothing Industry, 5–7; Mendelsohn, Rag Race, chap. 1.

49. Asa Green, Travels in America (New York: William Pearson, 1833), quoted in Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana, 127; George C. Foster, New York in Slices: By an Experienced Carver (New York: W. F. Burgess, 1849), 14–15, quoted in Feldman, “Jews in the Early Growth,” 3–7; N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 31; Isaac Mayer Wise, Reminiscences, ed. David Phillipson (Cincinnati: L. Wise, 1901), 17, 24.

50. Pope, Clothing Industry, 8.

51. Isaac Markens, Hebrews in America (New York: I Markens, 1888), 151.

52. America’s first reform synagogue, founded in Charleston in 1825, was modeled more from American Unitarianism than from the German Reform movement. Sarna, American Judaism, 57–58, 84–87. The most important history of Reform Judaism is M. Meyer, Response to Modernity, chaps. 1–4. See also Michael A. Meyer, The Origins of the Modern Jew: Jewish Identity and European Culture in Germany, 1749–1824 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967).

53. Sarna, American Judaism, 85; Steven Lowenstein, “The 1840s and the Creation of the German-Jewish Religious Reform Movement,” in Revolution and Evolution: 1848 in German-Jewish History, ed. Werner Mosse (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1981); M. Meyer, Response to Modernity, 225–226.

54. M. Meyer, Response to Modernity, 225; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 333–352; Diner, Time for Gathering, 114–116; Sarna, American Judaism, 73; Jick, “Reform Synagogue,” 87.

55. Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 354, 368.

56. Ibid., 355–358.

57. Ibid., 353–371; Myer Stern, The Rise and Progress of Reform Judaism: Temple Emanu-El of New York (New York: M. Stern, 1895), 13–24, 30–31, 38–40; Benny Kraut, From Reform Judaism to Ethical Culture: The Religious Evolution of Felix Adler (New York: Ktav, 1979), 5.

58. Sarna, “Debate over Mixed Seating,” 363–372, 374–379; Goldman, Beyond the Synagogue Gallery, 8–17; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 364, 501–507; Minutes of Temple Emanu-El, 4 June 1854, 3 September 1854, 1 October 1854, 7 January 1855, 1 July 1855, 12 August 1855, Temple Emanu-El Archives, New York.

59. Goldman, Beyond the Synagogue Gallery, 86–87, 93–99; Asmonean, 8 February 1850, 22 February 1850, 24 March 1854, 4 January 1856, 22 May 1857; see also “Women and the Ceremony of Confirmation,” in Marcus, American Jewish Woman, 1:186–189; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 356; Sarna, “Debate over Mixed Seating,” 363–371; Ann Douglas, The Feminization of American Culture (New York: Knopf, 1977); Gershom Greenberg, “A German-Jewish Immigrant’s Perception of America, 1853–54,” AJHQ 67 (June 1978): 326, 328; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 361–367; Jewish Messenger, 11 May 1860, 18 May 1860, 25 May 1860, 6 March 1863. When Shearith Israel opened its Crosby Street synagogue in 1832, there were more seats in the ladies’ gallery than in the men’s section below. No other synagogue, however, had more seats for women than men.

60. Minutes of Temple Emanu-El, 4 June 1854, 3 September 1854, 1 October 1854, 7 January 1855, 1 July 1855, 12 August 1855.

61. Asmonean, 13 August 1852, 20 May 1853.

62. Wise, Reminiscences, 200–202; Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise, 86; Hyman Grinstein, “The ‘Asmonean’: The First Jewish Weekly in New York,” Journal of Jewish Bibliography 1 (1939): 67–70; Guido Kirsch, “Israels Herold: The First Jewish Weekly in New York,” Historia Judaica 2 (October 1940): 77–79; Asmonean, 19 April 1850, 10 May 1850, 8 October 1852, 26 November 1852, 22 July 1853, 13 January 1854, 3 February 1854, 19 May 1854, 23 June 1854, 30 June 1854, 4 August 1854, 8 September 1854, 5 November 1854, 30 May 1856, 21 August 1857.

63. Men such as Isaacs and Raphall, though not technically ordained as rabbis, were rabbis in everything but name, and this study uses that term as well as “Reverend” and “Dr.” Goldstein, Century of Judaism, 110–114, 119–124; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 91–92; Robert T. Swierenga, “Samuel Myers Isaacs: The Dutch Rabbi of New York,” AJAJ 54 (1992): 607–615; David Philipson, Max Lilienthal, American Rabbi: Life and Writings (New York: Bloch, 1915), 46–59; Bruce L. Ruben, “Max Lilienthal and Isaac M. Wise: Architects of American Reform Judaism” AJAJ 60 (2003): 1–29; Pool and Pool, Old Faith in a New World, 190–191; Bernhard N. Cohn, “Leo Merzbacher,” AJAJ 6 (1954): 21–24; Gershom Greenberg, “The Dimensions of Samuel Adler’s Religious View of the World,” Hebrew Union College Annual 46 (1975): 377–412.

64. Kraut, From Reform Judaism to Ethical Culture, chap. 1; Temkin, Isaac Mayer Wise, 1–30; Naomi W. Cohen, What the Rabbis Said: The Public Discourse of Nineteenth-Century Rabbis (New York: NYU Press, 2008), chap. 1.

65. J. D. Eisenstein, “History of the First Russian-American Jewish Congregation,” PAJHS 9 (1901): 63–74; Alfred A. Greenbaum, “The Early ‘Russian’ Congregation in America in Its Ethnic and Religious Setting,” PAJHS 62 (1972–1973): 162–169; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 49–53, 172, 472–478; “The First New York Russian-Jewish Congregation, 1857,” in Schappes, Documentary History, 373–375; Goldstein, Century of Judaism, 81–90, 93–94; Swierenga, “Samuel Myers Isaacs,” 607–621; Minutes of B’nai Jeshurun, 25 November 1827, 12 May 1828, 28 December 1828, 6 June 1830, 7 August 1836, 21 August 1836, Jewish Theological Seminary, New York; Leo Hershkowitz, “Those ‘Ignorant Immigrants’ and the B’nai Jeshurun Schism,” AJH 70 (1980): 168–179; Jick, Americanization of the Synagogue, 26; Myer Stern, Rise and Progress, 13–38.

66. “American Jews and the Damascus Affair: The Jews of New York to the President of the United States, August 24, 1840,” in Schappes, Documentary History, 210–212; “Minister’s Report on the Damascus Affair,” ibid., 212–215, “State’s Rights vs. Equality Abroad,” ibid., 315–324; Rev. Isaac Leeser, “The Mortara Case,” Philadelphia Public Ledger, November 25, 1858, ibid., 385–392; Asmonean, 7 February 1851; Jewish Messenger, 8 October 1858, 15 October 1858, 3 December 1858, 10 December 1858, 17 December 1858; Bertram W. Korn, The American Reaction to the Mortara Case, 1858–1859 (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1957), 39. See also Kertzer, Kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara.

67. Asmonean, 8 November 1850, 23 March 1855, 24 April 1857, 1 May 1857, 19 June 1857; Jewish Messenger 1 January 1857, 9 September 1858, 21 October 1859, 4 November 1859, 11 December 1859, 18 December 1859, 10 February 1860, 1 June 1860, 21 September 1860, 22 February 1861, 21 August 1863, 24 June 1865; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 432–439; Allan Tarshish, “The Board of Delegates of American Israelites, 1859–1878,” PAJHS 49 (1959–1960): 16–36. In 1849, the newly arrived Isaac Mayer Wise, together with Isaac Leeser, attempted to assemble a national conference of congregations to discuss the state of the American congregations. Only eight congregations approved the project, and the meeting was never held. Indifference and apathy prevailed. Bertram W. Korn, “American Jewish Life in 1849,” in Eventful Years and Experiences: Studies in Nineteenth Century American Jewish History (Cincinnati: American Jewish Archives, 1954), 35–38.

68. Goldstein, Century of Judaism, 110–114, 119–124; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 91–92. The law forbidding Hebrews from returning an escaped slave to his or her master applied only to slaves escaping from foreign lands.

69. “Bible View of Slavery, Discourse of Rabbi Morris Jacob Raphall at B’nai Jeshurun, January 4, 1861,” in Documentary History, ed. Schappes, 405–418; Kohler, “Jews and the American Anti-Slavery Movement,” 154–155.

70. “Bible View of Slavery,” 405–406, 686; Jayme Sokolow, “Revolution and Reform: The Antebellum Jewish Abolitionists,” in Jews and the Civil War, ed. Jonathan D. Sarna and Adam D. Mendelsohn (New York: NYU Press, 2010), 187–189; Korn, American Jewry and the Civil War, 16–19; Kohler, “Jews and the American Anti-Slavery Movement,” 154–155.

71. New York Times, 2 October 1856.

72. Sarna, Jacksonian Jew, 109–113, 119; Evening Star, 18 February 1834, 15 September 1835, 9 November 1849, quoted in Leonard I. Gappelberg, “M. M. Noah and the Evening Star: Whig Journalism, 1833–1840” (PhD diss., Yeshiva University, 1970), 157–158, 167, 184–185; Asmonean, 30 October 1857.

73. Asmonean, 13 December 1850, 4 April 1851, 4 July 1851, 25 July 1856, 8 August 1856, 15 August 1856, 5 September 1856, 30 October 1857, 19 March 1858.

74. Asmonean, 26 October 1850, 10 January 1851, 5 June 1851. In the Asmonean’s 10 January 1851 issue, Lyon quoted from both the Old and New Testament to explain how the Bible can be misused and that the Bible supported the law.

75. N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 129–135; Sokolow, “Revolution and Reform,” 125; “Government and Politics,” in The Almanac of New York City, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Fred Kameny (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 367–368; Jewish Messenger, 25 March 1861, 2 January 1863; Nadel, Little Germany, 136.

76. Abram J. Dittenhoefer, How We Elected Lincoln: Personal Recollections (New York: Harper, 1916), 2–6, 16, quoted in Jonathan D. Sarna and Benjamin Shappell, Lincoln and the Jews: A History (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2015), 50.

77. Dittenhoefer, How We Elected Lincoln, 4–5, quoted in Sarna and Shappell, Lincoln and the Jews, 51.

78. Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 251; Stedman, New York Stock Exchange, 1:128. A more recent book that covers the same ground generally confirms Foner’s findings while noting that manufacturers at times had different interests from merchants, notably in seeking tariff protection. Sven Beckert finds that Republicans, while a small minority of New York’s middle class, were most likely to be found in merchants involved in the western trade and manufacturers. Manufacturers were four times more likely to be Republicans than merchants were. However, the bulk of Jewish manufacturers were in the garment trade, which was deeply attached to the southern trade. Beckert, Monied Metropolis, chap. 3. See also Basil Leo Lee, Discontent in New York City, 1861–1865 (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1943), 8–13.

79. Jaher, Scapegoat in the Wilderness, 170, 186, 220–231, 237–238; Asmonean, 12 April 1850, 19 April 1850, 26 April 1850, 23 May 1851, 20 February 1852, 27 February 1852, 6 March 1852, 10 June 1853, 6 August 1853, 30 March 1855, 10 August 1855, 17 August 1855, 12 June 1857, 20 November 1857; Jewish Messenger, 27 July 1858, 30 March 1860, 23 April 1860, 18 June 1860, 13 November 1863, 5 December 1863. Jewish papers did their best to respond to aggressive Protestant missionaries who attempted to convert Jews.

80. Korn, American Jewry, chap. 6; “Revoking General Grant’s Order No. 11,” in Schappes, Documentary History, 472–476, 702–704; Marcus, American Jewry, 3:48–50; Jewish Messenger, 9 January 1863, 16 January 1863, 23 January 1863; New York Times, 8 January 1863. See also New York Times, 19 December 1862, 5 January 1863, 7 January 1863, 8 February 1863. For an excellent overview, see Jonathan D. Sarna, When General Grant Expelled the Jews (New York: Schocken, 2012).

81. Korn, American Jewry, 158–164, 173; Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 21 March 1863, quoted in Gary L. Bunker and John J. Appel, “Shoddy Antisemitism and the Civil War,” in Sarna and Mendelsohn, Jews and the Civil War, 320. Stedman does not list any Jews in his lengthy discussion of the gold trade and its fluctuations. Gold was extremely important for government finances during the war. Stedman, New York Stock Exchange, 150–152, 162. Many of Korn’s references are to the Jewish Messenger. Jewish Messenger, 21 November 1862, 19 December 1862, 20 June 1863. Other instances of anti-Semitism are recorded in the New York Times, 11 January 1861, 28 September 1862, 8 February 1863, 2 April 1863, 27 July 1863, 2 November 1864.

82. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 887–901; Korn, American Jewry, 162–163; Simon Wolf, The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier and Citizen (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1895), 284; Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 34; Sarna and Shappell, Lincoln and the Jews, 159–161; Jewish Messenger, 26 July 1863, 28 August 1863, 4 September 1863. After the first day, most Germans abandoned violence, and some joined the authorities. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 894. The Jewish Messenger declined to report details of the riot. Instead, it asked “how many Jews were among the thousands [who] rose determined to commit every act repugnant to humanity?” The answer: “not one.” Jewish Messenger, 26 July 1863.

83. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 903; Jewish Messenger, 26 October 1864, 4 November 1864; Bertram W. Korn, “The Jews of the Union,” AJAJ 13 (1961): 221–224; Earnest A. McKay, The Civil War and New York City (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990), 148; Beckert, Monied Metropolis, 135, 137; Ross L. Muir and Carl L. White, Over the Long Term: The Story of J. & W. Seligman & Co. (New York: J. & W. Seligman, 1964), 46; Lee, Discontent in New York, 175–177, 180–181, 204–205. Tailors’ wages dropped from sixty-seven and a half cents per day to thirty-seven and a half cents per day in 1861. A number of trades staged wartime strikes. On the plight of women workers, working sixteen hour days, ravaged by inflation, see New York Times, 2 April 1864; N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 58; Edward K. Spann, Gotham at War: New York City 1860–1865 (Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002), 109–112, 172.

84. Korn, “Jews of the Union,” 239–243; Jewish Messenger, 28 April 1865; Emmanuel Hertz, ed., Abraham Lincoln: The Tribute of the Synagogue (New York: Bloch, 1927); Sarna and Shappell, Lincoln and the Jews, 217–219.

CHAPTER 3. ONE CITY, TWO JEWISH WORLDS

1. Martha Kransdorf, “Julia Richman’s Years in the New York City Public Schools, 1872–1912” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1979), 58–127 (quote on 58); Selma Berrol, “Julia Richman,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1148–1149.

2. Kransdorf, “Julia Richman’s Years,” 66–72, 128–189 (quotes on 66–67, 72, 132–133); Howe, World of Our Fathers, 278; New York Times, 26 June 1912.

3. Berrol, “Julia Richman,” 2:1148–1149.

4. Katznelson, “Between Separation and Disappearance,” 186.

5. Rischin, Promised City, chap. 5; Nadel, Little Germany, 30–31; David de Sola Pool, “The Levantine Jews in the United States,” American Jewish Year Book 15 (1914): 214–217.

6. Rischin, Promised City, 79–80; Miriam Weinstein, Yiddish: A Nation of Words (New York: Steerforth, 2001); Sarah Abrevaya Stein, Making Jews Modern: The Yiddish and Ladino Press in the Russian and Ottoman Empires (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003).

7. Katznelson, “Between Separation and Disappearance,” 184; Foner, From Ellis Island to JFK, 43, 45–47.

8. Andrew Dolkart, Biography of a Tenement House in New York City: An Architectural History of 97 Orchard Street (Santa Fe, NM: Center for American Places, 2006).

9. Ibid., 61.

10. Rose Radin, American Jewish Committee Oral Histories, New York Public Library; Rischin, Promised City, 76–95; Jacob Riis, How the Other Half Lives (1889; repr., New York: Norton, 2010), 75–94.

11. Dolkart, Biography of a Tenement House, 81–84.

12. Joselit, “Set Table,” 27–33; Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, “Kitchen Judaism,” 77–105; Joselit, Wonders of America, 137–140, 148; Aaron Domnitz, “Why I Left My Old Home and What I Have Accomplished in America,” in Cohen and Soyer, My Future Is in America, 143; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 105–115.

13. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 133–134, 138–140; Joselit, “Set Table,” 35.

14. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 89–104; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 144.

15. Enstad, Ladies of Labor, 22–31; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 89–104.

16. One Hundred Years—1852–1952—The Harmonie Club (New York: Harmonie Club, 1952); Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana, 169–186; Jenna Weissman Joselit, “Fun and Games: The American Jewish Social Club,” in The Columbia History of Jews and Judaism in America, ed. Marc Lee Raphael (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 246–262; Dinnerstein, Anti-Semitism in America, 36–42; Birmingham, “Our Crowd,” 141–150.

17. One Hundred Years; Glanz, Studies in Judaica Americana, 176, 179, 181.

18. Reuben Iceland, “At Goodman and Levine’s,” in Howe and Greenberg, Voices from the Yiddish, 300–303.

19. Herman Yablokoff, “Sitting in the Café Royale,” in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, 288–289; “Café Intellectuals,” Commercial Advertiser, ibid., 289–290; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 235–238; Edmund J. James, Oscar R. Flynn, J. R. Paulding, Charlotte Kimball, and Walter Scott Andrews, The Immigrant Jew in America (New York: B. F. Buck, 1906), 222–226.

20. Riis, How the Other Half Lives; Rebecca Zurier, Picturing the City: Urban Vision and the Ashcan School (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 2–6; Blair, “Visions of the Tenement.”

21. Alan Trachtenberg, Reading American Photographs: Images as History, Mathew Brady to Walker Evans (New York: Hill and Wang, 1989), 167.

22. Joel Smith, “How Stieglitz Came to Photograph Cityscapes,” History of Photography, 20, no. 4 (1996): 322; Hans-Michael Koetzle, Photo Icons: The Story behind the Pictures, vol. 1 (Köln: Taschen, 2002), 136, 137. See also Elizabeth Anne McCauley, “The Making of a Modernist Myth,” in “The Steerage” and Alfred Stieglitz (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012).

23. Diner, Time for Gathering, 133–134; Ravitch, Great School Wars, 33–76; N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 92–96; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 236, 244; Brumberg, Going to America, 3, 67–69, 74–75, 130–131, 138; James et al., Immigrant Jew, 185–186.

24. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 256–264, 273, 280–286; James et al., Immigrant Jew, 188–192, 194–196; Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 781; Morris Raphael Cohen, A Dreamer’s Journey (Boston: Beacon, 1949), 89.

25. George R. Adams, National Register of Historic Places Inventory, Nomination Form, United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service.

26. Leigh Schmidt, Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), 169–174.

27. Christopher Gray, “Streetscapes: The A. T. Stewart Department Store: A City Plan to Revitalize the 1846 Marble Palace,” New York Times, 20 March 1994.

28. “Banking on the Densely Populated East Side Is a Serious Business, but Has Amusing Features,” New York Tribune, 15 May 1903, B4; Jewish Daily Forward, 4 October 1912.

29. “Latest Dealings in Realty Field,” New York Times, 28 May 1911, XXI; Michael D. Caratzas, Research Report, Landmarks Preservation Commission, 13 October 2009, Designation List 419, LP 2363.

30. This ad ran in the Yidishe gazeten throughout 1887.

31. David Warfield, Ghetto Silhouettes (New York: James Pott, 1902), 81–82; Rischin, Promised City, appendix.

32. Day, Urban Castles, 37–41.

33. Jewish Daily Forward, 4 October 1912.

34. Kobrin, “Currents and Currency,” 88–89; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 143.

35. Day, Urban Castles, 37.

36. “Banking on the Densely Populated East Side,” New York Tribune, 15 May 1903; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 145; Day, Urban Castles, 37–41.

37. Kobrin, “Destructive Creators,” 105–108; Kobrin, “Currents and Currency,” 97–99.

38. Bernheimer, “Jewish Immigrant,” 177; Lederhendler, Jewish Immigrants and American Capitalism, 41.

39. Daniel Soyer, “Introduction: The Rise and Fall of the New York Garment Industry,” in Soyer, Coat of Many Colors, 4.

40. Dillon and Godley, “Development of the Jewish Clothing Industry,” 21; Soyer, “Introduction,” 8; Mary Wasserzug Natelson, “The Rabbi’s House (Story of a Family),” trans. Rachel Natelson (manuscript in possession of Annie Polland and Daniel Soyer), 64.

41. Isaac Rubinow, “Economic and Industrial Condition, New York,” in The Russian Jew in the United States, ed. Charles S. Bernheimer (Philadelphia: JC Winston, 1905), 112–113.

42. Daniel Soyer, “Cockroach Capitalists: Jewish Contractors at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” in Soyer, Coat of Many Colors, 92–93.

43. Ibid., 98–108 (quote on 108); Weinstein, Di idishe yunyons in Amerike, 48.

44. Green, “Sweatshop Migrations”; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, chap. 4.

45. Burton J. Hendricks, “The Jewish Invasion of America,” McClure’s Magazine, 12 March 1912, 126; Jesse Pope, The Clothing Industry in New York (1905), quoted in A. Karp, Golden Door to America, 111; Benjamin Stolberg, Tailor’s Progress: The Story of a Famous Union and the Men Who Made It (Garden City, NY: Doubleday-American Mercury, 1944), 9.

46. Kraut, “The Butcher, the Baker, the Pushcart Peddler,” 76; Heinze, “Jewish Street Merchants,” 204, 206–207; Rischin, Promised City, 56.

47. Minnie Goldstein, “Success or Failure?,” in Cohen and Soyer, My Future Is in America, 24–25, 28.

48. Kuznets, “Immigration of Russian Jews,” 94–100; Samuel Joseph, Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1914), 140, 145.

49. John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 57–84; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 66–69; Judith E. Smith, Family Connections: A History of Italian and Jewish Immigrant Lives in Providence, Rhode Island, 1900–1940 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985), 23–82; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 142–143.

50. Harry Golden, “East Side Memoir, 1910s,” in Ribalow, Autobiographies of American Jews; Lower East Side Oral History Project, NS33–64, Tamiment Institute, New York.

51. Joseph, Jewish Immigration, 156–157; Bernheimer, “Jewish Immigrant,” 403–404; Foner, From Ellis Island to JFK, 189–191; Samuel Chotzinoff, “Life on Stanton Street,” in Ribalow, Autobiographies of American Jews, 264. The sociologist and settlement-house worker Charles Bernheimer’s investigation of 225 families on one block in 1907 found that families relied on teenage children for between 44 and 69 percent of their total income. In one apartment, Bernheimer found a woman working as a pants finisher, earning $150 a year. Since rent typically was $10 a month and the woman had an eleven-year-old daughter to support, she took in a seventeen-year-old cousin, who earned $325 as a dressmaker. Bernheimer, “Jewish Immigrant,” 179–180.

52. Michels, Fire in Their Hearts, 61, 100; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 108–109, 162.

53. Michels, Fire in Their Hearts, 15.

CHAPTER 4. FORGING COMMUNITY

1. “Temple Ahawath Chesed,” New York Herald, 15 December 1870; “Architectural Improvements,” New York Times, 3 December 1870, 6.

2. New York Times, 15 December 1870.

3. The Moorish style had rarely appeared in America until that time, except for P. T. Barnum’s home in Bridgeport, Connecticut (1848), and the Crystal Palace built for the 1853 New York world’s fair. Thus, architects for New York’s Moorish synagogues turned to synagogue designs in central Europe, as well as in Cincinnati and San Francisco. Olga Bush, “The Architecture of Jewish Identity: The Neo-Islamic Central Synagogue of New York,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 61, no. 2 (2004): 180–201.

4. Kalmar, “Moorish Style,” 84.

5. Rachel Wischnitzer, Synagogue Architecture in the United States: History and Interpretation (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1955), 52–55; Jick, “Reform Synagogue,” 89; Engelman, “Jewish Statistics in the U.S. Census of Religious Bodies,” 130–133; Greenberg, “German-Jewish Immigrant’s Perception,” 321–322; Asmonean, 3 May 1850, 3 October 1851.

6. Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 370; Jick, “Reform Synagogue,” 91.

7. “Layden, layden di kleyne stors [The small stores suffer],” Forward, 7 April 1902; see also the editorial in that issue on the subject: “Unser ‘goody-goody’ shtot regirung [Our ‘goody-goody’ city government]”; Anne Goldman, Lower East Side Oral History Project, NS33–58, Tamiment Institute, New York; Glenn, Daughters of the Shtetl, 133–135, 139; Rischin, Promised City, 85–86, 146–147; Forward, 4 February 1906; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 145.

8. Livia Garfinkel, “Reflections on Other Times, New York, 1881–1931,” Brooklyn, 1981, Small Collections 5873, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati; Glogower, “Impact of the American Experience,” 263; Samuel Chotzinoff, “Life on Stanton Street,” in Ribalow, Autobiographies of American Jews, 264; Golden, “East Side Memoir,” 307; H. S. Goldstein, Forty Years of Struggle for a Principle (New York: Bloch, 1928), 32–33.

9. Polland, “May a Free Thinker Help a Pious Man?”; “Police Commissioner Bingham and Jewish Sabbath Observers,” Shabes zhurnal, February 1909; “The Jewish Sabbath Association,” American Hebrew, 8 January 1909, 265, 272, see also 15 January 1909, 286; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 646; Bernard Drachman, “Jewish Sabbath Association,” in Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 330.

10. Helen Harris, Lower East Side Oral History Project, NS33–60, Tamiment Institute, New York; Abraham Kokofsky, Lower East Side Oral History Project, NS33–64, Tamiment Institute, New York; Helen Rosenfeld, Lower East Side Oral History Project, NS33–75, Tamiment Institute, New York; Joseph Benjamin, “The Comforts and Discomforts of East Side Tenements,” in Report of the Year’s Work (New York: University Settlement Society, 1897), 27; “The Ghetto Market, Hester Street,” New York Times, 14 November 1897, in Schoener, Portal to America, 55; Bertram Reinitz, “The East Side Looks into Its Future,” New York Times, 13 March 1932; Richard Wheatley, “The Jews of New York,” Century Magazine, January 1892, 327.

11. Constitution of Kahal Adath Jeshurun with Anshe Lubz, 1913, Collection of the Museum at Eldridge Street, New York.

12. Ibid.; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 125 (insert); Solomon Foster, The Workingman and the Synagogue (Newark, 1910), 6; New York Daily Tribune, 20 September 1903; Edward Steiner, “The Russian and Polish Jew in New York,” Outlook, 1 November 1902.

13. Sarna, American Judaism, 132 (quote); M. Meyer, Response to Modernity, 266.

14. Sarna, “Debate over Mixed Seating,” 363–372, 374–379; Grinstein, Rise of the Jewish Community, 364, 410–412, 535.

15. Sarna, American Judaism, 147–148.

16. “Orthodoxy and Reform: The Controversy between Rabbis Kohut and Kohler,” New York Times, 28 June 1885; Barnett Elzas, “Memoir of Alexander Kohut,” in The Ethics of the Fathers, ed. Alexander Kohut and Max Cohen Elzas (New York: American Hebrew, 1920), xxxi; Sarna, American Judaism, 147–148.

17. Rebekah Kohut, My Portion (New York: T. Seltzer, 1925), 100–114; M. Meyer, Response to Modernity, 267.

18. Jick, “Reform Synagogue,” 90–92.

19. Kohut, My Portion, 115; Diner, Jews of the United States, 124–127; Sarna, American Judaism, 150; “More Rabbis Needed,” American Hebrew, 23 September 1887.

20. “Tiny Places of Worship: The Humble Synagogues of the Poorer East Side,” New York Daily Tribune, 16 February 1896; Steiner, “Russian and Polish Jew in New York,” 533; Schoener, Portal to America, 156.

21. Seat contract, 1887, signed by L. Matlawsky, secretary, collection of the Museum at Eldridge Street, New York.

22. Polland, Landmark of the Spirit, 32–48; “Mi Yodea,” American Israelite, 16 September 1887, 4.

23. Jeffrey S. Gurock, “The Orthodox Synagogue,” in The American Synagogue: A Sanctuary Transformed, ed. Jack Wertheimer (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press / University Press of New England, 1987), 47–53.

24. “Mi Yodea,” 4.

25. Polland, Landmark of the Spirit, 99–103.

26. Ibid.,11. English did not become Eldridge Street’s official language until 1899.

27. A. Karp, “New York Chooses a Chief Rabbi”; Polland, Landmark of the Spirit, 41–42.

28. Dinnerstein, “Funeral of Rabbi Jacob Joseph”; O’Donnell, “Hibernians versus Hebrews?”; Goren, Politics and Public Culture, 51–56.

29. Gurock, American Jewish Orthodoxy, 82–83; Polland, Landmark of the Spirit, 11.

30. Gurock, Orthodox Jews in America, 109–147 (quote on 133).

31. Hyman, “Immigrant Women and Consumer Protest,” 93 (quote).

32. Ibid., 99 (quote), 100.

33. Ibid., 92–93, 99, 100, 102, 98 (quotes on 92, 102).

34. Diner, Jews of the United States, 100; Anbinder, Five Points, 254.

35. Rischin, Promised City, 10; Elizabeth Blackmar, “The Congregation and the City,” in Goren and Blackmar, Congregating and Consecrating, 16.

36. John S. Billings, Vital Statistics of the Jews in the United States, 11th Census, Bulletin No. 19 (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 1890); Diner, Time for Gathering, 65. These findings include all American Jews. Of the men surveyed, 5,977 were retail dealers; 3,041 were accountants, bookkeepers, and clerks; 2,147 were wholesale merchants and dealers; and 1,797 were commercial travelers.

37. Birmingham, “Our Crowd,” 154–178.

38. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 129.

39. Jewish Messenger, 31 March 1865, 23 March 1866.

40. Nadel, Little Germany, 66, 71.

41. “Shall We Foster Pauperism?,” Jewish Messenger, 14 March 1873.

42. “Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan Asylum Society,” Jewish Messenger, 7 March 1873.

43. “Co-operate!,” Jewish Messenger, 28 February 1873.

44. “True Brotherhood,” Jewish Messenger, 21 March 1873.

45. Anbinder, Five Points, 244. Inspiration from Christian missionaries in New York that used a district division probably inspired Isaacs.

46. They were the Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan Asylum, the Hebrew Benevolent Fuel Association, the Hebrew Relief Society, the Ladies Benevolent Society (Gates of Prayer), and the Yorkville Ladies Benevolent Society. Isaacs described the severity of New York conditions that winter of 1873 and turned to Jewish tradition as he invoked the Shema, the core Jewish prayer that proclaims the oneness of God: “As we have one God, one law, and are one people, so should we have one institution, where every case of distress might appeal with the certainty of immediate relief.” “Remember the Poor!,” Jewish Messenger, 19 December 1873.

47. Jewish Social Service Association, Fifty Years of Social Service: The History of the United Hebrew Charities of the City of New York, Now the Jewish Social Service Association, Inc. New York City (New York: C. S. Nathan, 1926), 22, 25; United Hebrew Charities, First Annual Report of the Board of Relief of the United Hebrew Charities, 1874–1875, 4–7, YIVO, New York.

48. Herman, “From Priestess to Hostess.”

49. Beth S. Wenger, “Jewish Women and Voluntarism: Beyond the Myth of Enablers,” American Jewish History 79, no. 1 (1989): 16–36.

50. Kohut, My Portion, 175.

51. Quoted in Joselit, “Special Sphere,” 209.

52. “Souvenir,” membership and summary of activities, 1895, 106, in Women’s Organizations, RG4, Central Synagogue Archives, New York; Blackmar, “Congregation and the City,” 16.

53. Hannah B. Einstein, “Sisterhoods of Personal Service,” in The Jewish Encyclopedia (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1901–1906), quoted in Herman, “From Priestess to Hostess,” 154; Hannah Leerburger, “President’s Report, 1913,” in Annual Report of the A.C.S.H. Sisterhood of Personal Service, 1913, 5–8, in Women’s Organizations, RG4, Central Synagogue Archives, New York; Hannah B. Einstein, “The Federation of Sisterhoods,” in Twenty-Firth Annual Report of the United Hebrew Charities of the City of New York (New York: United Hebrew Charities, 1899), 58.

54. United Hebrew Charities, First Annual Report, 4–7; Jewish Social Service Association, Fifty Years of Social Service, 50.

55. Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 994–997; Goren, New York Jews and the Quest for Community, 58–59; Rischin, Promised City, 98–99. The UHC assumed the major responsibility of helping recent immigrants by providing lodging, meals, medical assistance, and burial services and administering employment bureaus.

56. Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 61; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 888–934.

57. Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 167–168, 816–817, 881; Rontch, Di idishe landsmanshaften fun Nyu York, 350–351.

58. Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 4–6.

59. Jacob Sholtz, Autobiography #5, American Jewish Autobiographies, RG102, YIVO, New York.

60. Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 117–120 (quote on 118).

61. Ibid., 144.

62. Tina Levitan, Islands of Compassion: A History of the Jewish Hospitals of New York (New York: Twayne, 1964), 89–92, 107–149; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 119–124, 1014–1015; Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 142–160.

63. Levitan, Islands of Compassion, 107–149; Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 144–147.

64. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 47–50.

65. Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 138–141; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1241, 1243.

66. Eli Lederhendler, Jewish Responses to Modernity: New Voices in America and Eastern Europe (New York: NYU Press, 1997), chap. 1.

67. Diner, Time for Gathering, 8–35, 49–56, 219–226.

68. Steinmetz, Yiddish and English, 30–40; Sholem Aleichem, “Motl Peysi dem khazn’s: In Amerike,” in Green, Jewish Workers in the Modern Diaspora, 193.

69. Whitfield, In Search of American Jewish Culture, 36; Steinmetz, Yiddish and English, 41–65; H. L. Mencken, The American Language: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States, 4th ed. (1936; repr., New York, 1962), 368–369, 578, 633–636, and supplements 1 (1945/1962), 433–435, and 2 (1948/1962), 188–193, 259–262, 754.

70. Schor, Emma Lazarus, 17–20, 23–32, 46–49, 51–62, 67–79, 249–250; John Higham, “Transformation of the Statue of Liberty,” in Send These to Me, 78–87; Francine Klagsbrun, foreword to Emma Lazarus in Her World: Life and Letters, by Bette Roth Young (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1995), xii–xiii.

71. Stansell, American Moderns, 120–144 (quote on 134); Tony Michels, “Cultural Crossings: Immigrant Jews, Yiddish, and the New York Intellectual Scene” (unpublished paper, 2012).

72. Sanford Marovitz, Abraham Cahan (New York: Twayne, 1996), 153–156; Cahan, Bleter fun may lebn, 4:21–31; Alisa Braun, “Jews, Writing and the Dynamics of Literary Affiliation, 1880–1940” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2007), 20–67.

73. Moses Rischin, introduction to Hapgood, Spirit of the Ghetto, vii–x.

74. Stansell, American Moderns, 132, 134.

75. Antler, Journey Home, 74; Stansell, American Moderns, 121, 134.

76. Antler, Journey Home, 73–78, 82–85 (quote on 85); Stansell, American Moderns, 120–144 (quote on 134); Candace Falk, “Goldman, Emma,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1:529.

77. Sandrow, Vagabond Stars, 72–78, 92, 104–109.

78. Nadel, “Jewish Race and German Soul,” 15–16; Warnke, “Immigrant Popular Culture as Contested Space,” 326–331 (quote on 326); Thissen, “Jewish Immigrant Audiences,” 18.

79. Sandrow, Vagabond Stars, 132; Arthur A. Goren, “The Rites of Community,” in Politics and Public Culture, 58–62 (quote on 61).

80. Sandrow, Vagabond Stars, 132–163, 170–189, 261–271; Warnke, “Theater as Educational Institution.”

81. Daniel Soyer, “Kalisch, Bertha,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1:715–717.

82. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 1151–1154, 1189, 1213; Daniel Pfaff, “Pulitzer, Joseph,” in American National Biography Online, accessed 14 February 2016, www.anb.org.

83. Pfaff, “Pulitzer, Joseph.”

84. Marcus, United States Jewry, 3:313–314; Susan Barnes, “Ochs, Adolph Simon,” in American National Biography Online, accessed 14 February 2016, www.anb.org.

85. N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 74; “Adolph S. Ochs Dead at 77,” New York Times, 9 April 1935; Harrison Salisbury, “New York Times,” in Encyclopedia of New York City, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 846–847; Tifft and Jones, Trust, 92–96; “The Frank Case,” New York Times, 8 May 1914; Moore, B’nai B’rith, 107–108; Dinnerstein, Anti-Semitism in America, 181–184.

86. Michels, “Speaking to Moyshe,” 53; Goren, “Jewish Press,” 212; Rischin, The Promised City, 118; Moyshe Shtarkman, “Vikhtikste momentn in der geshikhte fun der yidisher prese in Amerike,” in Finf un zibetsik yor yidishe prese in Amerike, 1870–1945, ed. J. Gladstone, S. Niger, and H. Rogoff (New York: Yiddish Writers Union, 1945), 17–19, 25–26; Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literature, vol. 7 (New York: Congress for Jewish Culture, 1968), 88–89.

87. Michels, Fire in Their Hearts, 53–56, 95–104; Rischin, introduction to Grandma Never Lived in America.

88. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 150, 153; Goren, “Jewish Press,” 215, 217; Michels, “Speaking to Moyshe,” 69.

89. S. Margoshes, “The Jewish Press in New York City,” in Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 600–608, 612–632.

90. Irving Howe, Ruth Wisse, and Khone Shmeruk, introduction to The Penguin Book of Modern Yiddish Verse, ed. Irving Howe, Ruth Wisse, and Khone Shmeruk (New York: Viking, 1987), 22–25; Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literature, vol. 1 (1956), 207–210; vol. 3 (1960), 432–443; vol. 6 (1965), 554–563; vol. 8 (1981), 350–356; Morris Rosenfeld, “The Teardrop Millionaire,” in Morris Rosenfeld: Selections from His Poetry and Prose, ed. Itche Goldberg and Max Rosenfeld (New York: Yidisher kultur farband, 1964), 29; Braun, “Jews, Writing, and the Dynamics of Literary Affiliation,” 72–121.

91. Howe, Wisse, and Shmeruk, introduction to Penguin Book, 28; Mani Leyb, “Ot azoy, azoy, azoy,” in Zishe Landoy: Zamlbukh aroysgegebn fun khaveyrim, ed. Dovid Kazanski (New York: Farlag Inzl, 1938), 11.

92. Howe, Wisse, and Shmeruk, introduction to Penguin Book, 26–32; Wisse, Little Love in Big Manhattan, 21–44; Mani Leyb, “I Am … / Ich bitt …” in Howe, Wisse, and Shmeruk, Penguin Book, 128–132; Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literature, vol. 5 (1963), 450–456.

93. Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 151–152.

94. Krutikov, “Cityscapes of Yidishkayt.”

95. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 445–451; Leksikon fun der nayer yidisher literatur, vol. 8 (1981), 678–720; vol. 1 (1956), 83–92; Goren, “Rites of Community,” 67–71.

96. Josh Lambert, “Opatoshu’s Eroticism, American Obscenity,” in Joseph Opatoshu: A Yiddish Writer between Europe and America, ed. Sabine Koller, Gennady Estraikh, and Mikhail Krutikov (London: Routledge, 2013), 172–183; Norich, Discovering Exile, chap. 3.

97. Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 148 (quote); Alan Mintz, “A Sanctuary in the Wilderness: The Beginnings of the Hebrew Movement in America in Hatoren,” in Hebrew in America: Perspectives and Prospects, ed. Alan Mintz (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993), 29–67.

98. Margoshes, “Jewish Press,” 599; Z’vi Scharfstein, “Hebrew Speaking Clubs in America,” in Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 566–567; A. Mintz, “Hebrew Literature in America”; Jonathan D. Sarna, “American Jewish Education in History,” Journal of Jewish Education 64, nos. 1–2 (1998): 14–18.

99. Aviva Ben-Ur, “The Ladino (Judeo-Spanish) Press in the United States, 1910–1948,” in Multilingual America: Transnationalism, Ethnicity, and the Languages of American Literature, ed. Werner Sollors (New York: NYU Press, 1998), 64–79.

100. Rischin, Promised City, 128–130; Michels, “Speaking to Moyshe,” 67; Nadel, “Jewish Race and German Soul,” 16; Nadel, Little Germany, 83.

101. Emma Goldman, Living My Life (New York: Knopf, 1931), 56, quoted in “Emma Goldman,” in Women of Valor, Jewish Women’s Archive, accessed 14 February 2016, http://jwa.org.

102. N. Cohen, Encounter with Emancipation, 233.

103. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 129.

104. Marcus, United States Jewry, 2:478; Friedman, “Send Me My Husband”; Abraham Oseroff, “The United Hebrew Charities of the City of New York and Subsidiary Relief Agencies,” in Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 994–996, 1318–1327; Igra, Wives without Husbands; Peter Romanofsky, “ ‘… To Rid Ourselves of the Burden …’: New York Jewish Charities and the Origins of the Industrial Removal Office, 1890–1901,” AJHQ 64, no. 4 (1975): 331; New York Times, 41 October 1905, 8 June 1914.

105. Judith Ann Trolander, Professionalism and Social Change: From the Settlement House Movement to Neighborhood Centers, 1886 to the Present (New York: Columbia University Press, 1887).

106. Marjorie N. Feld, “Lillian Wald,” in Encyclopedia, Jewish Women’s Archive, accessed January 18, 2017, https://jwa.org.

107. Marjorie N. Feld, Lillian Wald: A Biography (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); N. Feld, “Lillian Wald,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1446–1449.

108. Adam Bellow, The Educational Alliance: A Centennial Celebration (New York: Educational Alliance, 1990), 41; D. Kaufman, Shul with a Pool, 92; Minutes of a Meeting of the Committee on Religious and Moral Work of the Educational Alliance, 4 May 1916, Records of the Educational Alliance, YIVO, New York.

109. “In a Wide Labor Field,” New York Times, 19 May 1895.

110. Minutes of a Meeting of the Committee of Religious and Moral Work of the Educational Alliance, 4 May 1916; “In a Wide Labor Field.” See also Cary Goodman, Choosing Sides: Playground and Street Life on the Lower East Side (New York: Schocken, 1979).

111. Soyer, “Brownstones and Brownsville.”

112. Goren, New York Jews, 25.

113. Joselit, Our Gang, 2, 5–8; Gilfoyle, City of Eros, 264–265, 408n35.

114. Goren, New York Jews, 36.

115. Ibid., 36–38; Arthur A. Goren, introduction to Dissenter in Zion: From the Writings of Judah L. Magnes, ed. Arthur A. Goren (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 1–58; Moore, “New American Judaism,” 41–42.

116. Goren, New York Jews, 52–55, 58–59, 82–84, 86–109, 159–213.

117. Samson Benderly, “The Present Status of Jewish Religious Education in New York City,” and Bernard Dushkin, “Cheder Instruction,” in Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 349–357, 397.

118. Goren, New York Jews, 240; Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 124–127.

119. Moore, “From Kehillah to Federation.”

120. The New York and Brooklyn federations merged in 1943.

121. Walkowitz, Working with Class, 71–73; Jonathan Woocher, Sacred Survival: The Civil Religion of American Jews (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), 25; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1281–1313; New York Times, 24 June 1916; Moore, “From Kehillah to Federation,” 134; Berkman, “Transforming Philanthropy,” 150–153, 155–158.

CHAPTER 5. THE POWER OF POLITICS

1. Steven J. Zipperstein, Elusive Prophet: Ahad Ha’am and the Origins of Zionism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 204–205; Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, 473–484 (quote on 483).

2. Moore, B’nai B’rith, 74; Penkower, “Kishinev Pogrom,” 191.

3. Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, 487–492; Penkower, “Kishinev Pogrom,” 204.

4. Moore, “New American Judaism,” 41–47.

5. N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 8–28.

6. Ibid., 27; Naomi W. Cohen, Jacob Schiff: A Study in American Jewish Leadership (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 1999); Ann E. Healy, “Tsarist Anti-Semitism and Russian-American Relations,” Slavic Review 42, no. 3 (1983): 408–425.

7. Silver, “Louis Marshall”; N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 28.

8. N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 40–48, 57–58; Jeffrey S. Gurock, “The 1913 New York State Civil Rights Act,” AJS Review 1 (1976): 93–120; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1415–1422.

9. N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 8–28, 40–48, 57–58; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1415–1422, 1426–1427; Panitz, “In Defense of the Jewish Immigrant,” 63–64.

10. Rogow, Gone to Another Meeting, esp. 1–35, 225; Hasia R. Diner and Beryl Lieff Benderly, Her Works Praise Her: A History of Jewish Women in America from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 2002), 252–253, 255; Martha Katz-Hyman, “American, Sadie,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1:38–39.

11. Rogow, Gone to Another Meeting, 130–142; Diner and Benderly, Her Works Praise Her, 256–257. See also Edward J. Bristow, Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight against White Slavery, 1870–1939 (New York: Schocken, 1983).

12. Rogow, Gone to Another Meeting, 118; Katz-Hyman, “American, Sadie,” 1:38–39.

13. Rogow, Gone to Another Meeting, 118–123; Katz-Hyman, “American, Sadie,” 1:38–39.

14. Rogow, Gone to Another Meeting, 226; Peggy Pearlstein, “Brenner, Rose,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1:175; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1137, 1232.

15. Diner, Jews of the United States, 181; Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, 10–13; Evyatar Friesel, “Brandeis’ Role in American Zionism Historically Reconsidered,” in American Zionism: Mission and Politics, ed. Jeffrey S. Gurock (New York: Routledge, 1998), 92–96; Naomi W. Cohen, “The Reaction of Reform Judaism in America to Political Zionism (1897–1922),” in Gurock, American Zionism, 31–32; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1340–1342.

16. Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, 18–19.

17. Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1360–1361, 1370–1371; Deborah Dash Moore, “Hadassah,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1:571 (quotes).

18. Simmons, Hadassah and the Zionist Project, 11; Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, 15–16; Michael Brown, “Szold, Henrietta,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1368–1370; McCune, “Whole Wide World without Limits,” 23–26.

19. Michael Brown, The Israeli-American Connection: Its Roots in the Yishuv, 1914–1945 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1996), 145; Moore, “Hadassah,” 1:572; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1360–1365; Simmons, Hadassah and the Zionist Project, 18.

20. Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1340–1409.

21. Michels, Fire in Their Hearts, 125–216 (quotes on 136, 145); Epstein, Profiles of Eleven, 297–317.

22. Michels, Fire in Their Hearts, 125–178, 179 (quote); Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, 453–509.

23. Hillel Rogoff, Meyer London: A biografye (New York: Meyer London Memorial Fund, 1930), 78–79; Epstein, Jewish Labor in the USA, vol. 1, 1882–1914, 358–360.

24. Cahan, Bleter fun mayn lebn, 4:606–607, 5:25–27, 240–241.

25. Society of Tammany or Columbian Order, 150th Anniversary Celebration: 1786–July 4–1936 (New York: Tammany Society, 1936), 65; Gustavus Myers, The History of Tammany Hall (New York: G. Myers, 1901), 257–258; Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 995, 1145.

26. Rischin, Promised City, chap. 11.

27. Forman, “Politics of Minority Consciousness,” 144; Fuchs, Political Behavior of American Jews, 25–27.

28. “Biographical Profiles,” in Maisel, Jews in American Politics, 328, 334, 351; Myers, History of Tammany Hall, 166–167; Fuchs, Political Behavior of American Jews, 29, 32–46; Arthur Silver, “Jews in the Political Life of New York City, 1865–1897” (DHL diss., Yeshiva University, 1954), 7–8, 80, 107–108, 113–120. In 1892, Republicans nominated former congressman Edwin Einstein for mayor, making him the first Jew to head a major-party local ticket. Republicans hoped to attract Jewish votes to the state ticket with his candidacy. Tammany responded in part by increasing its nominations of Jews. Two years later, Tammany offered the mayoral nomination to the wealthy philanthropist Nathan Straus, but Straus withdrew when convinced by editors of the American Hebrew that he was simply being used to draw votes for Tammany’s other candidates. Michels, Fire in Their Hearts, 46.

29. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 1092.

30. Burrows and Wallace, Gotham, 1092–1110; Epstein, Jewish Labor in USA, 115–116, 144–149; Tcherikower, Geshikhte fun der yidisher arbeter bavegung in di fareynikte shtatn, 290–294.

31. Ben Reisman, “Why I Came to America,” in Cohen and Soyer, My Future Is in America, 67–68; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 287–295.

32. J. S. Hertz, 50 yor arbeter-ring in yidishn lebn (New York: National Executive Committee of the Workmen’s Circle, 1950), 15; Sachs, Di geshikhte fun arbayter ring, 3–6; Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 66–70.

33. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 522–543; Epstein, Profiles of Eleven, 49–110.

34. For an overview, see Nick Salvatore, Eugene V. Debs: Citizen and Socialist (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).

35. Kosak, Cultures of Opposition, 161–163.

36. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 298.

37. Ibid., 297–299; Orleck, Common Sense, 39–41, 48–49, 60; Greenwald, Triangle Fire, 32–46.

38. Greenwald, Triangle Fire, 50–75; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 301.

39. James et al., Immigrant Jew, 261.

40. See Morris Hillquit’s autobiography, Loose Leaves from a Busy Life (New York: Macmillan, 1934).

41. Morris Hillquit, “Why I Am a Socialist,” in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, 190; Epstein, Profiles of Eleven, 189–232; Leksikon fun der nayer yiddisher literature, vol. 3 (1960), 138–139; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 315.

42. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 315; Epstein, Profiles of Eleven, 159–188 (quote on 174); Rogoff, Meyer London.

43. Von Drehle, Triangle; Stein, Triangle Fire; Greenwald, Triangle Fire, 129–153.

44. Jewish Daily Forward, 26 March 1911; Morgen zhurnal, quoted in Goren, “Rites of Community,” 62.

45. Goren, “Rites of Community,” 63–67.

46. Rose Schneiderman, “An Appeal to Working People,” in Howe and Libo, How We Lived, 187.

47. Stein, Triangle Fire, 124, 138; Orleck, Common Sense, 36–37, 44–45, 48, 103; Greenwald, Triangle Fire, 139–145.

48. Greenwald, Triangle Fire, 156–159; Von Drehle, Triangle, 209–214; Orleck, Common Sense, 131–132.

49. Thomas Henderson, Tammany Hall and the New Immigrants: The Progressive Years (New York: Arno, 1976), 177; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 313, 315; Dubofsky, “Success and Failure of Socialism,” 367–368; Arthur A. Goren, “Socialist Politics on the Lower East Side,” in Politics and Public Culture, 84–89, 95–97 (quote on 97).

50. Landesman, Brownsville, 113–119, 299–302.

51. Frederick C. Giffin, “Morris Hillquit and the War Issue in the New York Mayoralty Campaign of 1917,” International Social Science Review 74, nos. 3–4 (1999): 115–128. See also Ross J. Wilson, New York and the First World War: Shaping an American City (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2014).

52. “Judge Hylan Opens Fight for Ballots,” New York Times, 5 October 1917.

53. Henderson, Tammany Hall and the New Immigrants, 193–219; Dubofsky, “Success and Failure of Socialism,” 371; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 278–280, 319–321 (quote 319); “Hylan Victory Is a Tammany Record,” New York Times, 8 November 1917; Epstein, Profiles of Eleven, 213; Giffin, “Hillquit and the War Issue,” 122–125.

54. Rosalyn Baxandall, “A Socialist in Congress: My Great-Uncle, Meyer London,” Jewish Currents, September 2013, http://jewishcurrents.org. See also Gordon J. Goldberg, Meyer London: A Biography of the Socialist Congressman, 1871–1926 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2013).

55. Henderson, Tammany Hall and the New Immigrants, 222–234; Landesman, Brownsville, 304.

56. Lerner, “Jewish Involvement,” reprinted in American Jewish History, ed. Jeffrey S. Gurock (New York: Routledge, 1998), 3: 963–982.

57. Orleck, Common Sense, 87–113 (quote on 91).

58. “Di pflicht fun amerikaner iden,” Tageblat, 20 August 1914.

59. Soyer, Jewish Immigrant Associations, 161–171.

60. “American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee and Refugee Aid,” Holocaust Encyclopedia, accessed 20 February 2016, www.ushmm.org.

61. Jonathan Frankel, “Jewish Socialists and the American Jewish Congress Movement,” YIVO Annual 16 (1976): 202–341.

62. McCune, “Whole Wide World without Limits,” 49.

63. “An Inventory to the Stephen S. Wise Collection,” American Jewish Archives, accessed 2 August 2010, www.americanjewisharchives.org; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1460–1461. See also Melvin I. Urofsky, A Voice That Spoke for Justice: The Life and Times of Rabbi Stephen S. Wise (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1982).

64. Frankel, Prophecy and Politics, 509–536; Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 1429–1440; “Jews Pick Members for Congress Today,” New York Times, 10 June 1917.

65. N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 119. See also Carole Fink, Defending the Rights of Others: The Great Powers, the Jews, and International Minority Protection, 1878–1938 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

66. “Likens Alien Bill to Pharaoh’s Plan,” New York Times, 20 April 1924.

67. Higham, Strangers in the Land, 194–299.

68. Ibid., 270–286; Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race (New York: Scribner, 1916), 81; N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 127.

69. N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist, 124–139; Woeste, “Insecure Equality.”

70. Daniels, Guarding the Golden Door, 7–49 (quote on 47–48).

71. “Says ‘Foreign Bloc’ Fights Johnson Bill,” New York Times, 2 March 1924; Chin Jou, “Contesting Nativism: The New York Congressional Delegation’s Case against the Immigration Act of 1924,” Federal History 3 (2011): 66–79, accessed 23 May 2011, http://shfg.org; Biographical Dictionary of the United States Congress, accessed 23 May 2011, http://bioguide.congress.gov; House Vote #90, 15 May 1924, To Agree to the Report of Conference Committee on H.R. 7995, to Limit the Immigration of Aliens into the United States (P. 8651–1), accessed 23 May 2011, www.govtrack.us.

72. Higham, Send These to Me, 203–208. On name changing, see Kirsten Fermaglich, “ ‘Too Long, Too Foreign … Too Jewish’: Jews, Name Changing, and Family Mobility in New York City, 1917–1942,” Journal of American Ethnic History 34, no. 3 (2015): 34–87.

73. Garland, “Not-Quite-Closed Gates,” 199; “Population and Migration: Migration since World War I,” in The Yivo Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, accessed 4 February 2016, www.yivoencyclopedia.org; “Immigration Act of 1924,” Wikipedia, accessed 4 February 2016, http://en.wikipedia.org.

74. Garland, “Not-Quite-Closed Gates,” 199; Minnie Kuznetz, “I Haven’t Lost Anything by Coming to America,” in Cohen and Soyer, My Future Is in America, 302, 307–309.

CHAPTER 6. JEWISH GEOGRAPHY

1. Deborah Dash Moore, “Who Built New York? Jewish Builders in the Interwar Decades,” American Jewish History 101 (2017).

2. Cahan, Bleter fun mayn lebn, 3:428.

3. Day, Urban Castles, 42–46; Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 45–49.

4. Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 28, 33; Cahan, Bleter fun mayn lebn, 3:430.

5. Rischin, “Toward the Onomastics of the Great New York Ghetto,” 13–24; Moore, At Home in America, 8.

6. Moore, At Home in America, 19; Diner, Lower East Side Memories, 96–117.

7. Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn, 11–18; Moore, “On the Fringes of the City,” 256–257; quote from “Brownsville an Example of Rise of Values in Brooklyn Realty,” New York Herald, undated clipping, A. J. Virginia Scrapbook, Jewish Division, New York Public Library.

8. Landesman, Brownsville, 58–60.

9. Ibid., 56, 78–79, 86, 88–89, 150; Moore, “On the Fringes of the City.”

10. Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, map following 80; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 149.

11. Hasia R. Diner, “Buying and Selling ‘Jewish’: The Historical Impact of Commerce on Jewish Communal Life,” in Imagining the American Jewish Community, ed. Jack Wertheimer (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 2007), 28–41; Moore, At Home in America, 20; Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 39; Rischin, Promised City, 56.

12. Rischin, Promised City, 57–58; James et al., Immigrant Jew, 289; Samuel Chotzinoff, A Lost Paradise: Early Reminiscences (1955; repr., New York: Arno, 1975), 182–188; Joselit, Wonders of America, 202–203. See also Merwin, Pastrami on Rye.

13. Joselit, Wonders of America, 208–215; James et al., Immigrant Jew, 223; Rischin, Promised City, 141.

14. Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn, 25; Domnitz, “Why I Left,” 149–150; Seward Park Branch Records, Manuscripts and Archives Division, Astor, Lenox, and Tilden Foundations, New York Public Library.

15. New York State Reconstruction Commission, Housing Conditions: Report of the Housing Committee of the Reconstruction Commission of the State of New York (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1920), 9.

16. Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 140–141. On post–World War I racial tensions in American cities, see Arthur I. Waskow, From Race Riot to Sit-In: 1919 and the 1960s (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966), 2, 21–22, 304–308.

17. On the tax-exemption law, see Real Estate Record and Builders Guide (hereafter RERBG), 5 March 1921, cited in Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 42.

18. RERBG, 3 September 1921, 18 March 1922. On the citywide patterns over the decade of the 1920s, see New York City Tenement House Department, Tenth Report, 1918–1929 (New York: Martin Brown, 1929), 36–49.

19. Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs, vol. 2, Population, Land Values and Government: Studies of the Growth and Distribution of Population and Land Values and of Problems of Government, Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs (New York: Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs, 1929), 62; RERBG, 21 September 1921, 26 February 1927.

20. Edwin Harold Spengler, Land Values in New York in Relation to Transit Facilities (New York: Columbia University Press, 1930), 19–24; Hood, 722 Miles, 158–161, 174. See also Michael V. Gershowitz, “Neighborhood Power Structure: Decision Making in Forest Hills” (PhD diss., New York University, 1974), 28; Daniel A. Wishnoff, “The Tolerance Point: Race, Public Housing and the Forest Hills Controversy, 1945–1975” (PhD diss., City University of New York, 2005), 153–154.

21. Abraham Cahan wrote in his famous novel The Rise of David Levinsky about how a “boom” was “intoxicating a certain element of the population” of “Jewish carpenters, house-painters, bricklayers, or installment peddlers,” emerging, in true rags-to-riches style, as “builders of tenements or frame dwellings.” Abraham Cahan, The Rise of David Levinsky: A Novel (New York: Harper, 1917), 464, 480; Gurock, “Synagogue Imperialism.”

22. Moore, At Home in America, 39 (quote).

23. Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 27, 33–34.

24. Moore, At Home in America, 44–53.

25. Hood, 722 Miles, 173–177; Plunz, History of Housing, 131.

26. Jackson Heights Investing Company v. James Conforti Construction Company, 222 A.D. 687 (1927), 73, 76, 100–101. See also Broun and Britt, Christians Only, 256.

27. For the evolution of the Russell Sage Foundation’s approach toward Forest Hills Gardens, see Plunz, History of Housing, 117–120. See also, on the foundation, “Russell Sage Foundation,” in Jackson, Encyclopedia of New York City, 1029. See also, on the rapid-transit issue, Gershowitz, “Neighborhood Power Structure,” 26; Wishnoff, “Tolerance Point,” 152; Jeff Gottlieb, “Benjamin Braunstein: Quiet, Genius at Work” (unpublished paper), formerly appearing at www.qjhs.org. On the Jewish population of Forest Hills as of 1930, see Horowitz and Kaplan, Estimated Jewish Population, 94. On the early settlers in the neighborhood, including the Forest Hills Gardens portion, see Jeff Gottlieb, “The Early Years: A Clearer View of Early Jewish Life in Forest Hills” (unpublished paper), formerly appearing at www.qjhs.org.

28. Kuznetz, “I Haven’t Lost Anything,” 302.

29. Moore, At Home in America, 62–80.

30. Moore, At Home in America, 19–24, 65–68; Wenger, New York Jews, 81, 83–84, 94.

31. For statistics on Jewish out-migration from older neighborhoods and resettlement elsewhere in the city, see Kehillah, Jewish Communal Register, 82, 85; Horowitz and Kaplan, Estimated Jewish Population, 22, 133, 157, 209, 239. See also, on relocation destinations, Grebler, Housing Market Behavior, 124–125. On the differing fates of Jews and African Americans in Harlem, circa 1920–1930, see Osofsky, Harlem, 130, 248; Gurock, When Harlem Was Jewish, 144–145, 156. On Washington Heights, see Robert W. Snyder, Crossing Broadway: Washington Heights and the Promise of New York City (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014).

32. Dolkart, “Homes for People”; Plunz, History of Housing, 151–157; Katherine Eva Rosenblatt, “Cooperative Battlegrounds: Farmers, Workers, and the Search for Economic Alternatives” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2016), 85–92, 102–103.

33. Plunz, History of Housing, 151–157; Dolkart, “Homes for People,” 33–35; Rosenblatt, “Cooperative Battlegrounds,” 105–113.

34. Trillin, “U.S. Journal.”

35. Angel, La America, 20, 35–36, 146, 169; Ben-Ur, Sephardic Jews in America, 35–37.

36. Moore, At Home in America, 30.

37. Ibid., 23, 66, 71–73, 78–82; Rischin, Promised City, 93; Wenger, New York Jews, 85–89.

38. Moore, At Home in America, 23, 66, 73–74, 76; Wenger, New York Jews, 90–93 (quote on 93).

39. Moore, At Home in America, 21, 23; Wenger, New York Jews, 81.

40. Kazin, Walker in the City, 88, 107; Gay, Unfinished People, 298.

41. Adolph Schayes, interview with Jeffrey S. Gurock, 5 December 2008.

42. Stephen G. Thompson, “Co-op Housing: N.Y.C. vs. U.S.A.,” Architectural Forum, July 1959, 132–133, 178. For a full discussion of Title 1 housing, see Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and the Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993).

43. “New Apartments Offer Terraces,” New York Times, 26 April 1942; Marshall Sklare, “Jews, Ethnics, and the American City,” Commentary 53, no. 4 (1972): 72 (quote).

44. All of these sources are derived from a clipping file, a compilation of newspaper articles titled “Forest Hills Housing, 1921–1971” at the Queens Public Library, Long Island Division; Sklare, “Jews, Ethnics,” 72; Alison Gregor, “Away from the Limelight a Builder Makes His Mark,” New York Times, 21 December 2006. See also the company’s history of its endeavors, Muss Development LLC: Building New York since 1906 (document provided to Gurock by Joshua Muss); Joshua Muss, interview with Gurock, 24 November 2008.

45. On the history of the LeFraks, see “LeFrak, Samuel J.,” in American National Biography Online, accessed 19 January 2017, www.anb.org. On the LeFraks’ early efforts in Queens, see “Forest Hills Gets New Apartments of Unusual Design,” New York Times, 1 April 1951; James Trager, The New York Chronology: The Ultimate Compendium of Events, People, and Anecdotes from the Dutch to the Present (New York: Collins Reference, 2004), 455–456. On the family’s approach to housing for less affluent residents, see Charles V. Bagli, “Blue-Collar Builders Expand Empire to Glitzier Shores,” New York Times, 9 October 2007.

46. Ruth Glazer, “West Bronx: Food, Shelter, Clothing,” Commentary, June 1949, 578–585.

47. Vivian Gornick, “There Is No More Community,” Interchange, April 1977, 4; Vivian Gornick, “Commencement Address,” in City at the Center: A Collection of Writings by CCNY Alumni and Faculty, ed. Betty Rizzo and Barry Wallenstein (New York: City College of New York, 1983), 84–87.

48. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 16; Snyder, Crossing Broadway, 24, 27–29, 150–152; Solomon Poll, The Hasidic Community of Williamsburg: A Study in the Sociology of Religion (New York: Schocken, 1969).

49. Bureau of Community Statistical Services Research Department, Community Council of Greater New York, Bronx Communities: Population Characteristics and Neighborhood Social Resources, typescript (New York, 1962), 45–46, 69, 70; Horowitz and Kaplan, Estimated Jewish Population, 175, 217, 229, 233, 235; Naison, “Crown Heights in the 1950s,” 143–152 (quote on 144–145).

50. Edgar M. Hoover and Raymond Vernon, Anatomy of a Metropolis: The Changing Distribution of People and Jobs within the New York Metropolitan Region (1962; repr., Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 16.

51. Caro, Power Broker, 851–852; Freeman, Working-Class New York, 35, 37; Naison, “Crown Heights in the 1950s,” 144; Emerson, Always Magic in the Air, 84–85.

CHAPTER 7. RAISING TWO GENERATIONS

1. Lederhendler, “New York City,” 55; on the Yom Kippur method, see Moore, At Home in America, 243–245.

2. Lederhendler, “New York City,” 55.

3. On gender differences, see Paula E. Hyman, Gender and Assimilation in Modern Jewish History: The Roles and Representation of Women (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995).

4. Marilyn Halter, Shopping for Identity: The Marketing of Ethnicity (New York: Schocken, 2000), 33–35. See also Roger Horowitz, Kosher USA: How Coke Became Kosher and Other Tales of Modern Food (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016).

5. Joselit, Wonders of America, 176, 187–188, 193–195; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 176–177.

6. Joselit, Wonders of America, 96–101.

7. McGill, “Some Characteristics of Jewish Youth,” 266–267.

8. Pamela S. Nadell, “A Bright New Constellation: Feminism and American Judaism” in Raphael, Columbia History of Jews and Judaism, 387–388; Scult, Judaism Faces the Twentieth Century, 301–302.

9. Goren, “Traditional Institutions Transplanted,” 62–78 (quote on 70–71).

10. Ibid., 71–72 (quote on 71).

11. Ibid., 75. Socialist Jews, rejecting Orthodox Jewish ritual requirements, established their own “Cemetery Departments” in such organizations as the Workmen’s Circle, a socialist Jewish fraternal society.

12. On the rise of synagogue centers in New York during the 1920s, see Moore, At Home in America, 140–143. On Kaplan’s break with Orthodoxy, see Gurock and Schacter, Modern Heretic, 106–134.

13. Gurock, Judaism’s Encounter with American Sports, 66–67; Israel Herbert Levinthal, “The Value of the Center to the Synagogue,” United Synagogue Review, June 1926, 19.

14. Gurock, Judaism’s Encounter, 70–71; Merwin, In Their Own Image, 59; Wenger, New York Jews, 186.

15. Morris Freedman, “New Jewish Community in Formation: A Conservative Center Catering to Present-Day Needs,” Commentary, January 1955, 36–37, 39, 43, 45, 46.

16. On the founding and early mission of the Forest Hills Jewish Center, see Wishnoff, “Tolerance Point,” 159–164.

17. Jeffrey S. Gurock, “Devotees and Deviants: A Primer on the Religious Values of Orthodox Day School Families,” in Rav Chesed: Essays in Honor of Rabbi Dr. Haskel Lookstein, ed. Rafael Medoff (Hoboken, NJ: Ktav, 2009), 271–294.

18. On the founding of the Yeshiva of Central Queens, see its brief institution history composed as part of its Yeshiva of Central Queens Golden Jubilee Dinner Journal, 3 March 1991, provided courtesy of the Yeshiva of Central Queens. See also Jeff Gottlieb, “Jamaica: Stronghold of the Jews” (unpublished paper), 7, formerly appearing at www.qjhs.org.

19. Undated report, c. 1957, on Solomon Schechter Schools in the Ben Zion Bokser Papers, Box 20, Ratner Center, Jewish Theological Seminary, New York; Ben Zion Bokser, “The Solomon Schechter Day Schools,” United Synagogue Review, March 1957, 11; Harold U. Ribalow, “My Child Goes to Jewish Parochial School,” Commentary, January–June 1954, 64–67.

20. United States Displaced Persons Commission, Memo to America: The DP Story: The Final Report of the United States Displaced Persons Commission (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1952), 27, 38–39. I am grateful to William B. Helmreich for directing me to this source. See also Rosenwaike, Population History, 159. Ironically, immediately after the war, survivors from Germany and Austria found their own paths to America hindered by legal and bureaucratic definitions that included them as among unwelcomed refugees from a former enemy state, even though these so-called German expellees had had their citizenship stripped from them by Nazi edicts. Only in 1950 did the United States ameliorate this mischaracterization by amending displaced-persons legislation to allow approximately fifty-five thousand Jews to enter on a nonquota basis. V. Sanua, “Study of the Adjustment of Sephardi Jews.” See also Sutton, Magic Carpet, 4.

21. On adjustment patterns of Jews from Germany in New York after World War II, see Joseph Berger, Displaced Persons: Growing Up American after the Holocaust (New York: Scribner, 2001); and Beth Cohen, Case Closed: Holocaust Survivors in Postwar America (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007).

22. Kranzler, Williamsburg, 40–43; J. Mintz, Hasidic People, 30.

23. Mayer, From Suburb to Shtetl, 31; Kranzler, Williamsburg, 40–43.

24. On the Lubavitcher farbrengen, see J. Mintz, Hasidic People, 48–50, 97.

25. Heilman and Friedman, Rebbe, 158–160. See also Sue Fishkoff, The Rebbe’s Army: Inside the World of Chabad-Lubavitch (New York: Schocken, 2003).

26. Stephen Steinberg, The Academic Melting Pot: Catholics and Jews in American Higher Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), 20–21; Marcia Graham Synott, The Half-Opened Door: Discrimination and Admissions at Harvard, Yale and Princeton, 1900–1970 (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1979), 158, 195. Communal pressures kept 20 percent of Harvard’s study body Jewish, far above the 10 percent at Yale.

27. M. Sanua, “We Hate New York,” 237; Lee J. Levinger, The Jewish Student in America: A Study Made by the Research Bureau of the B’nai B’rith Hillel Foundation (Cincinnati: B’nai B’rith, 1937), 94.

28. Broun and Britt, Christians Only, 107; Felix Morrow, “Higher Learning on Washington Square,” Menorah Journal, Autumn 1930, 353; Hollinger, “Two NYUs,” 255. On NYU’s Depression-era reversal of policies, see Bender, New York Intellect, 291.

29. Hollinger, “Two NYUs,” 256; Morrow, “Higher Learning,” 348–349. There is a difference of opinion within the sources on the Jewish proportions at NYU, both uptown and downtown. Morrow has offered the figure of 93 percent in 1930, which, if correct, would make NYU more “Jewish” than CCNY was (“Higher Learning,” 348). Broun and Britt, on the other hand, reported based on information from the school’s registrar for 1931 that 45.3 percent of the uptown campus was Jewish, as opposed to 63 percent for downtown (Christians Only, 106–107). Hollinger has argued that in the 1920s, Jewish percentages in University Heights were less than 30 percent (“Two NYUs,” 255). Bender has complicated matters by suggesting that by the end of the 1920s and into the Depression, economics moved NYU uptown to be more hospitable to Jews, and thus the numbers there rebounded to 54 percent from 30 percent in 1922 (New York Intellect, 291). On the easy commute from the Lower East Side, see Wechsler, Qualified Student, 133.

30. Sauna, “We Hate New York,” 237; A. M. Rosenthal, “Of Course, It Is All Quite Obvious as to Why I Am So Moved,” in Rizzo and Wallenstein, City at the Center, 67. On the cost of lunch at CCNY, see Sorin, Irving Howe, 15–17. On the cost of tuition at Columbia, see Nathan Glazer’s memoir comments in Dorman, Arguing the World, 43–44. One luncheon staple, a “generous and highly seasoned chopped liver sandwich,” cost fifteen cents, leaving enough for a soda or coffee.

31. R. Cohen, When the Old Left Was Young, 68–70. See also “City College Men Fight Rise in Fees,” New York Times, 24 May 1932, 1; and “Protest Fee Plan for City Colleges,” New York Times, 26 May 1932, 11.

32. On the academic achievements of CCNY’s most outstanding alumni of that era, see CCNY Alumni Association, “City’s Noble Laureates,” accessed 19 January 2017, www.ccnyalumni.org.

33. Oshinsky, Polio, 96–97; Debbie Bookchin and Jim Schumacher, The Virus and the Vaccine: The True Story of a Cancer-Causing Monkey Virus, Contaminated Polio Vaccine and the Millions of Americans Exposed (New York: St. Martin’s, 2004), 46. Salk had skipped several grades in elementary school, a common leap forward among New York’s gifted public school youngsters, before gaining admission to Townsend Harris High School, essentially a publicly funded prep school. Every year, thousands applied for the two hundred coveted spots. If students survived pressures to succeed where four years of secondary training were crammed into three, they were virtually assured a seat at CCNY. Salk did just that.

34. Oshinsky, Polio, 98–104, 107.

35. L. Shands, “The Cheder on the Hill,” Menorah Journal, March 1929, 269.

36. Steinberg, Academic Melting Pot, 9; Thomas Evans Coulton, A City College in Action: Struggles and Achievements at Brooklyn College, 1930–1955 (New York: Harper, 1955), 8, 14; “Subway a ‘Campus’ for Many at Hunter,” New York Times 2 October 1938, 54; R. Markowitz, My Daughter, the Teacher, 27. On Jewish male-to-female proportions in colleges and universities, see McGill, “Some Characteristics of Jewish Youth,” 256. See also, on young women sacrificing for their brothers’ education, Wenger, New York Jews, 44.

37. Meyer Liben, “CCNY: A Memoir,” in Rizzo and Wallenstein, City at the Center, 48; Sorin, Irving Howe, 17.

38. Dorman, Arguing the World, 44–46, 51–52; Liben, “CCNY,” 48.

39. R. Markowitz, My Daughter, the Teacher, 52–54, 60–61.

40. Hal Draper, “The Student Movement in the Thirties,” in As We Saw the Thirties: Essays on Social and Political Movements of a Decade, ed. Rita J. Simon (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1967), 182–188. See also, on the tuition crisis, R. Cohen, When the Old Left Was Young, 68–71, 211.

41. James Traub, City on a Hill: Testing the American Dream at City College (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1993), 39.

42. Although the application forms for admission into the program did not inquire about the student’s religion, the majority possessed Jewish-sounding names and hailed from neighborhoods, when indicated, that were Jewish ones in the city. See, for these examples, a certificate, dated 17 September 1931, that lists twenty-eight senior ROTC cadets; nineteen possessed Jewish sounding names. These documents are on file at the Archives of the City College of New York (hereafter CCNY Archives).

43. Rudy, College of the City of New York, 404–419. See also “Expanded Historical Note on Department of Military Science (ROTC),” undated document, CCNY Archives. For an example of the group’s publication, see the Lavender Cadet, November 1934, CCNY Archives; “Conclusions to Be Drawn,” Campus, 25 February 1931, 2; “S.C. Charter Day Boycott Cuts Attendance to 1,000,” Campus, 10 May 1935, 1; “Boycott Charter Day,” Campus, 7 May 1935, 2; “Looking Backward,” Campus, 31 May 1935, 2. See also untitled press release, dated 4 October 1939, describing the growth of ROTC at CCNY in the 1930s (CCNY Archives). On the athletes’ support of ROTC and the administration, see Rudy, College of the City of New York, 419. See also, on CCNY’s ROTC as the largest campus military group in the U.S., Irving Rosenthal, “Rumblings of Unrest and Empty Stomachs,” in Rizzo and Wallenstein, City at the Center, 56. On athletes’ support for a stance comparable to that of ROTC, see “5 More Suspended in City College Row,” New York Times, 3 June 1933, 15; “186 Awards Made at City College,” New York Times, 3 June 1933, 9; “Nation’s Students ‘Strike for Peace’: Disorders Are Few,” New York Times, 13 April 1935, 1–2.

44. Alfred Jospe, Jewish Students and Student Services at American Universities (Washington, DC: B’nai B’rith Hillel Foundation, 1963), 6, 7, 14.

45. Katznelson, “Between Separation and Disappearance,” 193–195; Louis Weiser, “Memoir,” American Jewish Committee Oral History Collection, New York Public Library. See also Leon Fink and Brian Greenberg, Upheaval in the Quiet Zone: A History of Hospital Workers Union Local 1199 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).

46. On the employment problems that Jews faced even with advanced degrees, see Wenger, New York Jews, 22–23.

47. Moore, At Home in America, 95–97; R. Markowitz, My Daughter, the Teacher, 75–92. See also David Hollinger, “Jewish Intellectuals and the De-Christianization of American Culture in the Twentieth Century,” in Science, Jews, and Secular Culture: Studies in Mid-Twentieth-Century American Intellectual History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 17–41.

48. Jonathan Freedman, The Temple of Culture: Assimilation and Anti-Semitism in Literary Anglo-America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 158–175 (quotes on 167–168).

49. Ibid., 175.

50. Bell, “Three Faces of New York,” 225.

51. Ibid., 224–227.

52. Vivian Gornick, “Commencement Address,” in Rizzo and Wallenstein, City at the Center, 84–85; Trachtenberg, Ralph Lauren, 25–35.

53. Gaines and Churcher, Obsession, 13, 21, 35, 49, 65, 73–74, 178.

54. Kim Moody, From Welfare State to Real Estate: Regime Change in New York City, 1974 to the Present (New York: New Press, 2007), 2–8.

CHAPTER 8. MAKING NEW YORK JEWS

1. Moore, Yankee Blues, 137. The list included John Philip Sousa, Walter Damrosch, Leopold Godowsky Sr., Jascha Heifetz, Fritz Kreisler, John McCormack, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Leopold Stokowski, Moritz Rosenthal, Misha Elman, Igor Stravinsky, Victor Herbert, Ernest Bloch, and Willem Mengelberg.

2. Ibid., 71, quote on 137; en.wikipedia.org; accessed 8 February 2016.

3. Moore, Yankee Blues, 136–139 (quote on 137).

4. Ibid., 71.

5. Eli Lederhendler argues that New York Jewish culture and ethnicity depended “so strongly on the ethos of metropolitan ‘New Yorkishness’ ” that it ultimately remained “hobbled” by that condition. He asks, why did “New York ‘make’ the Jews what they became, more than the reverse?” Lederhendler, New York Jews, 203.

6. Benjamin Pollak, “Plotting Gotham” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2014), 5, 16.

7. Alisa Braun, “Jews, Writing and the Dynamics of Literary Affiliation, 1880–1940” (PhD diss., University of Michigan, 2007), 20–67; Cahan, Bleter fun mayn lebn, 4:21–31; Sanford E. Marovitz, Abraham Cahan (New York: Twayne, 1996), 153–156. Many critics have asserted that the character of Levinsky is a thinly veiled stand-in for Cahan himself. But the character was actually the opposite of the author as he saw himself; while Levinsky was morally compromised and deficient in culture, Cahan devoted himself to the cause of social justice and cultural pursuits.

8. Sara B. Horowitz, “Yezierska, Anzia,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1521–1522.

9. Carol Schoen, Anzia Yezierska (Boston: Twayne, 1982), 1–38 (quotes on 11).

10. Antler, Journey Home, 27–30; Alice Kessler-Harris, introduction to Bread Givers, by Anzia Yezierska (New York: Persea Books, 1975), v–xviii. See also Alan Robert Ginsberg, The Salome Ensemble: Rose Pastor Stokes, Anzia Yezierska, Sonya Levien, and Jetta Goudal (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2016).

11. For a good sense of scholarship on Roth, see Hana Wirth-Nesher, ed., New Essays on “Call It Sleep” (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).

12. Anita Norich, “Paley, Grace,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1028; Grace Paley, “The Loudest Voice,” in Collected Stories (1959; repr., New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994), 34–40 (quote on 34).

13. Paley, “Loudest Voice,” 36; Elliot Cohen, “Jewish Culture in America: Some Speculations by an Editor,” Commentary 3 (May 1947): 413, 415, quoted in Daniel Greene, “ ‘Israel! What a Wonderful People!’: Elliot Cohen’s Critique of Modern American Jewry, 1924–1927,” AJAJ 55, no. 1 (2003): 26–27 (see also 11–31).

14. Andrea Pappas, “The Picture at the Menorah Journal: Making ‘Jewish Art,’ ” American Jewish History 90, no. 3 (2002): 205–238 (quotes on 217–218).

15. Norman L. Kleeblatt and Susan Chevlowe, eds., Painting a Place in America: Jewish Artists in New York, 1900–1945, exhibition catalogue (New York: Jewish Museum, 1991), 100.

16. Baigell, “From Hester Street to Fifty-Seventh Street,” 32; Kleeblatt and Chevlowe, Painting a Place, 92–93; Milton Brown, American Painting from the Armory Show to the Depression (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1955), 39–44, 137–138 (quote on 42).

17. Susan Laxton, “Stettheimer, Florine,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1340–1341.

18. Kleeblatt and Chevlowe, Painting a Place, 94–95, 98.

19. Ibid., 105–114; Paul Avrich, The Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 145–153.

20. Baigell, “From Hester Street,” 32; Kleeblatt and Chevlowe, Painting a Place, 99–100; Bellow, Educational Alliance, 123.

21. Quotes from “Concord,” Metropolitan Museum of Art, accessed 21 February 2016, www.metmuseum.org.

22. “Mark Rothko,” Wikipedia, accessed 21 February 2016, http://en.wikipedia.org.

23. Anne Wilkes Tucker has worked for many years to rehabilitate the New York Photo League. See Anne Wilkes Tucker, “The Photo League: A Center for Documentary Photography,” in This Was the Photo League: Compassion and the Camera from the Depression to the Cold War (Chicago: Stephen Daiter Gallery and John Cleary Gallery, 2001), 9–20; quote from Anne Tucker, “The Photo League,” Creative Camera 223–224 (July–August 1983): 1013; quote from Lili Corbus Bezner, Photography and Politics in America: From the New Deal into the Cold War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999), 24.

24. Morris Engel, quoted in Anne Tucker, “A History of the Photo League,” History of Photography 18, no. 2 (1994): 175; W. Eugene Smith, interviewed by Beverly Bethune, 1975, quoted in Tucker, “Photo League,” 1017.

25. Jane Livingston, The New York School Photographs, 1936–1963 (New York: Stewart, Tabori, and Chang, 1992). Walter Rosenblum taught at Brooklyn College, Jerome Liebling at the University of Minnesota and then Hampshire College, Aaron Siskin at the Illinois Institute of Design and then the Rhode Island School of Design.

26. Singer, “Manhattan Nickelodeons,” 5; Thissen, “Film and Vaudeville,” 45; Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 119, 204; Thissen, “Jewish Immigrant Audiences,” 18–19; Peiss, Cheap Amusements, 149.

27. May, Screening Out the Past, 148 (quote), 174–175.

28. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance, 208–218; Neal Gabler, An Empire of Their Own: How the Jews Invented Hollywood (New York: Crown, 1988), 65–66; Matthew Bernstein, “Zukor, Adolph,” in American National Biography Online, accessed 8 January 2016, www.anb.org.

29. Charles Musser (with David James), “Filmmaking,” in Jackson, Encyclopedia of New York City, 404–405; Ann Douglas, Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1995), 61; James Sanders, Celluloid Skyline: New York and the Movies (New York: Knopf, 2001).

30. Anita Norich, “From Lublin to New York: The Journal of Rivke Zilberg,” Frankel Institute Annual, 2014, 18–20.

31. Anita Norich, “Singer, Israel Joshua,” in YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe Online, accessed 16 February 2016, www.yivoencyclopedia.org. See also Anita Norich, Discovering Exile: Yiddish and Jewish American Culture during the Holocaust (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007).

32. Howe, World of Our Fathers, 485–492; Doroshkin, Yiddish in America, 218; Whitfield, In Search of American Jewish Culture, 30.

33. Moore, Yankee Blues, 150; Joseph Horowitz, Classical Music in America: A History of Its Rise and Fall (New York: Norton, 2005), 423; Whitfield, In Search of American Jewish Culture, 61. On obscenity, see Josh Lambert, Unclean Lips: Obscenity, Jews, and American Culture (New York: NYU Press, 2013).

34. Most, Making Americans, 28; Jasen, Tin Pan Alley, xxii.

35. Jasen, Tin Pan Alley, 78–79; Kenneth Aaron Kanter, The Jews on Tin Pan Alley: The Jewish Contribution to American Popular Music, 1830–1940 (New York: Ktav, 1982), 54–55, 58, 60, 113, 117, 142–143.

36. M. Alexander, Jazz Age Jews, 158–163; Whitfield, In Search of American Jewish Culture, 95–99; Douglas, Terrible Honesty, 355–359.

37. Stempel, Showtime, 192–194, 250–255; Douglas, Terrible Honesty, 102–103; Whitfield, In Search of American Jewish Culture, 69–71, 74–77, 155–157.

38. Moore, Yankee Blues, 139–141.

39. Bernstein and Haws, Leonard Bernstein, 1–11(quote on 5). One local newspaper wag reporting on Bernstein’s surprise first appearance depicted it in competitive-sports terms as “a shoestring catch in center field,… make it and you’re a hero, muff it you’re a dope.… He made it” (4).

40. Tim Page, “Leonard Bernstein and Television: Envisioning a Higher Purpose,” in Bernstein and Haws, Leonard Bernstein, 88–91; Burton Bernstein, “A Brother’s Recollection: The Maestro’s New Medium,” ibid., 92–97; Myers, Leonard Bernstein, 39–40.

41. Myers, Leonard Bernstein, 44. See also Lewis Nichols, “The Play,” New York Times, 29 December 1944, 11.

42. Weegee, Naked City (1945; repr., New York: DaCapo, 2002); Naked City, Criterion Collection, DVD with commentary; Luc Sante, “The Naked City: New York Plays Itself,” essay posted 19 March 2007, www.criterion.com. See also Anthony W. Lee and Richard Meyer, Weegee and “Naked City” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2008).

43. Arthur Laurents, Original Story By: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood (New York: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2001), 329–340; Irene G. Dash, Shakespeare and the American Musical (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010), 80–82, 85–87 (quote on 86); Bernstein and Haws, Leonard Bernstein, 6–7.

44. Bernard Postal, “New York’s Jewish Fare,” Congress Bi-Weekly, 12 October 1964, 9.

45. Myron Kandel, “Tale of a Modern Dybbuk,” New York Times, 1 November 1959, X3; Dan Sullivan, “Theater: ‘The Tenth Man’ Is Revived,” New York Times, 9 November 1967, 54; John S. Radosta, “After 39 Years—a Hit,” New York Times, 18 September 1960, X5; “London Critics Split on ‘The Tenth Man,’ ” New York Times, 14 April 1961, 23.

46. Jeffrey Shandler, “Berg, Gertrude,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1:139–141.

47. Zurawik, Jews of Prime Time, 17–28; Myrna Hant, “Molly Goldberg: A 1950s Icon,” Women in Judaism 5, no. 2 (2008), http://wjudaism.library.utoronto.ca. See also Pearl and Pearl, Chosen Image.

48. Jeffrey Shandler, “Gertrude Berg,” Jewish Women’s Archive, accessed 25 August 2015, http://jwa.org.

CHAPTER 9. WARS ON THE HOME FRONT

1. On revamping of Jewish organizations, see Stuart Svonkin, Jews against Prejudice: American Jews and the Fight for Civil Liberties (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997).

2. “Anti-Nazis Hold Demonstration,” New York World Telegram and Sun, quoted in From Haven to Home, www.loc.gov; for estimates of the size of rallies, see American Jewish Year Book 39 (1937–1938): 216–217. On public protest, see also Lookstein, Were We Our Brothers’ Keepers?, 55, 83, 98. On the anti-Nazi boycott movement, see Moshe Gottlieb, “The Anti-Nazi Boycott Movement in the United States: An Ideological and Sociological Appreciation,” Jewish Social Studies 35, nos. 3–4 (1973): 196–227.

3. “20,000 Jam Garden in Reich Protest,” New York Times, 22 November 1938, 6.

4. For a history of the American Jewish Committee, see N. Cohen, Not Free to Desist; for the American Jewish Congress, see Urofsky, Voice That Spoke for Justice.

5. The geographical location of these New York–based national Jewish organizations and other institutions noted in this chapter was derived from the annual directory “Jewish National Organizations in the United States,” published in the American Jewish Year Book. See, for example, the listing for 1941–1942 that appeared in volume 43, 521–602, and volume 47 (1945–1946), 560–610. For a history of the Joint Distribution Committee, see Yehuda Bauer, My Brother’s Keeper: A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, 1929–1939 (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1974). For a history of the United Jewish Appeal, see Marc Lee Raphael, A History of the United Jewish Appeal, 1939–1982 (Providence, RI: Scholars, 1982).

6. On the mission and ideology of the Histadrut—especially its American context—see Raider, Emergence of American Zionism, xvi, 1, 25. On the mission and approaches of the Revisionist Zionists in America, see Medoff, Militant Zionism in America, 73–148. On the battles between Wise’s Congress and the Revisionists, see David S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust (New York: Pantheon, 1984), 87, 90–92.

7. On the location of Lugee’s, see its ad in Jewish Life, October 1946, 97.

8. On the proximity of these two groups and the mission of the Mizrachi, see American Jewish Year Book 43 (1941–1942): 558, 569.

9. For a flavor of communism among New York Jews, see Vivian Gornick, The Romance of American Communism (New York: Basic Books, 1978); on the Jewish Labor Committee, see the online exhibit, accessed January 21, 2017, http://www.nyu.edu.

10. On David Sarnoff and William Paley, see American National Biography Online, accessed 16 February 2016, www.anb.orgv.

11. For basic information on the names and number of media outlets in the city, see Mary Ellen Zuckerman, “Magazines,” in Jackson, Encyclopedia of New York City, 714; Erica Judge, “Newspapers,” ibid., 815–820. See also Aviva Ben-Ur, “In Search of the Ladino Press: A Bibliographic Survey,” Studies in Bibliography and Booklore (Winter 2001): 10–52.

12. Lookstein, Were We Our Brothers’ Keepers?, 55, 83, 98.

13. Penkower, “In Dramatic Dissent.” See also Robert Skloot, “ ‘We Will Never Die’: The Success and Failure of a Holocaust Pageant,” Theatre Journal 37, no. 2 (1985): 167–180.

14. “22,000 Nazis Hold Rally in Garden: Police Check Foes,” New York Times, 21 February 1939, 1.

15. Melvin I. Urofsky, American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1975), 399–400. See also Aaron Berman, Nazism, Jews and American Zionism, 1933–1948 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990).

16. N. Cohen, American Jews and the Zionist Idea, 60–62, 87; Samuel Halperin, The Political World of American Zionism (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1961), 222–233, 236–237.

17. Zuroff, Response of Orthodox Jewry, 134.

18. Rafael Medoff, “ ‘Retribution Is Not Enough’: The 1943 Campaign by Jewish Students to Raise American Public Awareness of the Nazi Genocide,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies 11, no. 2 (1997): 172, 174, 178–181.

19. Krasner, Benderly Boys, 360–367.

20. Haskell Lookstein, “May 1943: The Prayer Service That Almost Wasn’t,” email version of 1943 sermon delivered 18 April 2009 to Jeffrey Gurock.

21. “Adolf Hitler Was Once Teacher Here,” Commentator, 26 February 1942, 1; “Concrete Action to Be Done by Every Type of Reader” and “Yeshiva Students Are Not Blameless,” Commentator, 4 March 1943, 6.

22. Marsha L. Rozenblit, “The Seminary during the Holocaust Years,” in Tradition Renewed: A History of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, vol. 2, ed. Jack Wertheimer (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1997), 289, 304.

23. Leff, “When the Facts Didn’t Speak for Themselves”; Leff, “Tragic ‘Fight in the Family,’ ” 3–4. See also Laurel Leff, Buried by the Times: The Holocaust and America’s Most Important Newspaper (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

24. Grobman, “What Did They Know?” See also Deborah Lipstadt, Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933–1945 (New York: Free Press, 1985).

25. Lookstein, “May 1943”; Krasner, Benderly Boys, 360–367.

26. Moore, GI Jews, 30–31, 39–40.

27. Ibid., 42–43; Alexander, “Irving Howe and the Holocaust,” 101–102.

28. On the debate over the origins of the ditty, see Bee Wilson, “Bee Wilson Suggests Sending Salami Missiles to Iraq,” New Statesman, 10 January 2003, www.newstatesman.com; and “Send a Salami to Your Boy in the Army,” The Big Apple (blog), 14 October 2004, www.barrypopik.com; see also Merwin, Pastrami on Rye, 91–93. On soldiers coping with ham, see Moore, GI Jews, 49–85.

29. Landesman, Brownsville, 321; Home News (Bronx), 13 April 1943, 3; 18 April 1943, 11; M. Sanua, “From the Pages,” 295–297, 327; Commentator, 4 February 1943, 1; 18 November 1943, 1; 16 December 1943, 1; 8 March 1945, 1.

30. Home News (Bronx), 4 April 1943, 8; 19 April 1943, 3; 26 April 1943, 1.

31. Stella Sardell, introduction to Community Memories: The Syrian Jews of Brooklyn during World War II (Brooklyn: Sephardic Community Center, 1984), 2, cited in M. Sanua, “From the Pages,” 287. For an example of the “Roll of Honor,” see Victory Bulletin, July 1942, 3; November 1942, 3, 5. All references to the newsletter are derived from Sephardic Archives, The Victory Bulletin, July 1942–September 1945: Wartime Newspaper of the Syrian Jewish Community in Brooklyn (Brooklyn, NY: Sephardic Archives, c. 1984).

32. Victory Bulletin, September 1942, 2; March 1943, 2; April 1944, 2; December 1944, 2; September 1945, 2, 10.

33. Stephen S. Wise, “The Victorious Leader: A Tribute to Franklin Delano Roosevelt,” Congress Weekly, 20 April 1945, 7–8.

34. Moore, At Home in America, 202–227.

35. Fuchs, Political Behavior of American Jews, 129–130, 152–153; Feingold, Time for Searching, 212–217; Howe, World of Our Fathers, 391.

36. Kehilath Jeshurun Bulletin, 16 March 1945, 1; 16 April 1945, 1, Kehilath Jeshurun Archives, New York.

37. Kehilath Jeshurun Bulletin, 7 January 1944, 1; 14 January 1944, 3; 25 February 1944, 1; 12 January 1945, 1; 16 February 1945, 1; Max J. Etra, “Seven and Seventy,” Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun Dance Journal, 1941, Kehilath Jeshurun Archives, New York; “Rabbinate Proclaims Fast Days for Jews,” Hamigdal, February 1945, 9. Thanks to Rafael Medoff for sharing this latter source.

38. Sylvia and Jack Goldberg, interview with Jeffrey S. Gurock, 13 February 2009. (Tape of the interview in the possession of Gurock.)

39. Ibid.

40. Samuel Lubell, The Future of American Politics, 3rd ed. (New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1965), 206–208.

41. Moore, “Reconsidering the Rosenbergs,” 21–37 (quote on 33).

42. Ibid., 33.

43. Ronald Radosh, quoted in ibid., 28. See also Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, The Rosenberg File: A Search for the Truth (New York: Holt, 1983).

44. There is extensive scholarship on the “New York Intellectuals.” See, for example, Cooney, Rise of the New York Intellectuals; Wald, New York Intellectuals; Bloom, Prodigal Sons; Neil Jumonville, Critical Crossings: The New York Intellectuals in Postwar America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).

45. Howe, Margin of Hope, 137; Cooney, Rise of the New York Intellectuals, 43, 50, discussed in Abrams, “Profoundly Hegemonic Moment”; Pierre Birnbaum, Geography of Hope: Exile, the Enlightenment, Disassimilation, trans. Charlotte Mandell (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008), 3–4.

46. Joel Carmichael in Midstream, quoted in Deborah Dash Moore, To the Golden Cities: Pursuing the American Jewish Dream in Miami and L.A. (New York: Free Press, 1994), 249. See also Arthur A. Goren, “Spiritual Zionists and Jewish Sovereignty,” in Politics and Public Culture, 155–164.

47. Raphael, History of the United Jewish Appeal; N. Jackson, Converging Movements, 171–206; Emily Alice Katz, Bringing Zion Home: Israel in American Jewish Culture, 1948–1967 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2015); Berkman, “Transforming Philanthropy,” 170–171.

48. Recent scholarship on the Soviet Jewry movement includes Feingold, “Silent No More”; Lazin, Struggle for Soviet Jewry; Gal Beckerman, When They Come for Us, We’ll Be Gone: The Epic Struggle to Save Soviet Jewry (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2010).

49. Feingold, “Silent No More,” 51–54, 57, 291.

50. Paul S. Appelbaum, “The Soviet Jewry Movement in the United States,” in Jewish American Voluntary Associations, ed. Michael Dobkowski (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1986), 617, 619; Orbach, American Movement, 27–28.

51. Lederhendler, New York Jews, 116–120, 188.

52. Orbach, American Movement, 8–9; Feingold, “Silent No More,” 80–86; Appelbaum, “Soviet Jewry Movement,” 624. On the Jewish Defense League’s critique of the Student Struggle, see Walter Ruby, “The Role of Non-violent Groups,” in A Second Exodus: The American Movement to Free Soviet Jews, ed. Murray Friedman and Albert D. Chernin (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press, 1999), 207.

53. Appelbaum, “Soviet Jewry Movement,” 625; Feingold, “Silent No More,” 93; Orbach, American Movement, 65–67.

54. Ruby, “Role of Non-violent Groups,” 209.

55. Appelbaum, “Soviet Jewry Movement,” 620. On the JDL, see also Janet Dolgin, Jewish Identity and the JDL (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977).

56. Feingold, “Silent No More,” 117, 122, 133, 143, 148, 188.

CHAPTER 10. OLD TURF, NEW TURF

1. “Emmanuel Celler,” Jewish Virtual Library, accessed 21 October 2015, www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.

2. Maurice Carroll, “Emmanuel Celler, Former Brooklyn Congressman, Dies at 92,” New York Times, 16 January 1981.

3. Jerry Kammer, “The Hart-Celler Immigration Act of 1965,” Center for Immigration Studies, accessed September 2015, http://cis.org; New York City Department of City Planning, The Newest New Yorkers: Characteristics of the City’s Foreign-Born Population (New York: City of New York, 2013), 4 (quote).

4. “Demographics of New York City,” Wikipedia, accessed 9 February 2016, http://en.wikipedia.org; Derek Kravitz, “New York City Area’s Jewish Population Rises,” Wall Street Journal, 1 October 2013, www.wsj.com; United Jewish Appeal–Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of New York (UJA-Federation), Jewish Community Study of New York: 2011 (New York: UJA-Federation, 2013), 47.

5. Glazer, “National Influence,” 172–174.

6. Freeman, Working-Class New York, 271, 273; Thomas Bailey and Roger Waldinger, “The Changing Ethnic/Racial Division of Labor,” in Dual City: Restructuring New York, ed. John Hull Mollenkopf and Manuel Castells (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1991), 47, 55; Samuel Kaplan, “The Bronx Arrangement,” New York Magazine, 14 December 1970, 10; Joel Schwartz, The New York Approach: Robert Moses, Urban Liberals, and the Redevelopment of the Inner City (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993), xv (quote); Philip Siekman, “The Rent Control Trap,” Fortune, February 1960, 123.

7. Hillary Ballon, “Robert Moses and Urban Renewal: The Title I Program,” in Ballon and Jackson, Robert Moses and the Modern City, 94–116, esp. 106–107.

8. Horowitz and Kaplan, Estimated Jewish Population, 197.

9. Caro, Power Broker, 850–894; Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), 231–241; Horowitz and Kaplan, Estimated Jewish Population, 17; Robert E. Meyer, “How Government Helped Ruin the South Bronx,” Fortune, November 1975, 143 (quote); Matthew P. Drennan, “The Decline and Rise of the New York Economy,” in Dual City: Restructuring New York, ed. John Hull Mollenkopf and Manuel Castells (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1991), 29–43.

10. Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn, 5–6, 47–48, 97–100, 114–121, 162.

11. Freeman, Working-Class New York, 107, 117–118; Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 150–151.

12. Freeman, Working-Class New York, 183–184; Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn, 139–145; Sorin, Nurturing Neighborhood, 165; Ford, Girls, 4, 90–91, 94–96, 104. See also Ford, “Nice Jewish Girls,” 133; Wendell Pritchett, “From One Ghetto to Another: Blacks, Jews and Public Housing in Brownsville, Brooklyn, 1945–1970” (PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1997), 194 (quote).

13. Naison, “Crown Heights in the 1950s,” 145.

14. Pritchett, Brownsville, Brooklyn, 149; J. Mintz, Hasidic People, 141, 143; Wishnoff, “Tolerance Point,” 177; Lederhendler, New York Jews, 165.

15. Shapiro, Crown Heights, 72–77.

16. Lederhendler, New York Jews, 127–128; Joseph P. Fried, “City Charges Bias at Three Projects,” New York Times, 28 May 1968, 27; “Changes in Parkchester Bring a Fear Oasis May Go,” New York Times, 29 December 1968, 56.

17. Jeffrey S. Gurock, Jews in Gotham: New York Jews in a Changing City, 1920–2010 (New York: NYU Press, 2012), 134–135.

18. Paul L. Montgomery and Francis X. Clines, “Thousands Riot in Harlem Area; Scores Hurt,” New York Times, 19 July 1964, 1; Junius Griffin, “Harlem Businessmen Put Riot Losses at $50,000,” New York Times, 21 July 1964, 22; “Store Ransacked in Riot Sues City,” New York Times, 25 July 1964, 8; “The Root of the Trouble,” New York Times, 23 July 1964, 26; Layhmond Robinson, “Negroes View of Plight Examined in Survey Here,” New York Times, 27 July 1964, 1; Fred Powerledge, “Negro Riots Reflect Deep-Seated Grievances,” New York Times, 2 August 1964, 133; Berson, Negroes and the Jews, 338–340. Interestingly, historical works that document the evolution of tensions between blacks and Jews also have not found explicit anti-Semitism in the 1964 riots. See, as an example, Murray Friedman, What Went Wrong? The Creation and Collapse of the Black-Jewish Alliance (New York: Free Press, 1995), which notes that “the degree of anti-Semitism involved was not at all clear” (214). Many other works do not mention the 1964 outbreak at all. Jewish Telegraphic Agency, Daily News Bulletin, 23 July 1964, 1; Jewish Press, 3 July 1964, 1; 10 July 1964, 1; 31 July 1964, 1.

19. Sam Welles, “The Jewish Elan,” Fortune, February 1960, 160.

20. Podair, Strike That Changed New York, 38, 72, 77–78.

21. Ibid., 72–78; Cheryl Lynn Greenberg, Troubling the Waters: Black-Jewish Relations in the American Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 230.

22. J. Kaufman, Broken Alliance, 142–43 (quote), 148–149; Greenberg, Troubling the Waters, 230; Friedman, What Went Wrong?, 260; Podair, Strike That Changed New York, 2; Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 161–163.

23. On the chronology of the three-stage strike and the text of the unsigned letter, see Podair, Strike That Changed New York, 115–124. On the text of the WBAI poem, see Weisbord and Stein, Bittersweet Encounter, 175–178. Ironically, the radio show on WBAI was hosted by Julius Lester, an African American who later converted to Judaism and became a professor of Jewish studies. See also Richard Kahlenberg, Tough Liberal: Albert Shanker and the Battle over Schools, Unions, Race, and Democracy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).

24. On the connection between local black problems with Jews and the international scene, see Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 64–66. On the relationship between the 1967 Israeli victory and New York Jewish assertiveness, see Freeman, Working-Class New York, 223–234 (quote on 224); on public opinion polls of black attitudes, see Freeman, Working-Class New York, 165–166.

25. On the history of the Teachers Union and its relationship with the United Federation of Teachers, see Zitron, New York City Teachers Union, 45–52; and Podair, Strike That Changed New York, 142. See also Ralph Blumenthal, “When Suspicion of Teachers Ran Unchecked in New York,” New York Times, 16 June 2009, 15–16; Clarence Taylor, Reds at the Blackboard: Communism, Civil Rights, and the New York City Teachers Union (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011).

26. Freeman, Working-Class New York, 221.

27. For the opinions of a replacement teacher and his comparisons of his colleagues with the older teachers, see a personal account of life in a Brooklyn school: Charles S. Isaacs, “A J.H.S. 271 Teacher Tells It Like He Sees It,” New York Times Magazine, November 24, 1968. On the return of Jewish teachers to their old neighborhood to teach minority youngsters, see Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 167. For a sense among some older women teachers of not being appreciated for their efforts, see R. Markowitz, My Daughter, the Teacher, 171.

28. Greenberg, Troubling the Waters, 231 (quote); Friedman, What Went Wrong?, 261; Weisbord and Stein, Bittersweet Encounter, 165, 177–178.

29. On the founding of Kahane’s Jewish Defense League, its connection to the teachers’ strike, and its early activities during the time of these difficulties, see J. Kaufman, Broken Alliance, 157–158; Weisbord and Stein, Bittersweet Encounter, 201–204; Lederhendler, New York Jews, 192–194.

30. Tom Wolfe, “Radical Chic: That Party at Lenny’s,” New York, 8 June 1970, 53.

31. Greenberg, Troubling the Waters, 231; Rieder, Canarsie, 73 (quote), discussed in Podair, Strike That Changed New York, 144. The Anti-Defamation League, which before the strike had proclaimed that there was no “organized anti-Semitism in New York” and that blacks generally were less anti-Jewish than whites were, now noted that “raw undisguised anti-Semitism … is at a crisis level in New York City schools where, unchecked by public authorities, it has been building for more than two years.” New York Times, 23 January 1969, 1.

32. Harris and Swanson, Black-Jewish Relations, 18–22, 30, 77, 105–106, 129.

33. Ibid., 19–20, 36–37, 60–61, 105–106.

34. Ibid., 18, 61, 93, 105, 129.

35. Ibid., 93.

36. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 174–176; McNickle, To Be Mayor, 205–208; Brecher and Horton, Power Failure, 83–86; Peter Khiss, “How Voter Swings Elected Lindsay,” New York Times, 4 November 1965, 1, 50.

37. Brecher and Horton, Power Failure, 86–91; Glazer and Moynihan, Beyond the Melting Pot, xxvii.

38. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 176–187; Peter Khiss, “Poor and Rich, Not Middle-Class the Key to Lindsay Re-election,” New York Times, 6 November 1969, 37.

39. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 190–192; Wishnoff, “Tolerance Point,” 137–143, 181, 184, 188, 225.

40. Text of Bokser’s remarks, from his papers at the Jewish Theological Seminary, are quoted in Wishnoff, “Tolerance Point,” 190.

41. Murray Schumach, “Angry Crowd in Forest Hills Protests Housing,” New York Times, 19 November 1971, 1; “A Silent Minority Supports Forest Hills Housing,” New York Times, 23 November 1971, 36; Murray Schumach, “The Anguish of Forest Hills,” New York Times, 28 November 1971, 1; “Forest Hills Project Protest Continues,” New York Times, 29 November 1971, 52. Quotes from Wishnoff, “Tolerance Point,” 231–232, quoting articles in New York Times, 25 November 1971; and New York Times, 21 November 1971.

42. Zeitz, White Ethnic New York, 191–193 (quotes on 193); Rieder, Canarsie, 16, 20, 22, 65, 69–71, 80, 110–111, 128, 129, 172, 184, 193–198, 207–214.

43. For a full discussion, see Shapiro, Crown Heights.

44. Goldschmidt, Race and Religion, 75.

45. Caro, Power Broker, 854.

46. UJA-Federation, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2011, 19–20, 39–40.

47. Freeman, Working-Class New York, 257–270. See also Peter Blake, “How to Solve the Housing Crisis (and Everything Else),” New York, 1 January 1970, 56; Wechsler, Qualified Student, chap. 11.

48. On the 1971 law and its implications, see Rosenblum, Boulevard of Dreams, 181; On “red-lining,” see Freeman, Working-Class New York, 275.

49. Freeman, Working-Class New York, 274–275.

50. Kaplan, “Bronx Arrangement,” 10; R. Meyer, “How Government Helped,” 145; Rosenblum, Boulevard of Dreams, 181–183, 189, 203–05, Freeman, Working-Class New York, 281.

51. Massarik, “Basic Characteristics,” 239, 242; Cohen and Ritterband, “Social Characteristics,” 129, 140; Binder and Reimers, All the Nations under Heaven, 240–242. See also Eleanor Blau, “Population Shift Beset Jewish Community Here,” New York Times, 21 August 1975, 73; and James Feron, “Tremont Temple Quits the Bronx,” New York Times, 18 December 1976, 27; New School for Social Research, Center for New York City Affairs, New York’s Jewish Poor and Jewish Working Class: Economic Status and Social Needs, typescript (New York, 1972), 10; Berl Steinberg, phone interview with Jeffrey Gurock, 11 November 2008 (notes in Gurock’s possession); Edward C. Burks, “Middle Class Still Leaving City,” New York Times, 29 May 1973, 22.

52. Allan M. Siegal, “Rent Is Primary Issue for Co-op City,” New York Times, 6 September 1974, 73; James F. Clarity, “Co-op City, Home to 40,000, Is Given Tempered Praise,” New York Times, 27 May 1971, 41; Rita Reif, “Some Subsidized Co-ops Far from Pioneers’ Ideal,” New York Times, 25 January 1976, 2, 6; Allegra and Gary Gordon, interview with Jeffrey Gurock, 27 August 2009 (tape recording in Gurock’s possession).

53. Murray Schumach, “Co-op City: A Symptom of Mitchell-Lama Ills,” New York Times, 18 June 1975, 86; Samuel G. Freedman, “Co-op City: A Refuge in Transition,” New York Times, 25 June 1986, B1; Don Terry, “Co-op City: A Haven Marred as Drugs Slip In,” New York Times, 10 August 1989, B1; Sydney Schwartz, “Maintaining the Minyan: The Struggle of a Storefront Synagogue” (MA essay, Columbia University School of Journalism, 2005), 8, 9, 23; Robert E. Thompson, “As Change Intrudes, the Concourse Sells,” New York Times, 13 August 1972, R1; Kaplan, “Bronx Arrangement,” 10; Jack Luria, “A Pox on You, Riverdale,” New York Times, 21 June 1972, 43.

54. Schumach, “Co-op City,” 43, 53; Reif, “Some Subsidized Co-ops,” 2; Joseph P. Fried, “Compromise Ends Co-op Strike,” New York Times, 30 June 1976, B1; Francis X. Clines, “Grass Roots in Concrete,” New York Times, 2 October 1976, S23; Leslie Maitland, “Co-op City: Paradise or Paradise Lost?,” New York Times, 8 January 1979, B4. See also Freeman, Working-Class New York, 122.

55. UJA-Federation, Greater New York Population Study, 29.

56. Gurock, “Late Friday Night,” 149.

57. UJA-Federation, New York Jewish Population Study, 69, 77, 87. See also Ansche Chesed, “History,” accessed 22 February 2016, www.anschechesed.org; UJA-Federation, 1991 New York Jewish Population Study, xviii.

58. Shokeid, Gay Synagogue, 81 (quote); Congregation Beit Simcha Torah, “Our History,” accessed 22 February 2016, https://cbst.org.

59. Shokeid, Gay Synagogue, 16, 48, 63–64, 79, 81; Jewish Women’s Archive, “The Feminist Revolution,” accessed 21 October 2015, https://jwa.org.

60. On the numbers and status of the Jewish poor elderly from 1981 to 1991, see UJA-Federation, Greater New York Population Study, 10, 36, 37, 40; and UJA-Federation, New York Jewish Population Study, 1, 9, 10. On the numbers of elderly assisted and the greater concern with the problems of those who are poor, see UJA-Federation, 1991 New York Jewish Population Study, xvi, 116–117.

61. Kugelmass, Miracle of Intervale Avenue, 221–224, 234–235, 262 (quote on 234).

62. Sue Fishkoff, The Rebbe’s Army: Inside the World of Chabad-Lubavitch (New York: Schocken, 2010), 11–12; Heilman and Friedman, Rebbe, 170.

63. Rafael Medoff, “Esther Jungreis,” Jewish Women’s Archive, accessed 21 October 2015, http://jwa.org.

64. Carey Winfrey, “In Search of Bella Abzug,” New York Times, 21 August 1977, 55, 60–61. See also Alan H. Levy, The Political Life of Bella Abzug, 1920–1976: Political Passions, Women’s Rights, and Congressional Battles (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013).

65. Swerdlow, Women Strike for Peace, 4, 54, 146; Antler, Journey Home, 271–274.

66. Winfrey, “In Search of Bella Abzug,” 60–61; Orleck, Common Sense, 87–91.

67. On the differing visions of Friedan’s road to feminism and her life after the publication of her book, see Horowitz, Betty Friedan, 2–5, 224–227. See also Friedan’s memoir, Life So Far (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2000), 131–141, 143–147.

68. See Gloria Steinem, My Life on the Road (New York: Random House, 2015), for her account of her political and intellectual feminism.

69. Letty Cottin Pogrebin, “Steinem, Gloria,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1319 (quote). Biographers of Steinem differ over the extent of her Jewishness beyond her identification because of anti-Semitism. Letty Cottin Pogrebin has accorded Steinem the designation of Jew on the basis less of her father’s background and more of her sense of self, “as an outsider,” who “sees Jews as the quintessential out-group and because she feels drawn to the spiritual and social justice agenda of Jewish feminism.” However, Caroline Heilbrun has quoted Steinem as saying, “I don’t believe in either religion,” Judaism or Christianity. “When I’m around Jews who feel there’s something good about being exclusively Jewish, I emphasize the non-Jewish side of the family. When I’m around Protestants who think there is something good about being Protestant, then I emphasize the Jewish side.” See Letty Cottin Pogrebin, “Gloria Steinem,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1319–1323, which contains Pogrebin’s characterization and a discussion of Steinem’s larger career; and Carolyn G. Heilbrun, The Education of a Woman: The Life of Gloria Steinem (New York: Dial, 1995), 49. See also Horowitz, Betty Friedan, 229; and Marcia Cohen, The Sisterhood: The Inside Story of the Women’s Movement and the Leaders Who Made It Happen (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989), 41–42. On disagreements among these leaders, see Antler, Journey Home, 276.

70. Letty Cottin Pogrebin, Deborah, Golda and Me (New York: Crown, 1991), 154–164; Friedan, Life So Far, 291–294.

71. Hyman, “Jewish Feminism,” 300; Alan Silverstein, “The Evolution of Ezrat Nashim,” Conservative Judaism 30, no. 1 (1975): 43.

72. Hyman, “Ezrat Nashim,” 284–295.

73. Silverstein, “Evolution of Ezrat Nashim,” 43–44. See also Stephen C. Lerner, “The Havurot,” Conservative Judaism 24, no. 3 (1970): 2–15; Riv-Ellen Prell, Prayer and Community: The Havurah in American Judaism (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1989).

74. Quoted in Reena Sigman Friedman, “The Jewish Feminist Movement,” in Jewish American Voluntary Organizations, ed. Michael N. Dobkowski (New York: Greenwood, 1986), 576.

75. Ibid., 575–581.

76. Susan Dworkin, “Henrietta Szold,” Response 18 (Summer 1973): 39–45.

77. Nadell, “Bright New Constellation,” 387–388. For a comprehensive history of the long road toward women’s ordination among Reform Jews, see Pamela S. Nadell, Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women’s Ordination, 1889–1985 (Boston: Beacon, 1998), esp. 61–117.

78. Nadell, “Bright New Constellation,” 393–394. On Ezrat Nashim’s advocacy at JTS and reaction to the affirmative vote, see Wenger, “Politics of Women’s Ordination,” 514–515.

79. Nadell, “Bright New Constellation,” 391; Antler, Journey Home, 268–269.

80. Fishman, Breath of Life, 2; Antler, Journey Home, 266–267; Hyman, “Jewish Feminism,” 308. See also Pogrebin, Deborah, Golda and Me, esp. 42, 48–52, 235.

81. Blu Greenberg, On Women in Judaism: A View from Tradition (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1994), 21–25, 27, 30–33, 47, 92–97, 135.

82. Stuart Ain, “A Pioneer at Age 12,” Jewish Week, 14 May 2010, 11; Meira Beinstock, “Kagan Showed Great Wisdom in Her Youth,” Jerusalem Post, 29 June 2010, 6. A number of dates have been offered for the beginnings of the Simchat Torah women’s activity at Lincoln Square. The 1972 date relies on a study that interviewed women who assert that they were there at that moment. An alternative date is 1974, basically concomitant with Greenberg’s emergence. See Cohen-Nusbacher, “Efforts at Change,” 112n7.

83. For a full consideration of women’s activities within modern Orthodoxy, see Gurock, Orthodox Jews in America, 274–280. See also, for a listing of contemporary women’s tefillahs, Edah, “Women’s Tefilla Groups,” c. 2005, www.edah.org.

CHAPTER 11. A CHANGING CITY

1. For an extensive examination of Cosell’s statement in the context of the city in decline, using many sports metaphors, see Mahler, Ladies and Gentlemen. This saga has also been the foreground to a movie of the same name on 1977 New York City’s struggles. See also Rosenblum, Boulevard of Dreams, which recounts Cosell’s remark and the television visual as a “terrifying image of devastation” (183).

2. Lee Dembart, “Carter Takes a ‘Sobering’ Trip to South Bronx,” New York Times, 6 October 1977, A1, B16; James M. Naughton, “Ford Holds Rockefeller Blameless for Troubles,” New York Times, 31 October 1975, 12.

3. Glazer, “National Influence,” 167–168.

4. Brecher and Horton, Power Failure, 91–94.

5. Meyer, “How Government Helped,” 143–145; Drennan, “Decline and Rise,” 29–33; Thomas Bailey and Roger Waldinger, “The Changing Ethnic/Racial Division of Labor,” in Dual City: Restructuring New York, ed. John Hull Mollenkopf and Manuel Castells (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1991), 43; Freeman, Working-Class New York, 273.

6. McNickle, To Be Mayor, 272–275.

7. Maureen Dowd, “Poll Finds New Yorkers’ Pessimism Subsides,” New York Times, 19 January 1985, 1; McNickle, To Be Mayor, 281–287; Brecher and Horton, Power Failure, 101–103.

8. McNickle, To Be Mayor, 287–292; Brecher and Horton, Power Failure, 105; Frank Lynn, “2 Nominees Clash in Race for Mayor with Harsh Words,” New York Times, 14 September 1989, A1. See also, for an analysis of the 1989 mayoral campaigns, Mollenkopf, Phoenix, 165–185.

9. McNickle, To Be Mayor, 292–295; Celestine Bohlen, “Dinkins and Koch Vie for Jews’ Votes,” New York Times, 10 September 1989, 44; John Kifner, “The Mayor-Elect Inspires Pride, but It’s Hardly Universal,” New York Times, 9 November 1989, B1; Sam Roberts, “Almost Lost at the Wire,” New York Times, 9 November 1989, A1.

10. Richard Levine, “Koch Confers with Dinkins on Transition,” New York Times, 9 November 1989, A1. See also Mollenkopf, Phoenix, 184; and McNickle, To Be Mayor, 313.

11. Saskia Sassen, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 289n8.

12. Todd S. Purdam, “Crown Heights Drives Contest for Mayor,” New York Times, 7 December 1992, B1; Todd S. Purdam, “White Hispanic Ticket Grabs at a Black Mayor’s Coalition,” New York Times, 15 June 1993, 128. See also Lankevich, American Metropolis, 242–243.

13. “Mayoral Meddling?,” Jewish Week, 15 March 1996, 4; David Firestone, “In Mayor’s Snub, a Hint of Strategy,” New York Times, 26 October 1995, B1.

14. Gary Rosenblatt, “Between the Lines: How to React to Arafat,” Jewish Week, 27 October 1995, 5.

15. Lankevich, American Metropolis, 252–253; Siegel, Prince of the City, 149.

16. Adam Dickter, “Getting in Their Two Cents? Mayoral Candidates Scramble for Equal Time at Brooklyn COJO Breakfast Honoring Giuliani,” Jewish Week, 11 April 1997, 8; “Rudy, Ruth: In Their Own Words; Messinger ‘Tough Not Mean,’ ” Jewish Week, 24 October 1997, 1; Adam Nagourney, “Poll Finds Most Voters Have No Opinion about Messinger,” New York Times, 21 October 1997, A1, B2; Elizabeth Israels Perry and Rona Holub, “Messinger, Ruth,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:917–918.

17. Lawrence Kohler-Esses, “Still Fighting the ‘War’: As Combative Messinger Calls on Mayor to Heed Her Warnings, Supporters Rue Death of ‘New Deal,’ ” Jewish Week, 7 November 1997, 12; Siegel, Prince of the City, 210, 215–216; Rudolf W. Giuliani, “A Blackout That Tested, and Proved, New York City’s Character,” WINS radio address, 11 July 1999, http://nyc.gov; Jim Yardley, “Jews and Blacks Try to Avoid Reprise of ’91 in Crown Heights,” New York Times, 4 April 1998, A1, B6. On AJWS, see its website, http://ajws.org (accessed 23 February 2016).

18. Adam Dickter, “A Friend ’Til the End: For Jewish Community, Giuliani Was America’s Top Mayor,” Jewish Week, 28 December 2001, 10.

19. Adam Dickter, “Jewish Vote Vital for Bloomberg,” Jewish Week, 9 November 2001, 1.

20. Joyce Purnick, Mike Bloomberg: Money, Power, Politics (New York: Public Affairs, 2009), 4, 74, 87–88 (quote on 88).

21. Ibid., 168, 204, 223. See also “The New York Issue: High Life, New York above 800 Feet,” New York Times Magazine, 29 May 2016.

22. Michael M. Grynbaum and Marjorie Connolly, “Good Grade for Mayor: Regret for His Third Term,” New York Times, 20 August 2012.

23. Molly Ball, “The Pugnacious, Relentless Progressive Party That Wants to Remake America,” Atlantic, 7 January 2016.

24. Steven M. Cohen, Jacob B. Ukeles, and Ron Miller, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2011 Comprehensive Report (New York: United Jewish Appeal–Federation of New York, 2011), 16, 18, 23, 27, 30.

25. Julia Moskin, “Everything New Is Old Again: The New Golden Age of Jewish-American Deli Food,” New York Times, 27 May 2014; “Japanese Kosherfication,” What’s Cookin’ in NYC (blog), Macaulay Honors College, accessed 23 February 2016, http://macaulay.cuny.edu; Merwin, Pastrami on Rye, 169–184. See also Danny Meyer, Setting the Table: The Transforming Power of Hospitality in Business (San Francisco: Harper, 2006); Sharon Zukin, The Cultures of Cities (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1995), chap. 5.

26. Adam Pincus, “The Syrian Retail Touch,” Real Deal, 1 January 2014, http://therealdeal.com; Barry Meir, “Crazy Eddie’s Insane Odyssey,” New York Times, 19 July 1992, F1; Paul Ritterband and Steven M. Cohen, Report on Jewish Population of New York (New York: Federation of Jewish Philanthropies of New York, 1984), 20 (table 2.7), 54–63 (maps). See also Sutton, Magic Carpet, 62, 66–67, 96–102; Zenner, Global Community, 138–141, 156, 162–166; Glazer, “National Influence,” 173.

27. Michael Millken and Ivan Boesky both admitted guilt and went to jail for their illegal trading practices. Glazer, “National Influence,” 169, 181–184; James B. Stewart and Peter Eavis, “Revisiting the Lehman Brothers Bailout That Never Was,” New York Times, 29 September 2014.

28. Leslie Bennetts, “If You’re Thinking of Living in Chelsea,” New York Times, 2 May 1982, R9; Jan Morris, “The Future Looks Familiar,” New York Times, 26 April 1987, SMA16; Samuel G. Freedman, “Real-Estate Boom Cited as Peril to Arts in City,” New York Times, 15 April 1986, C13. See also Sharon Zukin, Naked City: The Death and Life of Authentic Urban Places (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).

29. UJA-Federation, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2002 Geographic Profile, 110–111. On the transformation of Harlem, see “Migration of Affluent Whites to Harlem Forecast,” New York Times, 28 May 1984, 23; Sam Roberts, “In Harlem, Blacks Are No Longer a Majority,” New York Times, 6 January 2010, A16.

30. UJA-Federation, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2002 Geographic Profile, 35, 143, 169, 187.

31. Leslie Bennetts, “Woody Allen’s Selective Vision of New York,” New York Times, 7 May 1986, C1; Vincent Canby, “Hannah and Her Sisters,” New York Times, 7 February 1986.

32. William J. Palmer, The Films of the Eighties: A Social History (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1993), 284–285; McCann, Woody Allen, 14, 27, 35–36.

33. These included Westchester, Nassau, and Suffolk Counties but not New Jersey. UJA-Federation, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2002 Geographic Profile, 35, 36, 143, 169, 187. See also UJA-Federation, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2002, 25, 30.

34. Cohen, Ukeles, and Miller, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2011 Comprehensive Report, 16; Gil Stern Shefler, “Bukharan Jewish Community Thrives in NYC,” Jerusalem Post, 12 July 2011; F. Markowitz, Community in Spite of Itself.

35. Michael Schapira, “André Aciman,” Full Stop, 18 December 2012, www.full-stop.net; “An Interview with Andre Aciman,” Bookslut, March 2007, www.bookslut.com; for an academic bio of Aciman, see the website of the Graduate Center of CUNY, www.gc.cuny.edu (accessed 22 February 2016); on Lucette Lagnado, see her website: www.lucettelagnado.com (accessed 22 February 2016); Gary Shteyngart, Little Failure: A Memoir (New York: Random House, 2014).

36. Solomon, Wonder of Wonders, part 3; Jan Balakian, “Wasserstein, Wendy,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 2:1456–1459 (quote on 1458).

37. Ben Brantley, “Theater Talkback: Tony Kushner and the Art of Empathy,” New York Times, 5 May 2011; for Kushner’s bio, see the website of the Steven Barclay Agency, http://barclayagency.com (accessed 22 February 2016). Kushner has been critical of Israel, coediting a volume with Alisa Solomon, Wrestling with Zion: Progressive Jewish-American Response to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict (New York: Grove, 2003). In 2011, he was offered, then denied, an honorary degree from the City University of New York. See Winnie Hu, “Reconsidering, CUNY Is Likely to Honor Kushner,” New York Times, 6 May 2011.

38. “Unprecedented $30 Million Capital Campaign Secures Future for Center for Jewish History: Single Largest Fund-Raising Effort since Building Was Completed in 2000,” PR Newswire, 24 January 2011, www.prnewswire.com.

39. Saidel, Never Too Late to Remember.

40. On the history of these institutions, see their websites: www.eldridgestreet.org, www.tenement.org, and www.nycjewishtours.org.

41. Ingrid Abramovitch, “Hipification Reaches the Street Where Peddlers Once Pushed Carts,” New York Times, 16 November 1997, ST1, 6; Mark Russ Federman, Russ & Daughters: Reflections and Recipes from the House that Herring Built (New York: Schocken, 2013); Joseph Berger, “Streit’s Matzo Factory, a Piece of Lower East Side History, Is Moving On,” New York Times, 6 January 2015.

42. Wenger, “Memory as Identity,” 4–5.

43. Quoted in Kugelmass, “Turfing the Slum,” 188.

44. Jenna Weissman Joselit, “Telling Tales: Or, How a Slum Became a Shrine,” Jewish Social Studies 2 (Winter 1995): 54; Seth Kamil, “Tripping down Memory Lane: Walking Tours on the Jewish Lower East Side,” in Remembering the Lower East Side, ed. Hasia R. Diner, Jeffrey Shandler, and Beth S. Wenger (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 226–240 (quote on 227).

45. Quoted in Kugelmass, “Turfing the Slum,” 184, 189.

46. Ibid., 199–200.

47. UJA-Federation, Jewish Community Study of New York: 2011, 19–30 (quote on 22).

48. Ibid.; Ball, “Pugnacious, Relentless Progressive Party.”

49. Ellen Freudenheim, “Popular Baby Names in Brooklyn and New York City,” About Travel: Brooklyn, NY, accessed 22 February 2016, http://brooklyn.about.com; UJA-Federation, “Diverse Jewish Communities,” chap. 7 in Jewish Community Study of New York: 2011, 211–252.

50. For a biography of Ruth Bader Ginsberg, see Malvina Halberstam, “Ginsberg, Ruth Bader,” in Hyman and Moore, Jewish Women in America, 1: 515–520; for a biography of Bernie Sanders, see “Bernie Sanders Biography,” Bio, accessed 24 June 2016, www.biography.com.

51. For a thoughtful discussion of these themes, see Rachel Gordan, “New York as the Capital of American Jews: What Has It Done to American Jewish History?,” paper presented at the Biennial Scholars’ Conference of the American Jewish Historical Society’s Academic Council, Center for Jewish History, New York, 19–21 June 2016.

VISUAL ESSAY

1. Jules D. Prown, “Mind in Matter: An Introduction to Material Culture Theory and Method,” in Material Life in America, 1600–1860, ed. Robert Blair St. George (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1988), 18.

2. Needham, Celebrated Franks Family Portraits, 20.

3. Erica E. Hirshler, “The Levy-Franks Family Portraits,” Magazine Antiques, November 1990, 1021.

4. Jonathan D. Krasner and Jonathan D. Sarna, The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880s America (New York: Berman House, 2006), 162.

5. For a brief and persuasive discussion of the art of embroidery in relation to the creation of separate male (public) and female (domestic) spheres and, therefore, the differences between their arts, see Amy Elizabeth Grey, “A Journey Embroidered: Gender Redefined,” in Invisible America: Unearthing Our Hidden Heritage, ed. Mark P. Leone and Neil Asher Silberman (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 140–141.

6. Ellen Smith, “Portraits of a Community: The Image and Experience of Early American Jews,” in American Jewish Women’s History: A Reader, ed. Pamela S. Nadell (New York: NYU Press, 2003), 19.

7. Joanne Reitano, The Restless City (New York: Routledge, 2006), 11.

8. Ellen Smith, “Portraits of a Community in America at the Time of the Revolutionary War,” in Facing a New World: Jewish Portraits in Colonial and Federal America, ed. Richard Brilliant (New York: Prestel Munich, 1997), 13–14.

9. This is now the busy thoroughfare of South William Street in New York City’s financial district.

10. David de Sola Pool’s writings on Sephardic culture in New York City are essential readings. See, for example, David de Sola Pool, The Mill Street Synagogue: 1730–1817 (New York: Shearith Israel, 1930).

11. Sarna, “Colonial Judaism,” 13.

12. Erin E. Eisenbarth, Baubles, Bangles, and Beads: American Jewelry from Yale University, 1700 to 2005 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Art Gallery, 2005), 17.

13. Robin Jaffee Frank, Love and Loss: American Portrait and Mourning Miniatures (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 130–132.

14. Ibid., 132.

15. Ira Berlin and Leslie M. Harris, introduction to Slavery in New York, ed. Ira Berlin and Leslie M. Harris (New York: New Press, 2005), 4–5.

16. Register of the Manumission of Slaves, New York City, 1816–1818, 2:51–52, now housed at the New-York Historical Society. Morris U. Schappes, ed., “Four Documents Concerning Jews and Slavery,” in Strangers and Neighbors: Relations between Blacks and Jews in the United States, ed. Maurianne Adams and John Bracey (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 137–146.

17. Michael W. Grunberger, introduction to From Haven to Home: 350 Years of Jewish Life in America, ed. Michael W. Grunberger (New York: George Braziller, in association with the Library of Congress, 2004), 16–17.

18. Joshua Brown, “Reconstructing Representation: Social Types, Readers and the Pictorial Press, 1865–1877,” Radical History Review 38 (Fall 1996): 5–38.

19. Birmingham, “Our Crowd,” 132, 148–149.

20. Herbert D. Croly, “The Harmonie Club House,” Architectural Record 19, no. 4 (1906): 237–243.

21. Jonathan D. Sarna, “American Judaism,” in Grunberger, From Haven to Home, 142; “Dancing for Charity: The Ball of the Purim Association Was a Grand Success,” New York Times, 5 March 1890.

22. I. S. Isaacs, “Meyer S. Isaacs,” PAJHS 13 (1905): 146.

23. Ibid.

24. Higham, Send These to Me, rev. ed., 71–80. Marvin Trachtenberg, The Statue of Liberty (New York: Viking Penguin, 1986).

25. My interpretation of Riis’s photograph draws from the scholarship and input of the Riis expert Bonnie Yochelson. I appreciate her enormous generosity in sharing her knowledge of Riis and her research materials.

26. Bonnie Yochelson, Jacob Riis 55 (New York: Phaidon, 2001), 118–119.

27. For a discussion of the changing history of this photograph, see Deborah Dash Moore, Urban Origins of American Judaism (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014), 117–119.

28. I want to thank the decorative arts scholar Karen Zukowski for providing insights into the furniture displayed in the photographer’s studio. John Tagg, The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), 37.

29. It is not clear which lodge in New York Isaacs belonged to, according to Thomas M. Savini, director of the Masonic Library, Grand Lodge, New York (email correspondence with Diana L. Linden, 21 September 2010).

30. Alice M. Greenwald, “The Masonic Mizrahi and Lamp: Jewish Ritual Art as a Reflection of Cultural Assimilation,” Journal of Jewish Art 10 (1984): 101.

31. Ellen Smith, “Greetings from Faith: Early-Twentieth-Century American Jewish New Year Postcards,” in The Visual Culture of American Religions, ed. David Morgan and Sally M. Promey (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 243–247.

32. “Big Change in a Big Store Which All Brooklyn Knows,” New York Times, 2 April 1893. See also Heinze, Adapting to Abundance.

33. See Jenna Weissman Joselit, A Perfect Fit: Clothes, Character, and the Promise of America (New York: Henry Holt, 2001).

34. Robert Hendrickson, The Grand Emporiums: The Illustrated History of America’s Great Department Stores (New York: Stein and Day, 1979), 33.

35. Donna T. Haverty-Stacke, America’s Forgotten Holiday: May Day and Nationalism, 1867–1960 (New York: NYU Press, 2009), 85–88.

36. Maria Balinska, The Bagel: The Surprising History of a Modest Bread (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 115–119. The Jewish bakers’ union became famous for adding to their demands something for “which the Jewish labour movement was to become famous: that the bosses allow their workers to give one night’s work to unemployed bakers” (ibid., 115).

37. Ellen Wiley Todd, “Remembering the Unknowns: The Longman Memorial and the 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Fire,” American Art, 23 no. 3 (2009): 65.

38. Ben-Ur, Sephardic Jews in America, 111. See also Angel, La America. The periodical La America began publication in 1910 as a national weekly. It continued to be published intermittently until 1925.

39. Helene Schwartz Kenvin, This Land of Liberty: A History of America’s Jews (West Orange, NJ: Behrman House, 1986), 118–121.

40. Erika Lee, “The Chinese Exclusion Example: Race, Immigration, and American Gatekeeping, 1882–1924,” Journal of American Ethnic History 21, no. 3 (2002): 36–62.

41. For a history of black Judaism, see Roberta S. Gold, “The Black Jews of Harlem: Representation, Identity, and Race, 1920–1939,” American Quarterly 55, no. 2 (2003): 179–225.

42. The rediscovery of the history of Jews of African descent connected with pan-Africanist reappraisal of Egypt’s relationship to the African continent. Solomon’s lineage down to Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, coupled with the flight of Moorish Jews to Timbuktu in West Africa during the fourteenth century, reinforced plausible links between Judaism and African Americans, fueling a belief that they were true descendants of ancient Israelites. A small minority was inspired to adopt the faith.

43. Henry Bial, Acting Jewish: Negotiating Ethnicity on the American Stage and Screen (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2005), 1–29, 40–48; Donald Weber, “The Jewish American World of Gertrude Berg: The Goldbergs on Radio and Television, 1930–1950,” in Talking Back: Images of Jewish Women in Popular Culture, ed. Joyce Antler (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press / University of New England Press, 1998).

44. Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums, and Heritage (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 79–128.

45. For an in-depth examination of Shahn’s mural, see Diana L. Linden, Ben Shahn’s New Deal Murals: Jewish Identity in the American Scene (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2015).

46. Ben Shahn to Edward B. Rowan, 11 June 1940, Archives of American Art, Washington, DC.

47. Alfred J. Kolatch, Great Jewish Quotations (New York: Jonathan David, 1996), 74–75.

48. Duane Blue Spruce, ed., Mother Earth, Father Skyline (Washington, DC: Gustave Heye Center, National Museum of the American Indian, and Smithsonian Institution, 2006), 38. Rachel Rubinstein, Members of the Tribe: Native America in the Jewish Imagination (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2010).

49. The Archives of the American Soviet Jewry Movement is housed at the American Jewish Historical Society in Manhattan (www.ajhs.org/aasjm).

50. Daniel Belasco helped me with my object selection. Many thanks.

51. Quote by Amy Klein Reichert from Jewish Museum, “Miriam Cup,” accessed 28 January 2017, http://thejewishmuseum.org/collection/5027-miriam-cup.

52. Voloj’s work is included in Alana Newhouse, ed., A Living Lens: Photographs of Jewish Life from the Pages of the “Forward” (New York: Norton, 2007). Voloj explains his photographic mission as being to rediscover forgotten Jewish history in New York City, as well as the “ways the culture is reborn and reinvented in a city in a permanent transition.” Julian Voloj to Diana Linden, 5 February 2011.

53. Congregation Ahavas Israel is located at 108 Noble Street, Brooklyn, NY 11222. The congregation dates to the late nineteenth century; the building dates to 1903.

54. Lenore Skenazy, “Are New York Jews More Jewish?,” Forward, 17 February 2010, 2.