1 “Moody and Sankey: The Beginning of the Revival,” Philadelphia Times, November 22, 1875.
2 Ibid.
3 Evensen, “It’s Harder Getting into the Depot Than Heaven.”
4 Bell, Crusade in the City, 236.
5 Ibid.
6 “Moody and Sankey.”
7 Ibid.
8 Dwight L. Moody to John Wanamaker, November 8, 1877, Letters and Correspondence 1860–1877, Box 1, Folder 2, Wanamaker Papers, Historical Society of Pennsylvania (hereafter referred to as WP).
9 Ibid.
10 Gloege, Guaranteed Pure, 45.
11 Moody to Wanamaker, November 8, 1877.
12 This was true of not only white urban men but also African American women and men. See Weisenfeld, African American Women and Christian Activism.
13 Kilde, When Church Became Theatre; Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order.
14 “Many Tributes Paid to Wanamaker Here,” New York Times, December 13, 1922.
15 Corrigan, Business of the Heart, 79.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid., 80.
18 William Thomas Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago! A Plea for the Union of All Who Love in the Service of All Who Suffer (Chicago: Laird & Lee, 1894), 75. See also Smith, The Search for Social Salvation, 73, 78.
19 Stead, If Christ Came to Chicago!, 110. For a history of Protestants and money, see Hudnut-Beumler, In Pursuit of the Almighty’s Dollar.
20 See Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 7–8.
21 Ibid., 7–9.
22 See Leach, Land of Desire; Schmidt, Consumer Rites; and Moore, Selling God.
23 Leach, Land of Desire, 34–35.
24 Ibid., 213.
25 Ibid., 34–35.
26 Ibid.
27 See ibid.; Moore, Selling God; Engel, Religion and Profit; and Callahan, Lofton, and Seales, “Allegories of Progress.”
28 Noll, God and Mammon, 3.
29 Valeri, Heavenly Merchandize; Valeri, “Weber and Eighteenth-Century Religious Developments”; Porterfield, Grem, and Corrigan, The Business Turn in American Religious History.
30 The following paragraphs are grounded in the work of Robert Orsi, “Introduction: Crossing the City Line,” in Gods of the City; Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 8; and Wiebe, Search for Order.
31 Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 10.
32 Wiebe, Search for Order, 12.
33 Ibid.
34 See Trachtenberg, Incorporation of America, 39, 72, 109, passim. Trachtenberg traces the development of capitalism in nineteenth-century America and its effects on cities, people, and culture.
35 Orsi, Gods of the City, 15–16.
36 Ibid., 16.
37 Wiebe, Search for Order, 14.
38 Ibid.
39 Ibid., 12.
40 Winston, Red-Hot and Righteous, 47.
41 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 124–25.
42 Ibid., 69, 71.
43 Ibid., 126–27. See Carter, Union Made, for analysis of labor and religion in Chicago.
44 Moore, Selling God, 30, 23–35.
45 Orsi, Gods of the City, 18.
46 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 122.
47 Ibid., 138.
48 Anderson, Imagined Communities.
49 I follow David Morgan’s work on “moral influence” here rather than Wiebe’s concept of “social control.” See Morgan, Protestants and Pictures. See also Robert Wiebe’s earlier interpretation in The Search for Order.
50 McDannell, Christian Home in Victorian Times, 48.
51 Bushman, Refinement of America, 331.
52 McDannell, Christian Home in Victorian Times, xiii.
53 Orsi, Gods of the City, 30; and Bushman, Refinement of America, xiv.
54 Morgan, Protestants and Pictures; and Kilde, When Church Became Theatre.
55 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6; Wiebe, Search for Order, 35; and Orsi, Gods of the City, 29–30.
56 Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6, 33–42, 44–45.
57 On church architecture, see Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 67–68.
58 Bushman, Refinement of America, xiii.
59 Ibid., xiii. Bushman argues that the refinement of America began in the 1690s but was not embraced by merchants until later.
60 Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice.
61 Bushman, Refinement of America, xvii.
62 Following ibid. Also see Campbell, The Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism.
63 Paula Lupkin in her discussion of YMCA buildings calls it “moral evangelism,” and Paul Boyer in his study of City Beautiful movements termed it “positive environmentalism.” Both terms, while apt, focus on buildings and miss the other material ways Protestants sought to morally affect urban spaces and their inhabitants.
64 The “middle class” was an evolving, many-layered category throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and it continues to be contested by scholars. My working definition for this study encompasses more than economic and occupational levels. The middle class, as I am using it here, included “a common awareness and acceptance of similar attitudes and beliefs, linked to a common style of life, among the members of the class” who were in middling social and economic standing in American society. Blumin, Emergence of the Middle Class, 10, 12–13. See also Hepp, Middle-Class City, 15–16; and Wiebe, Search for Order.
65 Marshall Field’s slogan was “Give the Ladies What They Want.” See Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 238.
1 Conwell’s congregation was intimately involved in the establishment of the university and hospital. They provided the fundraising and support for these institutions in their early days.
2 Philadelphia Record, May 22, 1914.
3 Conwell, Acres of Diamonds, 16. For more on the prosperity gospel then and now, see Bowler, Blessed; Walton, Watch This!; and Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 185–87.
4 “Jam Academy to Hear Him: Receives Tokens and Promise of $50,000 after Repeating Famous Address,” Philadelphia Record, May 22, 1914.
5 Versions of Conwell’s “Acres of Diamonds” uses A. T. Stewart, the creator of one of the first great department stores in the United States in the early nineteenth century, as one of many examples. Conwell’s childhood involved retail: his father owned and ran a country store.
6 Alger published his first story, Ragged Dick, in 1867 and helped popularize the dime novel for youth. His stories focused on impoverished boys living in the urban milieu who, with moral fortitude and hard work, rise above their humble beginnings to achieve great success. See Lears, No Place of Grace, 18.
7 See Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul. For the Golden Jubilee celebration, a two-volume book was compiled and entitled Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores. See Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, passim.
8 This narrative is further perpetuated and emphasized by Wanamaker biographers.
9 One of a series of economic panics and depressions of the nineteenth century, the Panic of 1837 was the beginning of a five-year depression following the failure of British and American banks, property speculation, unsecured printed currency, and the policies of President Andrew Jackson. See McGrane, Panic of 1837, 106–26; and North, Economic Growth of the United States.
10 The 1850 census lists Nelson “Wunnemacker” and wife and children. It notes his occupation as a brickmaker and indicates that the family is living in the Grays Ferry area of Philadelphia. The 1860 census lists Nelson as a brickmaker but living in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Nelson died at the age of fifty.
11 His mother’s maiden name was mistakenly recorded as Deshong in Appel, Business Biography, 9.
12 The inn had been the historic Grays Inn and Tavern. The family named it Sans Souci, but it became known by the family name.
13 See Clendenin, Building Industrial Philadelphia.
14 The Naval Home was established in 1826 with the purchase of twenty-five acres of land in Grays Ferry. A hospital and school for seamen were built. Later, the institution moved to Annapolis and became the U.S. Naval Academy. Wanamaker recalled that the land for the home was given or purchased from his mother’s family. Grays Ferry was consolidated with the city of Philadelphia in 1854. See Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 8; Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 14; and Philadelphia History Museum, “Neighborhood Tours, A Walk through Grays Ferry,” www.philadelphiahistory.org (accessed March 2, 2012).
15 Wiebe, Search for Order, 4.
16 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 7.
17 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 21.
18 Wanamaker never went to college, and his early education was limited. He was largely self-taught with the help of Sunday school and his work in retail. See Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 18.
19 Marianne Brown, Sunday-School Movements in America, 173–74. John Neff served as the first Sunday school superintendent of the school and was one of its organizers. Later, he started another Sunday school mission that became Hope Presbyterian Church. The name Landreth came from the old schoolhouse building the Sunday school used.
20 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 22.
21 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 13.
22 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 22–23. In chapter 5, the relationship of Wanamaker and race is briefly explored. As a boy, Wanamaker recalls that besides the Bible, a dictionary, and a copy of Pilgrim’s Progress, the first book he read was Robinson Crusoe. He noted that “it was given to me by a colored man” and became his favorite book. Later, it was the text he most often gifted to young boys he knew through his Sunday school and his department store. See Appel, Business Biography, 15–16. John Sr. also would house his black workers to protect them from white thugs.
23 Appel, Business Biography, 9.
24 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 18; Appel, Business Biography, 20; Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 17. It was in Indiana that Wanamaker first met Native Americans, and there he developed a fascination that lasted all his life. Later, he would sponsor his son Rodman’s three “expeditions” (1908–1913) with the photographer Joseph K. Dixon to photograph the “vanishing race.” They later published a book by the same title as well as two films: Hiawatha and Reenactment of Battle of Little Big Horn.
25 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 21; Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 16.
26 Hepp, Middle-Class City, passim.
27 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 123.
28 Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 4.
29 Ibid.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid., 14.
32 Hepp, Middle-Class City, 25–31.
33 McDannell, Christian Home in Victorian Times, 9.
34 Rev. E. Morris Fergusson, “The First Sunday-School Days of a Cabinet Officer,” Sunday School Times 31 (1889): 324.
35 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 24. The booksellers were Troutman and Hayes.
36 Iarocci, Urban Department Store in America, 73.
37 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 11–23.
38 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 23.
39 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 27.
40 Appel, Business Biography, 29.
41 Ibid.
42 Wanamaker remarked that his mother “was very anxious to have me take up” ministry. Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 29.
43 Appel, Business Biography, 10.
44 GroJLart, “Chambers-Wylie, Limestone Legacy on Broad Street,” Hidden City Philadelphia, June 16, 2014, hiddencityphila.org.
45 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 32; Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 26. Slapped with a charge of “unorthodoxy” by his local presbytery, Chambers was forced to seek ordination from the Congregationalists in New Haven. Returning to Philadelphia, he was called by the Ninth Presbyterian Church. The slighted Philadelphia Presbytery sued, ultimately winning the rights to the church property. Chambers’s followers quickly secured a new lot on Broad and Sansom Streets to establish the new First Independent Church for their minister. The congregation grew quickly, and by 1860 it was one of the largest religious organizations in Philadelphia, with a membership of twelve hundred.
46 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 31.
47 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3; and Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 33–34. Wanamaker recorded another version of Chambers’s teachings in “his own hand” as “1. Christ demands full surrender; 2. Every follower of Christ is His messenger of good tidings; 3. Sunday is the Lord’s Day; it belongs to Him; 4. Alcohol is Satan’s most powerful ally; 5. No man is beyond redemption.” See Appel, Business Biography, 24.
48 First Independent Church later rejoined the Presbyterians in 1897 through a merger with Wylie Memorial Presbyterian Church, together forming the Chambers-Wylie Memorial Presbyterian Church. Another merger was proposed in 1948 between the First, Second, and Chambers-Wylie Memorial Presbyterian Churches. In the end, First and Second united, while Chambers-Wylie left the merger process. In 2000 Wylie-Chambers dissolved. See “Philadelphia, Chambers-Wylie Memorial Presbyterian Church,” Presbyterian Historical Society, www.history.pcusa.org.
49 Appel, Business Biography, 23.
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid. Later, when he started his own men’s store, Wanamaker hired Walton to work for him as the lead hatter for the store.
52 John Wanamaker to S. A. Keen of YMCA Columbus, Ohio, December 14, 1906, John Wanamaker Letter Book, WP. A slightly different version is in Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 33; and Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 30.
53 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3; and Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 3.
54 Ferry, History of the Department Store, 25. For references to Wanamaker’s health, see Appel, Business Biography, 14; and Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 19.
55 Hopkins, History of the YMCA, 36.
56 Ibid.
57 Long, Revival of 1857–58, 13.
58 Corrigan, Business of the Heart, 17.
59 Ibid., 80, and passim.
60 Long, Revival of 1857–58, 13.
61 Ibid.
62 Corrigan, Business of the Heart, 18.
63 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 34–35. See also Bell, Crusade in the City, 183.
64 Long, Revival of 1857–58, 59–60. Long and Bell both cover the YMCA’s involvement in the Businessmen’s Revival in Philadelphia. In many ways, the event and the organization found mutual strength and support in each other.
65 Ibid., 5.
66 Lupkin, Manhood Factories, 2.
67 Hopkins, History of the YMCA, 5–6.
68 Ibid., 15.
69 Ibid., 36.
70 Ibid., 21–23.
71 Ibid., 15.
72 Ibid.
73 Francis, “Religious Revival of 1858,” 60. The first North American branches of the YMCA were founded in Montreal and Boston in 1851. See the introduction to Hopkins, History of the YMCA, for a more detailed picture of the founding of the YMCA and its spread to the United States.
74 Francis, “Religious Revival of 1858,” 60.
75 Ibid.; Hopkins, History of the YMCA, 46.
76 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 26.
77 Ibid., 82.
78 Hopkins, History of the YMCA, 44.
79 Quoted in Glass, “Liberal Means to Conservative Ends,” 185, from the Philadelphia YMCA Constitution.
80 Ibid.
81 Francis, “Religious Revival of 1858,” 63.
82 Ibid., 61.
83 Appel, Business Biography, 32.
84 Hopkins, History of the YMCA, 44.
85 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 43.
86 Bell, Crusade in the City, 185.
87 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 34–35. The Revival of 1858 is often listed as the Revival of 1857 since it began in November of that year. But the main body of meetings occurred in the first six months of 1858. See Bell, Crusade in the City, 183, 187.
88 Bell, Crusade in the City, 187.
89 Ibid.
90 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 33; Rice, A History of the American Sunday-School Union, 28.
91 Rice, History of the American Sunday-School Union.
92 Appel, Business Biography, 34.
93 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3.
94 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 52.
95 Ibid., 53.
96 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3.
97 Ibid.
98 Another version of the story claims that news of the attacks spread, and the firemen responded to the crisis on their own.
99 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3.
100 Ibid.
101 Encyclopedia of Contemporary Biography of Pennsylvania, vol. 3 (New York: Atlantic Publishing & Engraving, 1898), 214.
102 Appel, Business Biography, 35.
103 Luke 24:49–52 (KJV): “And, behold, I send the promise of my Father upon you: but tarry ye in the city of Jerusalem, until ye be imbued with power from on high. And he led them out as far as to Bethany, and he lifted up his hands, and blessed them. And it came to pass, while he blessed them, he was parted from them, and carried up into heaven. And they worshipped him, and returned to Jerusalem with great joy: And were continually in the temple, praising and blessing God.”
104 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3.
105 Wanamaker also helped found a total of four Presbyterian congregations in the Philadelphia area, including Bethany Presbyterian Church in 1858, John Chambers Memorial Presbyterian Church in 1897, and the Bethany Temple Presbyterian Church in 1906. John Chambers Memorial Church was built as an offering of thanks to God when the main portion of Wanamaker’s store was spared from a fire that consumed several businesses on Market Street in 1897. Bethany Presbyterian is now Bethany Collegiate Church and moved to Havertown, Pennsylvania, in 1948; the congregation named the bell tower for their new building the John Wanamaker Memorial Tower. His original pew from Bethany is also at the church with a plaque identifying it. See Zulker, John Wanamaker, 80–88.
106 Ibid., 187–88.
107 Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 3.
108 John Wanamaker quoted in Encyclopedia of Contemporary Biography of Pennsylvania, vol. 3, 215; and Appel, Business Biography, 35.
109 Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 57. For additional history on the Gothic Revival movement in church architecture, see Williams, Religion, Art, and Money; and Lears, No Place of Grace. For additional discussion of nineteenth-century urban church architecture in Philadelphia, see Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 75–107; for New York City, see Bowman, The Urban Pulpit, 53–84.
110 Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 58.
111 Ibid., 45.
112 Appel, Business Biography, 38; and Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 177–79.
113 Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 46, 47.
114 Ibid.
115 Ibid., 170, 177; and Wagner, My Impressions of America, 84.
116 Wagner, My Impressions of America, 85.
117 International Sunday School Convention, 1896 speech, Box 20B, Folder 9, WP.
118 Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 111.
119 Ibid.
120 Glass, “Liberal Means to Conservative Ends,” 183.
121 Pierson’s father, Stephen Pierson, worked for the famous silk importer and abolitionist Arthur Tappan.
122 The three men also shared a premillennial theology. Pierson was the first editor of the premillennialist Scofield Reference Bible.
123 Robert, Occupy until I Come, 48.
124 Arthur T. Pierson in London, June 1867 to JW, Box 1A, Folder 6, WP.
125 Robert, Occupy until I Come, 73.
126 Smith, Search for Social Salvation, 46.
127 Ibid., 48.
128 Ibid., 190.
129 Robert, Occupy until I Come, 72.
130 Dorrien, Social Ethics in the Making, 76.
131 Robert, Occupy until I Come, 72–73.
132 Ibid., 90.
133 Ibid., 91.
134 Ibid., 94.
135 Ibid.
136 “Our History,” Fort Street Presbyterian Church (Detroit, Michigan), fortstreet.org (accessed August 25, 2017).
137 Robert, Occupy until I Come, 119–20.
138 Ibid.
139 See Smith, Search for Social Salvation, 5. Gary Smith follows White and Hopkins, Social Gospel. Smith’s chapter “Social Christianity, Businessmen, and the Golden Rule” paints a detailed portrait of Wanamaker as a businessman concerned with moral and religious principles in business operations. He does so without a focus on what went on inside the Wanamaker store and without in-depth knowledge of Bethany’s programs. See Smith, Search for Social Salvation, 9. Smith references Ken Fones-Wolf for this tidbit; see Fones-Wolf, Trade Union Gospel. Smith noted that in Philadelphia, liberal and evangelical supporters of social Christianity mingled until around 1910.
140 Smith, Search for Social Salvation, 7–8.
141 Quoted in ibid., 25–26.
142 Glass, “Liberal Means to Conservative Ends,” 183.
143 Ibid.
144 Alice Graham McCollin, “Unknown Wives of Well-Known Men: XIII.—Mrs. John Wanamaker,” Ladies’ Home Journal 9, no. 2 (1892).
145 Putney, Muscular Christianity, 84–86. Also known as The Brotherhood of Andrew and Phillip.
146 Glass, “Liberal Means to Conservative Ends,” 186–87.
147 Robert, Occupy until I Come, 123.
148 Glass, “Liberal Means to Conservative Ends,” 188.
149 Wagner, My Impressions of America, 84.
150 Ibid. Charles Wagner, a French Lutheran pastor and leader of a popular “simplicity” movement, visited Wanamaker and Bethany. He recorded his trip to the United States, including a visit to Wanamaker’s church, in a book titled My Impressions of America.
151 See William Zulker’s website on John Wanamaker, “Wanamaker Introduction,” williamzulker.com. In addition to publishing a biography, Zulker also published three online papers on Wanamaker. Zulker was a minister at Bethany Temple and retired early to work on a book on Wanamaker. He was one of the first to work with the Wanamaker papers, which were uncatalogued at the time, and he created the first finding aid for the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
152 Appel, Business Biography, 41.
153 Ibid., 40.
154 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 29.
155 Gibbons Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
156 Appel, Business Biography, 39. Certificate of Exemption for “A Drafted Person on Account of Disability” for the State of Pennsylvania, September 26, 1863, Box 1, Folder 2, Correspondence 1860–65, WP. See Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 78–79.
157 Appel, Business Biography, 40.
158 Wanamaker had gained some additional retail experience since working for Tower Hall when his younger brother William started a dried-meat shop on Market Street, west of today’s city hall. John ran the books for his brother and provided additional income to support their parents. See Appel, Business Biography, 61.
159 Ibid., 45.
160 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 39.
161 Ibid., 152.
162 Appel, Business Biography, 46.
163 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 152; and also Appel, Business Biography, 46–47.
164 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 152.
165 Although Wanamaker did not use or like the term “department store,” his customers and other businessmen called it a department store. Why Wanamaker rejected the label is not certain. I will be using “department store” throughout the book to describe Wanamaker’s stores.
166 Appel, Business Biography, 51.
167 “Oak Hall—growth of—(1868–1871),” Gibbons Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
168 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 112.
169 Ibid., 111–12.
170 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 39. Forty-five tenants had previously occupied the same space.
171 See Stephanie Grauman Wolf, “Centennial Exhibition (1876),” Encyclopedia of Greater Philadelphia, 2013, philadelphiaencyclopedia.org.
172 Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas, 3.
173 Bowlby, Just Looking, 1.
174 Harris, Cultural Excursions, 31.
175 Levenstein, Seductive Journey, Kindle location 123/5247.
176 Quoted in Buck-Morss, Dialectics of Seeing, 88.
177 Benjamin, Arcades Project, 17.
178 Ibid., 3, 16–17.
179 Ibid., 18.
180 Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas, 1.
181 Ibid.
182 Harris, Cultural Excursions, 63.
183 Ibid.
184 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 153.
185 Ibid., 30.
186 Appel, Business Biography, 75.
187 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 131. European stores contained a wider variety of merchandise in one store than a typical American dry goods store in this period. Le Bon Marché and other department stores were in full swing by the time of Wanamaker’s visit.
188 Appel, Business Biography, 77.
189 Evensen, God’s Man for the Gilded Age, 82.
190 Hutton would also design Bethany Presbyterian’s second building at Twenty-Second and Bainbridge. See Evensen, God’s Man for the Gilded Age, for details on the Moody revival.
191 “Moody and Sankey.”
192 Rydell, All the World’s a Fair, 7–8.
193 Ibid., 11.
194 Ibid., 15–16.
195 Ibid., 11.
196 Greenhalgh, Ephemeral Vistas, 1.
197 Ibid.
198 Appel, Business Biography, 70.
199 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 43. An earlier exhibition was held in New York City in 1853 with an “American Crystal Palace” as the focus. It was not a success, in part because of its location—the current site of the New York Public Library.
200 Appel, Business Biography, 107.
201 Ferry, History of the Department Store, 105.
202 Iarocci, Urban Department Store in America, 85.
203 Gibbons Drawer 1, Appendix A, annals, p. 8, WP.
204 For a detailed discussion of Wanamaker’s floor plan, see Iarocci, Urban Department Store in America, 84.
205 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 43.
206 J. W. Forney in Forney’s Progress, 1877; Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
207 Ibid.
208 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 235.
209 Iarocci, Urban Department Store in America, 91.
210 Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
211 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 215–17.
212 Ferry, History of the Department Store, 106.
213 Fischer, “‘Holy John’ Wanamaker,” 455.
214 Ibid., 458.
215 See ibid., 454.
216 Ibid., 455.
217 Ibid., 461.
218 Ibid., 464–66.
219 Ibid., 469.
220 Undated clipping, Box 128, Folder 14, WP.
221 Fischer, “‘Holy John’ Wanamaker,” 472–73.
222 Grant Hamilton, “Another ‘Stuffed Prophet,’” Judge, June 12, 1897.
223 Rodman Wanamaker Scrapbook, Box 241, WP.
224 Quoted in Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 11–12.
225 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 51.
226 “Egyptian Hall, The New Wanamaker Auditorium,” Anniversary Herald, April 21, 1908, Box 75, Folder 6, WP.
227 Ibid.
1 Peter Brown, Rise of Western Christendom, 29. Special thanks to Sloane Franklin for drawing my attention to this quote.
2 Zola, Ladies’ Paradise, 216–17, 233.
3 Émile Zola coined this phrase, “cathédrale du commerce moderne,” in Au bonheur des dames (Ladies’ Paradise). See Bowlby, Just Looking, 71, 216–17, 233.
4 Zola, Ladies’ Paradise, 427.
5 Ibid.
6 The department store lacks a clear point of origin, although many stores lay claim to the title. However, the list of the leaders of this movement inevitably includes Aristide Boucicaut of Le Bon Marché in Paris, A. T. Stewart of the Marble Palace in New York City, and John Wanamaker. See Iarocci, “Spaces of Desire.”
7 Pevsner, History of Building Types, 257.
8 Leach, Land of Desire; Iarocci, Urban Department Store in America, 15.
9 McKendrick, Brewer, and Plumb, Birth of Consumer Society, 19.
10 Plumb, “The Commercialization of Leisure in Eighteenth-Century England,” in McKendrick, Brewer, and Plumb, Birth of Consumer Society, 284.
11 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 7.
12 Miller, Bon Marché, 25.
13 Pevsner, History of Building Types, 261–63.
14 See Walter Benjamin’s unfinished book, The Arcades Project.
15 Ibid., 37.
16 Ibid.
17 Brian Nelson, introduction to Zola, Ladies’ Paradise, xi–xii. Flânerie is another term developed in late nineteenth-century Paris to describe the phenomenon of men and women leisurely strolling, sometimes loitering to look at merchandise through store windows.
18 Benjamin, The Arcades Project, 17.
19 Pevsner, History of Building Types, 262. Paris had over three hundred arcades in the early nineteenth century. Only about thirty remain. The United States had several arcades. One of the best examples, the Cleveland Arcade, is well-preserved and still in use as a shopping venue and hotel in Cleveland, Ohio.
20 Harris, Cultural Excursions, 114.
21 Ibid.
22 Bowlby, Just Looking, 3.
23 Herbert Muschamp, “The Passages of Paris and of Benjamin’s Mind,” New York Times, January 16, 2000.
24 Miller, Bon Marché, 20.
25 Ibid., 39.
26 Pevsner, History of Building Types, 267.
27 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 184.
28 Louisa Iarocci provides a detailed survey of urban department store architecture, development, and design in Urban Department Store.
29 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 32–38.
30 Miller, Bon Marché, 3.
31 Hepp, Middle-Class City, 27.
32 Pevsner, History of Building Types, 270; Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 135.
33 Hendrickson, Grand Emporiums, 34.
34 Iarocci, Urban Department Store, 70.
35 Hendrickson, Grand Emporiums, 35.
36 Ibid.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid., 37.
39 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 67; and Nadine Brozen, “Panel Gives Ladies’ Mile Historic District Status,” New York Times, May 3, 1989.
40 Hendrickson, Grand Emporiums, 40.
41 Iarocci, Urban Department Store, 75.
42 Wanamaker’s purchase of Stewart’s store was an emotional one. He had long admired Stewart and in some sense felt that by purchasing Stewart’s he inherited his legacy. But the emotional tie clouded his judgment. As New York City’s shopping shifted toward Herald Square and Pennsylvania Station, Wanamaker refused to relocate the store, maintaining an allegiance to the original site. Macy’s started in 1858 and became a full-fledged department store in 1877. Bloomingdale’s was founded in 1872. Gimbels started in Milwaukee in 1887, opening branches in Philadelphia in 1894 and in New York City, directly across the street from Macy’s, in 1910. By the 1890s, department stores appeared across the United States. See Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 270.
43 John Wanamaker, “Address by Mr. John Wanamaker to his Employees delivered Tuesday Evening November 17th, 1885,” Box 20B, Folder 5, WP.
44 Quoted by Gibbons in Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP, clipping from the Philadelphia Store News, September 1883.
45 The five major Philadelphia department stores on Market Street that competed with Wanamaker’s were Strawbridge and Clothier, Lit Brothers, Gimbels, and N. Snellenburg and Co. See Arrigale and Keels, Images of America.
46 Ibid.
47 Ibid.
48 Schaffer, Daniel H. Burnham, 70.
49 For Wanamaker’s Chicago visit, see Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 194. By 1893, Marshall Field had already constructed a couple of store buildings after fire destroyed two of his buildings, in 1871 and in 1877. The year before the fair, Field broke ground on the first section of a multisection building project that would eventually create one large store. The sections (built in 1902, 1906, 1907, and 1914) matched architecturally on the outside and were joined on the inside. Geoffrey Johnson, “The Annotated: Marshall Fields,” Chicago Magazine, June 6, 2007, www.chicagomag.com.
50 Iarocci, Urban Department Store, 109–11.
51 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 145.
52 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 137.
53 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 162–87; Harris, Artist in American Society, 188–216; Bushman, Refinement of America, passim.
54 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 224–25; Harris, Artist in American Society, 303; Williams, “Gospel of Wealth,” 173.
55 Morgan, Protestants and Pictures, 316.
56 Harris, Artist in American Society, 303.
57 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 222, 238.
58 Ibid., 252, 262.
59 Lupkin, Manhood Factories, 12.
60 Glass, “Liberal Means to Conservative Ends,” 185.
61 Ibid., 190.
62 Lupkin, Manhood Factories, 3.
63 Ibid., 25.
64 Ibid., 22, 35.
65 Ibid.
66 Ibid., 81.
67 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 351–52. Other sources indicate he gave a substantial amount of money to these international projects.
68 Lupkin, Manhood Factories, xxi.
69 JW to R. M. Luther, December 31, 1896, Letterbook, WP.
70 Address by Mr. John Wanamaker to his Employees delivered Tuesday Evening November, 17th, 1885,” Box 20B, Folder 5, WP.
71 Ibid.
72 Valeri, Heavenly Merchandize; Schmidt, Consumer Rites. Also see Moore, Selling God; and Giggie and Winston, Faith in the Market.
73 Smith, Search for Social Salvation, 245.
74 For one version of the story, see Appel, Business Biography, 55.
75 “Oak Hall,” Gibbons Drawer 1, WP.
76 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 36–37, 41–42. A. T. Stewart and Arthur Tappan both laid claim to inventing the money-back guarantee, and scholars disagree about who first fully expressed the concept. European department stores also made changes to retail practices and did so earlier than their American counterparts. Although several store publications and biographers perpetuate the myth that Wanamaker invented many of the “firsts” of modern retail, he certainly contributed to a metamorphosis in retail practice.
77 “The Evolution of the Modern Store and How It Has Been Advanced by the Wanamaker System” (1899), Box 75, Folder 7, WP.
78 Ibid.
79 “Oak Hall (1861) Founder’s Aim,” Gibbons Drawer 1, WP.
80 See Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 252–76.
81 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 114.
82 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 205.
83 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 264.
84 Gibbons typed notes, Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
85 Prior to hiring Burnham for the flagship store project, Wanamaker had hired him to help build a large multistory addition to Stewart’s original Marble Palace in New York City and a sky bridge (he grandly called it the Bridge of Progress) between the two buildings.
86 Hines, Burnham from Chicago, 288. Burnham’s firm also designed an addition to the Land Title Building five years later.
87 Ibid., 291. Burnham’s firm designed the following buildings: Field Warehouse, 1900; Marshall Field’s Company Store, 1902; Marshall Field’s Company Store Power Plant, 1902; Gimbel Brothers Store addition, Milwaukee, 1903; Wanamaker’s Department Store, New York, 1903; Wanamaker’s Department Store, Philadelphia, 1902; McCreery Store, Pittsburgh (building built for another store, then purchased by McCreery), 1903; Marshall Field’s Company Store, 1905; Marshall Field’s Company Store (riverside) Warehouse, 1905; Selfridges Department Store, London, 1906; Alms and Doepke Department Store addition, Cincinnati, 1908; Gimbel Brothers Department Store, New York, 1909; Filene’s Department Store, 1912; May Department Store, Cleveland, 1912; Steven and Brothers Department Store, Chicago, 1912.
88 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 112.
89 Other than Burnham’s famous department store designs, few American department store buildings receive merit for their exterior or interior design. The lone exception is Louis Sullivan’s spectacular wrought-iron design of the entry of Schlesinger and Mayer (later Carson Pirie Scott) in Chicago, completed in 1903. See ibid., 114.
90 Schaffer, Daniel H. Burnham, 72.
91 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 252.
92 Schaffer, Daniel H. Burnham, 166.
93 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 139.
94 Ibid., 138.
95 See Hines, Burnham of Chicago, 303.
96 Burnham, on a larger scale, copied major exterior elements of his Wanamaker design in the Henry W. Oliver Building (1907–1910). See Schaffer, Daniel H. Burnham, 152, and the images on 154–55.
97 Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 265.
98 Hines, Burnham of Chicago, 281.
99 Schaffer, Daniel H. Burnham, 170.
100 Hines, Burnham of Chicago, 303. Although the building design was a success, frustration characterized Burnham and Wanamaker’s relationship, as the merchant made multiple changes and constantly meddled.
101 Store Program, Box 75, Folder 7, WP. The Wanamaker radio station call letters were WOO. The store operated the station from 1922 to 1928. Other department stores experimented with radio during this period. Wanamaker’s was one of the early operators.
102 See Hepp, Middle-Class City, 148.
103 Bulletin, December 19, 1906, Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
104 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 137.
105 Benson, Counter Cultures, 39.
106 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 93.
107 Gibbons typed notes, Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
108 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 246. Capital letters are in the original.
109 “History,” Philadelphia City Hall Virtual Tour, www.phila.gov.
110 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 101.
111 Ibid., 64.
112 Unpublished biography by Robins, 209, Box 24, Folder 51, WP.
113 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 129.
114 Ibid., 130.
115 Ibid.
116 Ibid.
117 Bowman, Urban Pulpit, 24.
118 Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 221.
119 Lupkin, Manhood Factories, 5.
120 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 143.
121 Ibid., 104.
122 Ibid., 246–47.
1 Staff Correspondent, “The President at Wanamaker’s,” Baltimore American, December 31, 1911.
2 See Griffith, God’s Daughters, for an overview history of Protestants and embodied religion. For additional critical framework, see Finch, Dissenting Bodies; and Klassen, Spirits of Protestantism.
3 Wanamaker faced the challenge in two cities, with his acquisition of the old Stewart’s store in New York City and with the building addition he made in 1902.
4 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 260.
5 Ibid., 261.
6 Ibid., 263.
7 Ibid., 264.
8 Ibid.
9 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 86.
10 Quoted in Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 262.
11 Benson, “Cinderella of Occupations,” 3.
12 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 275.
13 Ibid., 264.
14 Benson, Counter Cultures; and Benson, “Cinderella of Occupations,” 6, 22.
15 Nasaw, Children of the City, 43–44.
16 Brewer, “Child Labor in the Department Store,” 167.
17 Benson, Counter Cultures, 130; and Benson, “Cinderella of Occupations,” 8.
18 Bjelopera, City of Clerks, location 1121.
19 Benson, Counter Cultures, 5.
20 Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro; and Bjelopera, City of Clerks, location 535. The city of Philadelphia employed black clerks in the main post office, and Wanamaker had hired African American postal clerks and postmasters.
21 Benson, Counter Cultures, 209.
22 Cooper, “The Limits of Persuasion.”
23 Bjelopera, City of Clerks, location 509.
24 Ibid., location 548.
25 This section relies on Cooper, “Limits of Persuasion.”
26 Ibid., 99.
27 Benson, “Cinderella of Occupations,” 1–25, passim; and Wanamaker, “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute,” 152.
28 Wanamaker, “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute,” 151–54.
29 Ibid.
30 JWCI Yearbook, 1917, WP. In April 1916 Wanamaker changed the name of the JWCI to the American University of Trade and Applied Commerce. “Dedicate New University,” New York Times, April 9, 1916.
31 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 284.
32 Bowler, Blessed, 31–32.
33 See Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 14.
34 Benson, Counter Cultures, 128.
35 See Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 14; and Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, 126–27.
36 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 230.
37 Wanamaker, “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute,” 153.
38 John Wanamaker, “Speech to the Cadets,” Folder JWCI Box, WP.
39 Hepp, Middle-Class City, 79, 164–65.
40 Hampton University, “History,” www.hamptonu.edu.
41 Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning, 243–44. The divide between black liberal arts and vocational schools led to the development of a divide between light-skinned and dark-skinned blacks, with the majority of darker-skinned African Americans barred from admission to liberal arts schools and steered into vocational training.
42 Lester Sullivan, “American Missionary Association,” Amistad Research Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, amistadresearchcenter.tulane.edu.
43 Ibid.
44 The relationship between Armstrong and Washington was extremely close and involved a high level of mutual admiration. At the end of Armstrong’s life, when he was partly paralyzed, Washington cared for him in his own home. See Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography, chap. 3, “The Struggle for an Education,” available at xroads.virginia.edu; and Hampton University, “Samuel Chapman Armstrong,” www.hamptonu.edu.
45 Kendi, Stamped from the Beginning, 277.
46 Ibid.
47 William H. Doris, “Negro Business Men Finish with a Banquet: John Wanamaker Gave Them Advice in the Day Session,” New York Times, August 19, 1905.
48 Robert Jefferson Norrell, Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2009), 7.
49 JWCI Yearbook, 1917.
50 Wanamaker, “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute,” 152.
51 Brewer, “Child Labor in the Department Store,” 169.
52 Ibid.
53 Ibid.
54 Ibid., 167.
55 Ibid., 169.
56 Ibid., 168.
57 JWCI, “Monthly Record,” Box 34b, Folder 4, WP.
58 Brewer, “Child Labor in the Department Store,” 168.
59 Ibid.
60 Ibid.
61 Other “character builder” groups embraced the Y’s fourfold mission as well. In 1895 the YMCA adopted the simplified triangle of mind, body, and spirit that persists today. See Putney, Muscular Christianity, 29.
62 The Rule of Four: How Boys and Girls Can Develop into Full-Rounded Men and Women, Wanamaker Stores Booklet, author’s collection.
63 JWCI Yearbook, 1917.
64 “History of the YMCA Logo,” Greater Green Bay YMCA, www.greenbayymca.org.
65 “A Message to Garcia” first appeared in Hubbard’s monthly self-published magazine The Philistine: A Periodical of Protest (1895–1915). The story became a national bestseller and a favorite of the American military. Hubbard’s magazine had a circulation of two hundred thousand. He had named it the “Philistine” in a sarcastic nod to the use of the term by the upper class to describe someone as uncultured and uneducated.
66 MacLeod, Building Character in the American Boy, 85–86.
67 The Wanamaker Primer on Abraham Lincoln: Strength, Mind, Heart, Will, the Full-Rounded Man, the Typical American Example of the Rule of Four (Philadelphia: Times Printing House, 1919), 141.
68 Winston, Red-Hot and Righteous, 83.
69 MacLeod, Building Character in the American Boy, 87. “Onward Christian Soldiers” was adopted by Theodore Roosevelt’s 1912 Bull Moose campaign. Putney, Muscular Christianity, 35.
70 See MacLeod, Building Character in the American Boy, 45.
71 Ibid., 29.
72 “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute Manual of Commands,” 153, Box 34b, Folder 3, JWCI Box, WP.
73 Ibid., 7.
74 Ibid.
75 Brewer, “Child Labor in the Department Store,” 170.
76 Ibid., 171; and “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute Manual of Commands,” 153.
77 “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute Manual of Commands.”
78 Ibid.
79 Winston, Red-Hot and Righteous, 87.
80 Ibid.
81 “John Wanamaker Commercial Institute Manual of Commands,” 153.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 JWCI Yearbook, 1917.
85 Putney, Muscular Christianity, 26–30, passim.
86 Lears, No Place of Grace, 12–15.
87 See Anne Braude, “Women’s History Is American Religious History,” in Tweed, Retelling U.S. Religious History.
88 Putney, Muscular Christianity, 1. The term “muscular Christianity” first appeared in the 1850s.
89 McDannell, Christian Home in Victorian Times, 116.
90 Higginson, “Saints and Their Bodies.”
91 Ibid.; and Putney, Muscular Christianity, 2.
92 Higginson, “Saints and Their Bodies.” Clifford Putney traces the emergence of muscular Christianity to England in the 1850s and 1860s through a series of novels and publications. Its leap to the United States was at first hindered by Protestantism’s negative view of physical exercise and exertion, yet it found fertile soil in theologically liberal circles. Later, muscular Christianity secured acceptance in theologically conservative groups as attitudes about bodies and physical exercise changed.
93 MacLeod, Building Character in the American Boy, xii.
94 Finch, Dissenting Bodies, 3.
95 Wanamaker Primer on Abraham Lincoln, 98, 99. See also The Wanamaker Primer on the North American Indian: Hiawatha Produced in Life (1909).
96 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 278.
97 Putney, Muscular Christianity, 67, 149, and passim.
98 Van Slyck, A Manufactured Wilderness, 4.
99 Ibid., 15.
100 JWCI Yearbook, 1917; Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 233. Here in the fresh ocean air, using a combination of “education and recreation,” John Wanamaker started the camp “to develop in a boy manliness, loyalty, uprightness, obedience, self-reliance and courtesy.”
101 Brewer, “Child Labor in the Department Store,” 169.
102 Historic American Buildings Survey, Wanamaker Hall, HABS No. NJ-1144, available at cdn.loc.gov. In 1907 the Philadelphian Club, Princeton University’s YMCA branch, founded a camp in nearby Bay Head for poor inner-city boys. Selden, Princeton Summer Camp, 22.
103 The official name of the camp found on postcards and other documents was the John Wanamaker Commercial Institute Camp.
104 Ibid.
105 “Island Heights Borough,” Living Places, Gombach Group, www.livingplaces.com.
106 Van Slyck, Manufactured Wilderness, 7.
107 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 234.
108 Van Slyck, Manufactured Wilderness, 16.
109 1915 JWCI Yearbook, Box 34B, Folder 3, WP.
110 Messenger, Holy Leisure, 59.
111 Ibid., 90.
112 Ibid., 93.
113 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 234.
114 Jacqueline Urgo, “Future in Doubt for Place of the Past,” Philadelphia Inquirer, July 22, 1996.
115 Ibid.
116 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 103.
117 Ibid.
118 Ibid., 233.
119 “Wanamaker Gift to Clerks: Athletic Field on Philadelphia Store Roof Dedicated,” New York Times, July 12, 1915; and Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 228.
120 See Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 50.
121 See ibid., 276; and Dave Hackenberg, “The Wanamaker Trophy: A Tradition with Tales to Tell,” PGA/Turner Sports Interactive, www.pga.com.
122 John Wanamaker Store, A Friendly Guide-Book to the Wanamaker Store, 24. The guidebook was first published in 1913.
123 Golf News Net, “Wanamaker Trophy Facts,” July 25, 2016, thegolfnewsnet.com.
124 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 275.
125 Marchand, Creating the Corporate Soul, 105–7.
126 Special thanks to Karen Spielman and Kate Carté Engel for sharing family memories and correspondence between family members and John Wanamaker.
127 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 95–99; Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 267–69. His biographies and personal papers are replete with stories of the employees’ regard for Wanamaker. Negative stories must exist, but they are not extant in his personal papers.
128 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 259–60.
129 Ibid., 265.
130 Wagner, My Impressions of America, 139.
131 Allan Greenville, “Man Unprompted after 56 Years Shows Need for Permanent FEPC,” Chicago Defender, national edition, March 22, 1947.
132 See Cooper, “Limits of Persuasion”; and Bloom, Fletcher, and Perry, Negro Employment in Retail Trade.
133 Conwell, Romantic Rise of a Great American, 91–92.
134 Ibid., 79, 164–65.
135 For more on the popularity of minstrel groups in Philadelphia department stores, see Bjelopera, “White Collars and Blackface.” Wanamaker’s JWCI Yearbook includes a photograph of two large employee minstrel groups posing in full regalia. There is no mention of the employee minstrel groups in broadly circulated store publications.
136 Bjelopera, “White Collars and Blackface,” 478.
137 Ibid., 480.
138 John Wanamaker quoted in the Meadowbrook Yearbook, 1917, JWCI Box, WP.
1 There were two Lindenhursts. Wanamaker purchased the land in 1868. The first house was built between 1880 and 1884. An adjacent art gallery, connected to the main house by a covered passageway, housed a large portion of Wanamaker’s art collection that did not fit in the house or was not on display at his stores. The second house was constructed after the 1907 fire. Fire safety was long a passion of Wanamaker’s. The home of Thomas, his oldest son, burned to the ground in 1901 and also consumed a massive art collection. See “Flames Pursue the Wanamaker Paintings,” Pittsburgh Dispatch, August 11, 1907, 8 (found in Box 49A, Folder 12, WP); and Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 139.
2 “Thomas B. Wanamaker’s Country Home Burned,” New York Times, May 19, 1901.
3 “Three Fires Destroy $3,000,000 Worth of Art,” Brooklyn Daily Eagle, August 11, 1907.
4 Ibid.
5 “Looters at Burning Wanamaker Home,” New York Times, February 9, 1907.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 Ibid.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid. Bucheron more accurately translates as “lumberjack.”
11 Ibid.
12 “Wanamaker Planned Book on Luther,” New York Times, February 10, 1907.
13 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 140.
14 “Wanamaker Planned Book on Luther.” One of the great losses for Wanamaker was his research for a book he planned to write on Martin Luther. Luther is an interesting subject choice, given that Wanamaker was a Presbyterian and teetotaler. See also Promey, “Public Display of Religion,” 31 and passim.
15 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 74.
16 Ruskin quotes can be found in Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores as well other store materials, for example, Wanamaker’s Anniversary Book (1906), Box 20B, Folder 13, WP.
17 Weinberg, “Americans in Paris.”
18 Ibid. Also see David McCullough, The Greater Journey: Americans in Paris at Home and Abroad (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2011).
19 Weinberg, “Americans in Paris.”
20 For example, Wanamaker’s supported Frieseke’s early career in a variety of ways that included employing him as the artistic director of the department store’s catalog and as an art advisor to Thomas’s newspaper, the North American. They also commissioned him to paint a mural for the New York store’s elevator lobby.
21 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 252.
22 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 80.
23 Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Destination Culture, 271.
24 Philadelphia Times article; and Appraiser assessment of Rodman’s collections, Box 49A, WP.
25 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 197.
26 “Minnie” Wanamaker, John Wanamaker’s daughter, married Major Barclay Warburton and also spent time in France, especially at Biarritz, where they had property. It was through Warburton’s connections that Minnie and Barclay Warburton came into contact with the tsar of Russia and his family before World War I. See Megan Evans, “Of Wanamakers and Romanovs: A History Mystery from the Archives,” November 11, 2015, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, https://hsp.org.
27 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 81.
28 Ibid., 79. Brožík’s dealer was the same as Munkácsy’s.
29 Quoted in Ibid.
30 Quoted in ibid. I have not been able to locate the diaries Gibbons cites at HSP.
31 When the paintings were sold in the 1980s, some of the artwork that was recorded in store catalogs as original works by famous artists turned out to be copies. Lita Solis-Cohen, “Sotheby’s to Auction Wanamakers’ 19th-Century Art,” Philadelphia Inquirer, February 22, 1988.
32 Morgan, Protestants and Pictures, 19.
33 Ibid.
34 Ibid.
35 Harris, Artist in American Society, 300.
36 For a wonderful history of wealthy Americans, especially Episcopalians and their art collections, see Williams, Religion, Art, and Money. Regular steam-packet service began in 1816 between New York and Liverpool, opening a path for Americans to visit Europe with more ease. See Lears, No Place of Grace, 185–86. See also Williams, “Gospel of Wealth.”
37 Levenstein, Seductive Journey, Kindle location 844/5247.
38 See Franchot, Roads to Rome; Davis, “Catholic Envy”; and Lears, No Place of Grace.
39 Again, see Franchot, Roads to Rome; Davis, “Catholic Envy”; and Lears, No Place of Grace.
40 Lears, No Place of Grace, 184.
41 Williams, Religion, Art and Money, Kindle location 499/6524.
42 Stein, John Ruskin and Aesthetic Thought, 41.
43 Lears, No Place of Grace, 150.
44 Stein, John Ruskin and Aesthetic Thought, 76–77.
45 Harris, Artist in American Society, 303.
46 Morowitz, “Passion for Business,” 193.
47 Ibid.
48 Morgan, Protestants and Pictures, 270–71.
49 Ibid., 309.
50 Quoted in ibid.
51 Ibid., 290–91.
52 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 22.
53 Harris, Artist in American Society, 300.
54 Ibid.
55 Morgan, Protestants and Pictures, 336.
56 See ibid., 244–56; and Bethany Sunday Record Books, Presbyterian Historical Society.
57 Wanamaker purchased the financially struggling Sunday School Times in 1871 and made it profitable. Wanamaker favored lesson plans in his own Sunday school work. The Sunday School Times used sketches and encouraged the use of a blackboard for lessons. An in-depth study of the publication may also reveal new information on Wanamaker’s perspective. See Morgan, Protestants and Pictures, xiii, 240, 242, 245, and so on. Wanamaker revamped the Sunday School Times with the help of Congregationalist minister and educator Henry Clay Trumbull.
58 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 245.
59 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 74.
60 Lears, No Place of Grace, 195; and Campbell, Romantic Ethic and the Spirit of Modern Consumerism.
61 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 73.
62 Ibid., 74.
63 Art Journal, vol. 54, 245.
64 John Preston Beecher, “The Salons of 1892,” Collector 3, no. 15 (June 1, 1892): 23.
65 Appel’s biography differs from Gibbons’s and claims that Rodman purchased the painting for his father.
66 Wanamaker Herald, March 1905, Box 75, Folder 3, WP.
67 Ibid.
68 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 77.
69 “The Price of Human Glory,” New York Times, October 20, 1912.
70 Store newspaper clipping, Box 49, Folder 6, WP.
71 Store correspondence, Box 49, Folder 6, WP.
72 Ibid.
73 Harris, Cultural Excursions, 17. The founding of these various institutions was an effort by cities to gain respect through their cultural amenities.
74 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 25.
75 Levine, Highbrow, Lowbrow, 146.
76 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 25.
77 Levine, Highbrow, Lowbrow, 147.
78 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 25–26.
79 Cantor, “Temples of the Arts,” 331.
80 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 23.
81 Cantor, “Temples of the Arts,” 331.
82 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 23.
83 Conn, Do Museums Still Need Objects?, 154–55.
84 Tomkins, Merchants and Masterpieces, 21.
85 Cantor, “Temples of the Arts,” 331.
86 Conn, Do Museums Still Need Objects?, 174–75.
87 “Our Story,” Philadelphia Museum of Art, www.philamuseum.org.
88 Bowlby, Just Looking, 6.
89 For helpful discussion of department store art galleries, see Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 55, 250.
90 Ibid., 249.
91 Ibid., 246, 249.
92 The Japanese department store Mitsukoshi had a stage and art gallery. Jordan Marsh of Boston started art galleries in 1894, although the works were for sale. Le Bon Marché, the French department store that Wanamaker saw as a model, began its gallery in 1874, earlier than Wanamaker. This gallery invited local artists to exhibit up to six weeks. Ibid.
93 Ibid., 7.
94 Art Misc., Box 126, Folder 7, WP.
95 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 249.
96 Ibid., 253.
97 Ibid., 80.
98 Ibid., 80, 265.
99 Ibid., 239.
100 Wanamaker Herald (1905), Folder 75, File 3, WP.
101 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 249.
102 Ibid.
103 Ibid., 253.
104 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 80.
105 Folder 120, File 15, WP.
106 Duncan, Civilizing Rituals, 17.
107 Ibid.
108 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 249. The great exhibitions also suffered from overambitious attempts to display the most art possible in the available space.
109 Duncan, Civilizing Rituals, 10.
110 Art Inventories: Wanamaker Galleries, Box 49B, Folder 3, WP.
111 Ibid.
112 Duncan, Civilizing Rituals, 10.
113 The original Strasbourg clock resides inside the cathedral in Strasbourg, France. Jana Dolecki, “Strasbourg Cathedral,” www.strasbourg.info. Wanamaker’s model was one quarter the size of the original. Wanamaker’s Strasbourg is now on display at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. Le Bon Marché also had a reproduction of the clock, which is no small coincidence given Wanamaker’s frequent visits to the store for ideas.
114 Store Art Department, Pasquale Farina, “List of Paintings,” Box 49a, Folder 17, WP. There are multiple inventories of Wanamaker’s art in the archives and booklets showing the art.
115 Ibid.
116 Art Inventories: Wanamaker Galleries, Box 49B, Folder 3, WP.
117 Ibid.
118 From a twelve-page booklet introducing the painter Pierre Firtel’s The Conquerors, produced by the John Wanamaker Store, Box 49, Folder 6, WP.
119 Clipping from Wanamaker Herald, 1905, Box 75, Folder 3, WP.
120 Morowitz, “Passion for Business,” 184. Wanamaker and those who ran the business after him had the paintings on display in his Philadelphia store from 1911 to 1988.
121 Christ on Golgotha is sometimes called Christ at Calvary.
122 “Christ Before Pilate Sold,” New York Times, February 10, 1887.
123 Morowitz, “Passion for Business,” 185.
124 Morgan, Protestants and Pictures, 319.
125 Morowitz, “Passion for Business,” 185.
126 Ibid., 190.
127 Ibid., 185..
128 Morowitz, “Passion for Business.” Christ before Pilate measured 20 feet 8 inches long by 13 feet 6 inches wide; Christ on Golgotha is 23 feet 4 inches long by 14 feet 2 inches wide.
129 Nahshon, “Going against the Grain,” 67–68.
130 Ibid., 74.
131 Ibid., 78. Whether it was murder, suicide, or an accident was difficult to determine, although authorities ruled it either an accident or suicide.
132 Morowitz, “Passion for Business.”
133 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 261.
134 Rev. Henry Van Dyke quoted in “Christ on Calvary: The Painting by M. De Munkacsy,” booklet, Box 240, WP.
135 Ferdinand L. French, “Two Great Pictures,” typed essay, Box 49a, Folder 11, WP.
136 Clipping from New York Times, April 24, 1939, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
137 Ibid.
138 Leach, Land of Desire.
139 Richard J. Beamish, “Wanamaker’s Tomb Is Sealed as City Bows in Sad Rites,” Philadelphia Inquirer, morning edition, December 15, 1922. In the spring of 2018, I was able to see Munkácsy’s three paintings, “The Christ Trilogy,” where they have been on display at the Deri Museum in Debrecen, Hungary. The color, size, movement, and power were startling to experience in person.
140 Marley, Henry Ossawa Tanner, 26.
141 Ibid., 23.
142 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 80.
143 Marley, Henry Ossawa Tanner, 30. Tanner had not been to the Holy Land, but he had visited Chicago’s Colombian Exposition in 1893, where he may have seen the Egyptian display and other Middle Eastern displays.
144 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 1, 53.
145 Marley, Henry Ossawa Tanner, 29.
146 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 254; Marley, Henry Ossawa Tanner, 37; Wilson, Unofficial Statesman, 175. Later, Wanamaker’s trusted business partner Robert Ogden purchased Tanner’s earlier paintings The Bagpipe Lesson and The Banjo Lesson for display at the Hampton Institute, hoping to inspire the students.
147 Marley, Henry Ossawa Tanner, 37.
148 Judith F. Dolkart, “The Life of Christ Comes to the ‘Acropolis of Brooklyn,’” in James Tissot: The Life of Christ, The Complete Set of 350 Watercolors, ed. Judith F. Dolkart (New York: Merrell Publishers and Brooklyn Museum, 2009), 35–37.
149 Store advertisement clipping for Tissot Bible, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
150 Duncan, Civilizing Rituals, 19.
151 Advertisement proof from the February 14, 1945, edition of the Philadelphia Inquirer, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
152 Folder “Display Department: Correspondence W, 1938,” WP.
153 Dunlap died in 1951. His brother sent the note in March 1953, which indicates that Dunlap wrote the piece several years earlier. There are other letters like it in the collection; see Box 49, Folder 1, WP.
154 William F. Hamill Jr. to John Raasch, president of the John Wanamaker Store, April 3, 1950, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
155 John Raasch to William F. Hamill Jr., April 4, 1950, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
156 Letter from the Reverend William Waide to Wanamaker Store, March 29, 1958, Box 49, Folder 1, WP.
157 Ibid.
158 An undated slip of paper in the Wanamaker Papers gives the talking points for the Munkácsy paintings by Evelyn B. Conner—not to be “used” without her permission (the slip is undated, although the paintings were not displayed in the Grand Court until 1928). There is evidence that Conner gave regular tours. One of the letters in the collection mentions listening to Conner’s presentation on the paintings. Evelyn B. Conner, untitled notes, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
159 Ibid.
160 Jean Shyrock to Wanamaker Store, May 4, 1965, Box 49, Folder 10, WP.
161 “Book on Luther,” New York Times, February 10, 1907.
162 “Wanamaker Stables Burn,” New York Times, July 22, 1907. In Herbert Ershkowitz’s biography there is the story that the fires at Lindenhurst provided a large sum of insurance money at a time when Wanamaker was undergoing financial difficulty, raising a suspicion about the nature of the fire. Ershkowitz does not cite a source for this speculation and does not believe it is true, and no other sources mention the suspicion.
163 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 78.
164 Schwain, Signs of Grace, 2.
165 Levine, Highbrow, Lowbrow, passim.
1 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 238.
2 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 196.
3 Ibid. The Christmas hymn “O Little Town of Bethlehem” had extra meaning for Wanamaker. He was friends with its author, Phillip Brooks.
4 JW to RW, March 1, 1911 quoted in Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 186.
5 See Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 59–61. Biswanger’s work is the only full-length well-researched historical account of the Great Organ and the store organists.
6 Gibbons, John Wanamaker, vol. 2, 189.
7 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 242.
8 Ibid.
9 Whitaker, World of Department Stores, 224.
10 Nostrum, Economics of Retailing, 199.
11 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 227.
12 Ibid., 228.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 Ibid., 248.
16 Schaffer, Daniel H. Burnham, 166.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 57.
20 Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 253.
21 Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 57.
22 Grand Court Organ, 1917 booklet, Box 75, Folder 7, WP.
23 Employee Songbook, Box 74, WP.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 Grand Court Organ, 1917 booklet.
27 Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 43.
28 Grand Court Organ, 1917 booklet.
29 Vogt’s career playing at Wanamaker’s began long before her official position as store organist. She started working there at age twelve dusting baskets, and moved through the ranks, volunteering to play the organ when guest musicians failed to show. She became the permanent organist in 1917 and continued in that position until 1966. See Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 74, 48.
30 Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 43.
31 Ibid., 44–45.
32 Kilde, When Church Became Theatre, 123–28.
33 McDannell, Christian Home in Victorian America, 50.
34 The organ was sold after the fair, but the deal fell through, leaving it in limbo until Wanamaker’s purchase. See Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 51.
35 A guarded secret, the purchase price of the organ is part of its myth. Biswanger found evidence that Wanamaker got an amazing deal, most probably buying the organ for less than 5 percent of what it cost to build. See ibid., 54.
36 Ibid., 56.
37 Ibid., 59.
38 Ibid., 65.
39 Biswanger discovered that the pipe count had long been padded to keep the organ ranked as the largest in the United States—and, pointedly, larger than its chief competitor in nearby Atlantic City. Certainly, this also helped with advertising. Whether Wanamaker knew of the padding is uncertain, but his son Rodman, who worked closely with the organ expansion long after his father’s death, likely knew. The organ in the main auditorium of the Atlantic City Convention Hall (now Boardwalk Hall) was damaged in 1944 by a hurricane and again in 2012. It is considered the world’s largest and loudest, with 33,114 pipes and 449 ranks. Since Wanamaker’s organ is in working order and still performs regularly, it is often listed as the world’s largest, fully operational organ. See ibid., 242.
40 Organ guidebooks were published every year and appeared to be popular. In contemporary times, the organ was entered on the National Registry of Historical Sites, and a group of boosters called Friends of the Wanamaker Organ formed in 1995 to protect and support the organ. Grand Court Organ, 1917 booklet.
41 For a deeper look at the role music served in department stores, see Tyler’s incisive article, “‘Commerce and Poetry Hand in Hand.’”
42 Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 155; and Schmidt, Consumer Rites, 159–69.
43 In over one hundred years at Wanamaker’s, the organ has had only four organists, suggesting the pleasure of such a role.
44 Grand Court Organ, booklet, author’s collection.
45 Russell later became the music director for the Philadelphia store. It is possible he met Wanamaker’s son during Rodman’s years at Princeton.
46 Grand Court Organ, booklet, author’s collection.
47 Ibid.
48 Ibid.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid.
51 Quoted in Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 62.
52 Tyler, “‘Commerce and Poetry Hand in Hand,’” 76.
53 Ibid., 79.
54 Levine, Highbrow, Lowbrow.
55 Ibid., 80.
56 Ibid., 100.
57 Tyler, “‘Commerce and Poetry Hand in Hand,’” 78.
58 For a full discussion of the evolution of American holidays in the commercial world, see Schmidt, Consumer Rites.
59 Clipping from Examiner, New York, December 28, 1893, Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
60 Clipping from Watchman, New York, December 27, 1894, Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
61 Lears, No Place of Grace, 184.
62 Franchot, Roads to Rome; and Kilde, When Church Became Theatre.
63 Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 90; and Addie Peyronnin, “‘To Beautify His House’: Rodman Wanamaker’s Sacramental Silver Commissions” (M.A. thesis, University of Delaware, 2012), passim.
64 Biswanger, Music in the Marketplace, 80–81.
65 When the church moved from its Rue de Berri location to its current Gothic Revival building, the Tiffany windows were brought to the new sanctuary. France has declared the windows national treasures. Special thanks to the Reverend Scott Herr, senior minister of the American Church in Paris, for giving me a personal tour of the building and sharing the history of the church. He encouraged me to see Tiffany stained glass in a new way—up close. See “History, Architecture, & Tours,” American Church in Paris website, www.acparis.org.
66 Peyronnin, “‘To Beautify His House.’”
67 Rodman had three children—Fernanda W. Munn, Marie Louise Munn, and Captain John Wanamaker Jr.—as well as five grandchildren—Rodman Arturo Heeren, John Rodman Wanamaker, Fernanda Pauline Wanamaker, Gurnee Munn Jr., and Fernanda Munn.
68 Rzeznik, Church and Estate, 90.
69 Thomas H. Keels, Philadelphia Graveyards and Cemeteries (Mount Pleasant, SC: Arcadia, 2003), 61.
70 Schmidt, Consumer Rites, 162.
71 See Flag Heritage Foundation website, “The Wanamaker Collection,” www.flagheritagefoundation.org (accessed August 19, 2017). The Flag Heritage Foundation purchased the Wanamaker flag collection in 1988. After restoration, the organization was not able to put the flags on display and decided to turn them over to various nonprofits for ongoing preservation and display. The Friends of the Wanamaker Organ received a large collection of the flags, which they put on display at Macy’s department store, the current owner of the old Wanamaker store, while the Military History Museum in Vienna, Austria, received a collection of military flags.
72 Store advertisement, Philadelphia Inquirer, November 22, 1927.
73 Schmidt, Consumer Rites, 162.
74 While other department stores moved to a less “Christian” Christmas and Easter and filled their holiday displays with more innocuous gingerbread men, Santas, and Easter Bunnies, Wanamaker’s religiously themed holidays persisted until the 1950s, long after his death.
75 Nelson, introduction to American Sanctuary, 10.
76 “1919 Christmas Carols in the Grand Court,” Box 74, Folder 7, WP. The poem quoted is “Christmas Day” by John Keble.
77 Ibid.
78 See Klein, “Gospel of Wanamaker”; and Wasson, History of the Bethany Presbyterian Church, 10.
79 Store Records, Publications, Box 74, WP.
80 Schmidt, Consumer Rites, 205.
81 Store newspaper advertisement, Philadelphia Inquirer, March 18, 1936.
82 Schmidt, Consumer Rites, 205.
83 “Philadelphia Store News 1893,” Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
84 Clipping, Box 120, Folder 16, WP.
85 Store photographs of “Tablets undated,” Box 127, Folder 1, WP. The plaques remain in place and can be seen at Macy’s, Center City as of 2017. There are also a series of state shields scattered among the columns in the same room.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid.
88 Ibid.
89 Wanamaker’s Constitution Book (1881), author’s collection.
90 Store photographs of “Founder’s Birthday memorial at the Eagle” celebrations from 1923–1933, Box 128, Folder 11, WP.
91 Dennis F. Crolly to John Wanamaker, March 21, 1922. Letter was retyped for a Gibbons research card. Gibbons Drawer 1, Appendix A, WP.
1 “Silent Tribute Paid Wanamaker by City,” Philadelphia Inquirer, morning edition, December 15, 1922; and Richard J. Beamish, “Wanamaker’s Tomb Is Sealed as City Bows in Sad Rites,” Philadelphia Inquirer, morning edition, December 15, 1922.
2 Richard J. Beamish, “John Wanamaker Dies in Peaceful Passing from City He Loved,” Philadelphia Inquirer, morning edition, December 13, 1922.
3 Mary “Minnie” Wanamaker Warburton married Barclay H. Warburton, a military man who served as the U.S. military attaché in London during World War I. The family traveled in aristocratic and royal circles, even meeting the Russian tsar’s family. The youngest daughter, Elizabeth “Lillie” Wanamaker MacLeod, died in 1927 at the age of fifty-one. She had married Norman MacLeod.
4 Letters from Dwight L. Moody to John Wanamaker, Box 1, Folder 2, WP.
5 “The Wanamaker System: Its Place in Applied Economics,” Wanamaker Papers, Box 75, Folder 3, Pennsylvania Historical Society. Also see Appel and Hodges, Golden Book of Wanamaker Stores, 160–77; and Smith, The Search for Social Salvation, passim.
6 Quoted in Ershkowitz, John Wanamaker, 56.
7 JW to unnamed correspondent, December 27, 1881, JW Letterbook, WP.
8 Bushman, Refinement of America, 232.
9 Ibid., 401.
10 Ibid., xv.
11 Ibid., 436.
12 See Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order, passim; and Lupkin, Manhood Factories, 5.
13 The Mart had been built to consolidate the Marshall Field store’s wholesale business, but poor timing doomed the new venture. Construction completed in 1930 as the nation fell into the Great Depression. Kennedy had purchased the building in 1945 and returned the building to its wholesale roots.
14 See Garvey, “Merchandise Mart Hall of Fame,” 156.
15 Ibid.
16 John Wanamaker, “Wanamaker Store Recognized as Stellar Philadelphia Attraction,” Christian Monitor, May 21, 1958.
17 John Ruskin, The Crown of Wild Olive: Four Lectures on Work, Traffic, War, and the Future of England, reprint by Leopold Classic Library (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1864), 60–61.