Studies in Intelligence is a publication of the CIA. Please note that citations of volume, number, and page number for this publication are not consistent from issue to issue.
Introduction
1. Thomas Troy, “Truman on CIA,” Studies in Intelligence 20, no. 1 (Spring 1976): 21.
2. Joseph C. Goulden, The Best Years: 1945–50 (New York: Atheneum, 1976), 213.
Chapter One
1. Wyman H. Packard, A Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence (Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, 1996), 2.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid., 3.
4. Richard E. Schroeder, Missouri at Sea: Warships with Show-Me State Names (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2004), 55–57.
5. Ibid., 63–64.
6. Christopher Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (New York: Harper Perennial, 1996), 30.
7. Ibid., 31.
8. Ibid., 42.
9. Ibid., 33–34.
10. Ibid., 35.
11. Ibid., 39.
12. Packard, Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence, 12–13, 248.
13. Ibid., 63.
14. Patrick Devenny, “Captain John A. Gade, U.S. Navy: An Early Advocate of Central Intelligence,” Studies in Intelligence 56, no. 3 (2012): 22–23.
15. Ibid., 23–24.
16. Ibid., 27.
17. John A. Gade, All My Born Days: Experiences of a Naval Intelligence Officer in Europe (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1942), 225.
18. Gould’s St. Louis Directory for 1917 (St. Louis: Gould Directory Co., 1917), 1025, http://dl.mospace.umsystem.edu/umsl/islandora/object/umsl%3A166303#page/1013/mode/1up.
19. Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography, US Navy Bureau of Personnel, May 27, 1947.
20. Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography, Naval Historical Center, Biographies Branch, 1–450, May 16, 1957.
21. Pennsylvania, Philadelphia Marriage Indexes, 1885–1951, Family Search, December 7, 2014, https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:JJBS-J6N, citing license number 630128, Clerk of the Orphan’s Court, City Hall; and New York, New York Passenger and Crew Lists, 1909, 1925–1957, Family Search, October 2, 2015, https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:24VK-BQD, citing Immigration, New York, New York, United States, National Archives Microfilm Publication T715. The SS Washington arrived at New York on September 20, 1935.
22. Jeffrey M. Dorwart, Conflict of Duty: The U.S. Navy’s Intelligence Dilemma, 1919–1945 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1983), 63, 76.
23. New York, New York Passenger and Crew Lists, 1909, 1925–1957, Family Search, October 3, 2015, https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:24PD-ZSX, citing Immigration, New York City, New York, United States, National Archives Microfilm Publication T715. Jane C. Hillenkoetter arrived in New York on the SS America on April 4, 1947.
24. Will Brownell and Richard N. Billings, So Close to Greatness: A Biography of William C. Bullitt (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 204.
25. David Alvarez and Eduard Mark, Spying through a Glass Darkly: American Espionage against the Soviet Union, 1945–1946 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2016), 2.
26. Ibid., 2–3.
27. Douglas MacArthur II, oral interview, December 15, 1986, Library of Congress, http://www.loc.gov/item/mfdipbib000732.
28. Gade, All My Born Days, 294.
29. “Americans Reach France in Safety,” New York Times, January 27, 1939.
30. Attaché’s Report, February 3, 1939, Entry 98, Box 873, Register 22178-C, Records Group 38, National Archives and Records Administration, Office of Naval Intelligence (hereafter NARA ONI RG38).
31. Roscoe Hillenkoetter to Orville H. Bullitt, October 19, 1970, in For the President: Personal and Secret; Correspondence Between Franklin D. Roosevelt and William C. Bullitt, ed. Orville H. Bullitt (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1972), 357–58.
32. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 1007, Register 22597, July 29, 1938.
33. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 550, Register 15373-H, September 12, 1938.
34. Ibid., September 27, 1938.
35. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 550, Register 1889-A, October 22, 1938.
36. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 592, Register 15653-E, December 6, 1938.
37. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 220, Register 16158-L, December 16, 1938.
38. Captain Ellis Stone, NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 550, Register 15373-H, July 18, 1939.
39. Packard, A Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence, 70.
40. Captain John Gade, Brussels, NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 857, Register 22839-A, December 28, 1939.
41. Robert Daniel Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors (New York: Doubleday, 1964), 35–36.
42. Rear Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography (see chap. 1, n. 19).
43. Clare Boothe, “Europe in the Spring: An American Playwright Reports on a Continent’s Last Days of Freedom,” Life, July 29, 1940, 75; and Kim M. Juntunen, “US Army Attachés and the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939: The Gathering of Technical and Tactical Intelligence” (master’s thesis, United States Military Academy, 1990).
44. Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors, 35–36.
45. Richard Harris Smith, OSS: The Secret History of America’s First Central Intelligence Agency (Guilford, CT: Lyons Press, 2005), 178–80.
46. Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors, 42–44.
47. Bullitt, For the President, 469–70; and Boothe, “Europe in the Spring.”
48. Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors, 45.
49. Brownell and Billings, So Close to Greatness, 262.
50. Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors, 62–63.
51. NARA ONI RG38, C-9-e, Box 439, Register 19447, September 4, 1940, National Archives College Park (hereafter NACP).
52. NARA ONI RG38, C-9-e, Box 147, Register 19447c, September 5, 1940, NACP.
53. “Nazis Halt US Mail,” New York Times, August 1, 1940; and “US Mail Gets to Paris,” New York Times, August 4, 1940.
54. Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors, 66–70.
55. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98, Box 220, Register 18889-A, September 11, 1940.
56. Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950), 10–13; and Smith, OSS, 55.
57. NARA ONI RG38, C-9-e, Box 439, Register 19447, January 21, 1941, NACP.
58. Henry H. Adams, Witness to Power: The Life of Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1985), 148.
59. New York, New York Passenger and Crew Lists, 1909, 1925–1957, Family Search, October 2, 2015, https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:24LX-V34, citing Immigration, New York, New York, United States, National Archives Microfilm Publication T715, film 6578, digital folder 004879871, image 00818. Hillenkoetter flew on the Pan Am Yankee Clipper from Lisbon to New York, arriving on September 15, 1941.
60. Hillenkoetter to Douglas MacArthur, 5 June 1947, American Embassy Paris, C02130062, CIA files; and Eric Pace, “Douglas MacArthur 2nd, 88, Former Ambassador to Japan,” New York Times, November 17, 1997.
61. Douglas MacArthur II, oral interview, January 29, 1987, Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/mfdipbib000732.
62. Raymond P. Brandt, “St. Louis Admiral Expected to Head U.S. Intelligence: May Get New Job,” St. Louis Post-Dispatch, February 27, 1947.
63. NARA ONI RG38, C-9-e, Box 147, Register 19447-C, July 15, 1941, NACP.
64. Smith, OSS, 41.
65. John G. Norris, “A ‘Maquis’ Runs Our Central Intelligence: He’s from the Missouri,” Washington Post, May 4, 1947.
66. Leahy, I Was There, 29.
67. Ibid., 35.
68. Ibid., 21–22.
69. Arthur B. Darling, “The Birth of Central Intelligence,” Studies in Intelligence 10, no. 2 (Spring 1966): 33.
70. Douglas MacArthur II, oral interview, March 31, 1987, Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/mfdipbib000732.
71. Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors, 91.
72. Ibid., 90–92.
73. Smith, OSS, 46.
74. Hawaii, Honolulu Passenger Lists, 1900–1953, Family Search, December 30, 2014, https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:QV9Z-BP7N, citing ship, National Archives Microfilm Publication A3422, film number 234, digital folder 007501237, image 00055. The SS Lurline docked at Honolulu on November 14, 1941.
75. Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography (see chap. 1, n. 20).
Chapter Two
1. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 68–69.
2. Thomas R. Johnson, American Cryptology during the Cold War, 1945–1989: Book 1: The Struggle for Centralization, 1945–1960 (Fort Meade, MD: Center for Cryptologic History, National Security Agency, 1995), 1.
3. William Casey, The Secret War against Hitler (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1988), 7.
4. Memorandum to the commander in chief, Pacific Fleet, “The Senior Surviving Officer [RHH], USS West Virginia, ‘Report of Action of December 7, 1941,’” December 11, 1941, Navy History Center, Washington, DC.
5. Packard, Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence, 19–21; and Mark Edward Harris, “A Family’s Brush with Infamy,” Los Angeles Times Magazine, May 13, 2001.
6. Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (hereafter DANFS), s.v. “West Virginia” and “Maryland,” April 22, 2017, https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs.html; and Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography; and Ronald H. Spector, Eagle against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: Vintage Books, 1985), 175.
7. Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography.
8. Herbert O. Yardley, The American Black Chamber (New York: Ballantine Books, 1981), xi–xiii.
9. David Kahn, The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing (New York: Macmillan, 1967), 8.
10. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 101–8.
11. “MacArthur, Douglas,” US Army Center of Military History, http://www.history.army.mil/moh/wwII-m-s.html#MacARTHUR.
12. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 153–55.
13. Edwin T. Layton, Roger Pineau, and John Costello, And I Was There: Pearl Harbor and Midway—Breaking the Secrets (New York: William Morrow, 1985); and Jeffrey M. Moore, Spies for Nimitz: Joint Military Intelligence in the Pacific War (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2004), 5.
14. Layton, Pineau, and Costello, I Was There, 20–21.
15. Patrick D. Weadon, The Battle of Midway: AF Is Short of Water (Fort Meade, MD: National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, 2000). https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/publications/wwii/battle-midway.shtml.
16. Layton, Pineau, and Costello, I Was There, 468; and Moore, Spies for Nimitz, 12.
17. Moore, Spies for Nimitz, 13; and Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography.
18. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 13–20.
19. Kermit Roosevelt, ed., War Report of the OSS (Office of Strategic Services) (New York: Walker and Co., 1976), 2:365.
20. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 189–90.
21. W. J. Holmes, Doubled-Edged Secrets: U.S. Naval Intelligence Operations in the Pacific during World War II (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1979), 122–23.
22. Ibid., 123.
23. Ibid., 124.
24. Ibid., 126–29.
25. Spector, Eagle against the Sun, 229–30.
26. Arthur B. Darling, “DCI Hillenkoetter: Soft Sell and Stick,” Studies in Intelligence 13, no. 1 (Winter 1969): 33.
27. DANFS, s.v. “Dixie”; and Vice Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter Biography.
28. Moore, Spies for Nimitz, 237.
29. Packard, Century of U.S. Naval Intelligence, 216, 230–31.
Chapter Three
1. Joseph E. Persico, Roosevelt’s Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage (New York: Random House, 2001), xi–xii.
2. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 82, 85.
3. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 95; and Thomas F. Troy, Donovan and the CIA: A History of the Establishment of the Central Intelligence Agency (Frederick, MD: University Publications of America, 1981), 26–33.
4. Troy, Donovan and the CIA, 39.
5. Ibid., 42.
6. Ibid., 52.
7. Ibid., 417. Donovan to Knox, April 26, 1941.
8. Ibid., 57.
9. Ibid., 63.
10. Ibid., 423.
11. Smith, OSS, 17.
12. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:19.
13. Troy, Donovan and the CIA, 131.
14. Ibid., 427.
15. Clark Clifford with Richard Holbrooke, Counsel to the President: A Memoir (New York: Random House, 1991), 165.
16. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:16.
17. Smith, OSS, 26–31.
18. Stanley P. Lovell, Of Spies and Stratagems (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1963), 17.
19. Ibid., 22; and H. Keith Melton, OSS Special Weapons and Equipment: Spy Devices of WW II (New York: Sterling Publishing, 1992).
20. Lovell, Of Spies and Stratagems, 41.
21. Melton, OSS Special Weapons and Equipment, 83; and Lovell, Of Spies and Stratagems, 56.
22. Robin W. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 1939–1961: Scholars in the Secret War (New York: William Morrow, 1987), 67.
23. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:167.
24. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 62, 71–72.
25. Ibid., 104.
26. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 133.
27. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 76.
28. Ibid., 77.
29. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:175.
30. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 81.
31. Smith, OSS, 36.
32. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 84–85.
33. Smith, OSS, 46–58.
34. Ibid., 26, 31.
35. Richard E. Schroeder, “The Hitler Youth as a Paramilitary Organization” (PhD dissertation, University of Chicago, 1975), 1–7.
36. Smith, OSS, 144.
37. Ibid., 147.
38. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 190–91.
39. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:viii.
40. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 43–44.
41. Smith, OSS, 153.
42. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 26.
43. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:192–93.
44. Elizabeth P. McIntosh, Sisterhood of Spies: The Women of the OSS (New York: Dell, 1998), 147–59.
45. Smith, OSS, 158–65.
46. Ibid., 156.
47. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 21.
48. Smith, OSS, 158.
49. Ibid., 169–70.
50. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:ix.
51. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 111–12.
52. Smith, OSS, 179.
53. Ibid., 177.
54. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 146, 154.
55. Peter Grose, Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (London: Andre Deutsch, 1995), 111–16.
56. Ibid., 148.
57. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:273.
58. Smith, OSS, 192–98.
59. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:278–79.
60. Smith, OSS, 200–201.
61. J. C. Masterman, The Double-Cross System in the War of 1939 to 1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972).
62. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 344.
63. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:305–7.
64. Ibid., 287–89.
65. Winks, Cloak and Gown, 93.
66. Casey, Secret War against Hitler, 188–98.
67. Ibid., 201–4.
68. Smith, OSS, 212.
69. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:273.
70. Smith, OSS, 216.
71. Ibid., 221.
72. Ibid., 219–20.
73. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:2–3.
74. Smith, OSS, 223.
75. Ibid., 225–56.
76. Ibid., 265.
77. Smith, OSS, 229; and Michael Warner, The Office of Strategic Services: America’s First Intelligence Agency (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2002), 18.
78. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:384–85.
79. “Behind Enemy Lines in Burma: The Stuff of Intelligence Legend,” ed. Troy J. Sacquety, Studies in Intelligence, no. 11 (Fall-Winter 2001); and Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:391.
80. Smith, OSS, 261.
81. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:449.
82. Smith, OSS, 260.
83. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:460.
84. Smith, OSS, 272.
85. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:116.
86. Ibid., 2:408.
87. Ibid., 2:410.
88. Smith, OSS, 299–308.
89. Ibid., 309–18.
90. Ibid., 321–25.
91. Ibid., 258.
92. David F. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State: The Origins of the Central Intelligence Agency, 1943–1947 (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2000), 11–12.
93. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:xi.
94. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 13.
95. Warner, Office of Strategic Services, 9.
96. Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 2:xvi.
Chapter Four
1. David McCullough, Truman (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 320–21.
2. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1974), 26.
3. McCullough, Truman, 118.
4. Ibid., 185.
5. William Henhoeffer and James Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out: Notes on the Early DCIs,” Studies in Intelligence 33, no. 1 (Spring 1989): 29.
6. McCullough, Truman, 231–33.
7. Ibid., 271.
8. Ibid., 259, 282, 288.
9. Ibid., 262.
10. Ibid., 286–87.
11. Ibid., 292.
12. Ibid., 327.
13. Robert J. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis: The Presidency of Harry S. Truman, 1945–1948 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977), 17.
14. McCullough, Truman, 349–50; and Omar N. Bradley and Clay Blair, A General’s Life: An Autobiography by General of the Army Omar N. Bradley (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 429.
15. Adams, Witness to Power, 280.
16. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, xv, 13.
17. Donovan, Conflict and Crisis, 12; and McCullough, Truman, 373.
18. McCullough, Truman, 372.
19. Adams, Witness to Power, 294; and McCullough, Truman, 393.
20. McCullough, Truman, 367.
21. Joel Achenbach, “70 Years Later, a Test in New Mexico Casts a Shadow,” Washington Post, July 16, 2015.
22. Adams, Witness to Power, 289–90; and Douglas J. MacEachin, The Final Months of the War with Japan: Signals Intelligence, U.S. Invasion Planning, and the A-Bomb Decision (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1998).
23. McCullough, Truman, 419.
24. Gary Kern, “How ‘Uncle Joe’ Bugged FDR,” Studies in Intelligence 47, no. 1 (2003); and McCullough, Truman, 430–43.
25. Jeffrey T. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York: W. W. Norton, 2006), 67.
26. Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 114–45; and Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., Venona: Soviet Espionage and the American Response, 1939–1957 (Washington, DC: National Security Agency and Central Intelligence Agency, 1996).
27. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 441, 448.
28. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 165.
29. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 147; and Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 25–31.
30. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 34, citing the April 27, 1945, Washington Post.
31. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 56–57; and Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 37.
32. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 38–39, 42; and Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 164.
33. Miller, Plain Speaking, 391.
34. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 159.
35. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 165; and Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 45–46.
36. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 45–46.
37. Nicholas Dujmovic, “Drastic Actions Short of War: The Origins and Applications of CIA’s Covert Paramilitary Function in the Early Cold War,” Journal of Military History 76, no. 3 (July 2012): 781.
38. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 43.
39. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 165.
40. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 463.
41. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 74, 83.
42. Ibid., 54, 60–61.
43. Ibid., 74.
44. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
45. Ted Schafers, “He Helped Make History: Rear Admiral Sidney W. Souers of St. Louis Played a Big Role in Shaping U.S. Policy Under Truman,” St. Louis Globe-Democrat, October 9, 1966.
46. Rudgers, Creating the Secret State, 64.
47. Rear Admiral Sidney W. Souers Biography, Naval Historical Center, Biographies Branch, 01-023, December 17, 1952.
48. Schafers, “He Helped Make History.”
49. NARA ONI RG38, Entry UD38, Interrogations 1941–45, Box 14, U-352, NACP.
50. Office of Naval Operations, Division of Naval Intelligence (ONI), U-352 Sunk by U.S.C.G. Icarus 5-9-42, Serial No. 2, O.N.I. 250 Series (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1942), https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/u/u352-sunk-by-uscg-icarus.html.
51. NARA ONI RG38, U-352, NACP.
52. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
53. David M. Barrett, The CIA and Congress: The Untold Story from Truman to Kennedy (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005), 18.
54. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 164–66; and Darling, “Birth of Central Intelligence.”
55. Harry S. Truman, Years of Trial and Hope, vol. 2 of Memoirs by Harry S. Truman (New York: Doubleday, 1956), 60.
56. Ibid., 58; and Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
57. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 163, 167.
58. Sara L. Sale, “Admiral Sidney W. Souers and President Truman,” Missouri Historical Review 86 (October 1991): 56.
59. McCullough, Truman, 78.
60. Adams, Witness to Power, 313–14.
61. Schroeder, Missouri at Sea, 109.
62. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 100–101.
63. Ibid., 146–48.
64. Ibid., 165.
65. Ibid., 167.
66. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
67. Captain D. D. Dupre to Captain William Heard, 6 April 1945, NARA ONI RG38, Entry UD3, Foreign Intelligence Branch, Correspondence with Naval Attachés 1930–48, Box 13, NACP.
68. Ibid.
69. NARA ONI RG38, Entry 98B, C-10-j, Box 174, Register 15373, April 3–16, 1945, NACP.
70. Eric Pace, “Douglas MacArthur 2nd”; and Douglas MacArthur II, oral interview, Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/mfdipbib000732.
71. Paris Activities July 1–December 31, 1947, NARA ONI RG38, Entry UD3, Correspondence with Attachés, Box 13, February 19, 1948, NACP.
72. Semi-Annual Report, July 1, 1946–March 28, 1947, NARA ONI RG38, UD3, Box 13, NACP.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid.
75. Chief of Naval Intelligence (CNI) to Paris, September 8, 1947, NARA ONI RG38, Entry UD3, Box 13, NACP.
76. NARA ONI RG38, Entry UD3, Box 13, March 28, 1947, NACP.
77. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 168–69; and Gary M. Breneman, “Lawrence R. Houston: A Biography,” Studies in Intelligence 30, no. 1 (Spring 1986).
78. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 168.
79. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 169.
80. Arthur B. Darling, “With Vandenberg as DCI Part I: Some Functions Centralized,” Studies in Intelligence 12, no. 3 (Summer 1968): 79; and Arthur B. Darling, “With Vandenberg as DCI Part II: Coordination in Practice,” Studies in Intelligence 12, no. 4 (Fall 1968): 75.
81. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 110–11, 123, 129.
82. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 470–73.
83. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 130–33.
84. Ibid., 143–47.
85. Ibid., 143.
86. Ibid., 169–70.
87. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 18.
88. “New Intelligence Chief Is Named; Gen. Vandenberg Returns to AAF; Admiral Hillenkoetter Is Third Director of Central Group,” New York Times, May 2, 1947.
89. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 156–58.
90. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 470.
91. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 16–22, 169.
92. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 169; and Rear Admiral Sidney W. Souers Biography.
93. “Sidney W. Souers, Intelligence Aide, First Secretary of National Security Council, Is Dead,” New York Times, January 16, 1973.
94. “Confidential Advisor,” editorial, Washington Post, December 8, 1952.
95. Anthony Leviero, “Coordinator of Security: Sidney Souers Brings Wide Training to the Task of Advising the President on National Defense,” New York Times Magazine, April 24, 1949.
96. Smith, OSS, 17; and Roosevelt, War Report of the OSS, 1:19.
97. United States Naval Academy, Lucky Bag 1920 (Annapolis, MD, 1920), 168.
98. Darling, “DCI Hillenkoetter,” 40.
99. Ibid., 42–43.
100. Ibid., 47.
101. Ibid., 54–55.
Chapter Five
1. James H. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation: The Men Behind Postwar Germany’s Defense and Intelligence Establishments (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2003), 67.
2. David E. Murphy, Sergei A. Kondrashev, and George Bailey, Battleground Berlin: CIA vs KGB in the Cold War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), xxiv–xxv.
3. Smith, OSS, 221.
4. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 11.
5. Keith Lowe, Savage Continent: Europe in the Aftermath of World War II (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2012), 24.
6. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 13–15.
7. Ibid., 148; and Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 464.
8. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 6–8; and Dujmovic, “Drastic Actions Short of War,” 782.
9. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 25.
10. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), 8–9.
11. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 12.
12. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, 27.
13. Ibid., 28.
14. Ibid., 56–62.
15. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 36.
16. Thomas Borghardt, “America’s Secret Vanguard: US Army Intelligence Operations in Germany, 1944–47,” Studies in Intelligence 57, no. 2 (June 2013): 14.
17. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 21, 25.
18. Ibid., 32–33.
19. Borghardt, “America’s Secret Vanguard,” 2.
20. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 34.
21. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 15–17.
22. Ibid., 25.
23. Borghardt, “America’s Secret Vanguard,” 10.
24. Donald P. Steury, ed., On the Front Lines of the Cold War: Documents on the Intelligence War in Berlin, 1946 to 1961 (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1999), 10–13.
25. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 42–43, 45–47, 83.
26. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 55; and Steury, Front Lines of the Cold War, 140–45.
27. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 467.
28. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 55.
29. Ibid., 56.
30. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 474.
31. George F. Kennan, Memoirs: 1925–1950 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), 421.
32. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 69.
33. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 477–81.
34. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 62–75.
35. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 86–87.
36. Ibid., 122, 200. “Es wird ein Nachrichtendienst gegrundet,” February 20, 1956. The FRG was founded in September 1949.
37. Critchfield, Partners at the Creation, 123.
38. Ibid., 62–65.
39. James V. Milano and Patrick Brogan, Soldiers, Spies, and the Rat Line: America’s Undeclared War against the Soviets (Washington, DC: Brassey’s, 1995), 4–5, 43–47.
40. Ibid., 73–74.
41. L. Britt Snider, The Agency and the Hill: CIA’s Relationship with Congress, 1946–2004 (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 2008), 141.
42. Ibid., 8–10.
43. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 31.
44. Ibid., 120; Snider, Agency and the Hill, 162; and Hayden B. Peake, “Harry S. Truman on CIA Covert Operations,” Studies in Intelligence (Spring 1981): 35.
45. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 487.
46. Ibid., 501–2.
47. Ibid., 507–11.
48. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 130.
49. Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2008), 22.
50. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 25.
51. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 168; and Wilford, Mighty Wurlitzer, 24.
52. Dujmovic, “Drastic Actions Short of War,” 784.
53. Wilford, Mighty Wurlitzer, 25.
54. Snider, Agency and the Hill, 161; and Barrett, CIA and Congress, 32.
55. Evan Thomas, The Very Best Men: Four Who Dared: The Early Years of the CIA (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995), 29; and Dujmovic, “Drastic Actions Short of War,” 786–87.
56. Thomas, Very Best Men, 22.
57. Ibid., 23.
58. Ibid., 24.
59. Wilford, Mighty Wurlitzer, 25–27.
60. Dujmovic, “Drastic Actions Short of War,” 786–87.
61. Thomas, Very Best Men, 87.
62. Ibid., 35.
63. Lowe, Savage Continent.
64. Thomas, Very Best Men, 36–39.
65. Ibid., 42, quoting Peter Sichel.
66. Steury, Front Lines of the Cold War, 111–12.
67. Ibid.
68. “Remembering CIA’s Heroes: Douglas S. Mackiernan,” last updated April 30, 2013, Central Intelligence Agency, https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2010-featured-story-archive/douglas-s.-mackiernan.html.
69. Thomas, Very Best Men, 51–52.
70. Wilford, Mighty Wurlitzer, 7.
71. Snider, Agency and the Hill, 40.
72. Peake, “Harry S. Truman on CIA,” 35; Barrett, CIA and Congress, 120; and Snider, Agency and the Hill, 162.
73. Snider, Agency and the Hill, 260.
74. Clifford with Holbrooke, Counsel to the President, 165.
75. Walter Trohan interview, October 7, 1970, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm.
76. William J. Bray interview, August 1964, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/brayw.htm; and Harry S. Truman, Mr. Citizen (New York: Bernard Geis Associates, 1960), 147.
77. Paul Stillwell, Battleship Missouri: An Illustrated History (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1996), 95–96.
78. George S. Leonard to DCI RHH, 1 May 1947, Central Intelligence Agency, CADRE, C02135304; RHH to Leonard, 13 May 1947, Central Intelligence Agency, CADRE, C02135304; and Souers to RHH, 16 May 1947, Central Intelligence Agency, CADRE, C02111505.
79. Diary, Rear Admiral R. H. Hillenkoetter, Director of Central Intelligence, May-September 1947, CIA-RDP80R01731R002600430001-0, approved for release November 4, 2003, NARA, NACP.
80. McCullough, Truman, 419.
81. Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas, The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), 446.
82. Darling, “DCI Hillenkoetter,” 54–55.
83. Thomas, Very Best Men, 73–74.
84. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 49.
85. Snider, Agency and the Hill, 193.
86. Ibid.; and Barrett, CIA and Congress, 63.
87. Jack Davis, “The Bogotazo: Distant Events Shape the Craft of Intelligence,” Studies in Intelligence (Fall 1967).
88. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 35.
89. Ibid., 37; and Snider, Agency and the Hill, 194.
90. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, 67.
91. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 517; and Benson and Warner, Venona.
92. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, 76.
93. Ibid., 75.
94. Ibid., 81.
95. Ibid., 84.
96. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 57, 63; and Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 177.
97. Richelson, Spying on the Bomb, 90–91.
98. Ibid., 93.
99. Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword and the Shield.
100. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 66.
101. Burton Hersh, The Old Boys: The American Elite and the Origins of the CIA (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1992), 442–43.
102. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 71–81.
103. DCI Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter to Carmel Offie, May 17, 1950, Central Intelligence Agency, CADRE, C02128937.
104. Truman, Years of Trial and Hope, 331.
105. Murphy, Kondrashev, and Bailey, Battleground Berlin, 79, 85.
106. Ibid., 88.
107. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 84–89.
108. Snider, Agency and the Hill, 195; and Barrett, CIA and Congress, 84–89.
109. Dean Acheson interview, June 30, 1971, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/acheson.htm.
110. Kennan, Memoirs, 405.
111. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
112. Allen W. Dulles, William H. Jackson, and Mathias F. Correa, The Central Intelligence Agency and National Organization for Intelligence: A Report to the National Security Council, Central Intelligence Agency, January 1, 1949, MORI ID: 401264:401264, 16.
113. Ibid., 18.
114. Ibid., 107.
115. Ibid., 135.
116. Ibid., 11.
117. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 173–74.
118. Ludwell Lee Montague, General Walter Bedell Smith as Director of Central Intelligence, October 1950–February 1953 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1992), 36, 53.
119. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS), 1945–1950, Emergence of the Intelligence Establishment, document 398, September 8, 1949 (Washington, DC, 1996), 1011.
120. Jeffrey T. Richelson, The Wizards of Langley: Inside the CIA’s Directorate of Science and Technology (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2001), 16.
121. Donald P. Steury, Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994), xix.
122. Montague, General Walter Bedell Smith, 36, 55–56.
123. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
124. John McCormack, “Tribute to Rear Adm. Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter, Director of Central Intelligence,” Congressional Record, August 22, 1950.
125. President Harry S. Truman to Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter, 10 October 1950, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library.
126. Hillenkoetter to Truman, October 6, 1950, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library.
127. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 170.
128. Bradley and Blair, General’s Life, 552–53.
129. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 91.
130. “National Affairs: Soldier for Sailor,” Time, August 28, 1950.
131. Snider, Agency and the Hill, 43.
132. Montague, General Walter Bedell Smith, 57.
133. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
134. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 192–93.
135. Henhoeffer and Hanrahan, “Souers Speaks Out.”
136. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 161–62.
137. Stillwell, Battleship Missouri, 182; and Edward J. Marolda, “The Hungnam and Chinnampo Evacuations,” in Encyclopedia of the Korean War: Political, Social, and Military History, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2000), https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/h/the-hungnam-and-chinnampo-evacuations.html.
138. “Admiral in New Career after 41 Years,” New York Times, May 8, 1957; and “Hillenkoetter Is Elected Banner Line’s Director,” New York Times, August 4, 1958.
139. “Air Force Order on ‘Saucers’ Cited: Pamphlet by the Inspector General Called Objects a ‘Serious Business,’” New York Times, February 28, 1960.
140. Gerald Haines, “The CIA’s Role in the Study of UFOs, 1947–1990: A Die-Hard Issue,” Studies in Intelligence 39, no. 4 (1995): 83.
141. Peter Kihss, “Adm. Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter, 85, First Director of CIA, Dies,” New York Times, June 21, 1982.
142. Troy, “Truman on CIA.”
143. Peake, “Harry S. Truman on CIA,” 31.
144. Ibid., 36–37.
145. McCullough, Truman, 479.
146. Andrew, For the President’s Eyes Only, 171; Peake, “Harry S. Truman on CIA,” 37; and Dulles Memo, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library.
147. Barrett, CIA and Congress, 71–81.
148. Sale, “Admiral Sidney W. Souers and President Truman,” 67; and Souers papers, Box 1, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library.
149. Sale, “Admiral Sidney W. Souers and President Truman,” 71.
150. DCI Richard Helms to Mrs. Sidney W. Souers, 16 January 1973.
151. “Harry S. Truman, 1945–53,” last updated July 7, 2008, Central Intelligence Agency, https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/our-first-line-of-defense-presidential-reflections-on-us-intelligence/truman.html.