20 Spelling
20.3 Compounds and Words Formed with Prefixes
20.3.1 Compounds Used as Adjectives
20.3.2 Compounds Used as Both Nouns and Adjectives
Model your spelling on American usage and be consistent, except in quotations, where you should usually follow the original spelling exactly (see chapter 25). When in doubt, consult a dictionary. Be aware, however, that dictionaries often differ on how to spell the same word and that some are more accurate and up-to-date than others.
The most reliable authority for spelling is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary or its abridgment, the eleventh edition of Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Both are available online and in book and CD-ROM formats. For the names of people and places, consult Webster’s or the separate publications Merriam-Webster’s Biographical Dictionary and Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary.
Where Webster’s offers a choice between spellings, use the following principles to select one: where variants are separated by or, choose either one and use it consistently; where variants are separated by also, use the first. If the preferred spelling in Webster’s differs from the conventional one in your discipline, follow the spelling of the discipline. For style guides in various disciplines, see the bibliography.
The spell-checking feature in most word processors can catch certain spelling errors but not others. It will normally fail to recognize, for example, that you typed and when you meant an, or quite instead of quiet. It will probably not help with proper nouns or foreign terms, and it may lead you to make global spelling changes that in some cases are inaccurate. A spell-checker is not a substitute for a good dictionary and careful proofreading.
This chapter offers general guidelines for spellings not found in most dictionaries. If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, your department or university may have specific requirements for spelling (including use of particular dictionaries). Those requirements are usually available from the office of theses and dissertations. If you are writing a class paper, your instructor may also ask you to follow certain principles of spelling. Review these requirements before you prepare your paper. They take precedence over the guidelines suggested here.
20.1 Plurals
20.1.1 General Rule
For most common nouns, form the plural by adding s (or es for words ending in ch, j, s, sh, x, or z). Most dictionaries give plural forms only for words that do not follow the general rule.
The general rule applies to the names of persons and to other proper nouns, including Native American tribes. If such a noun ends in y, do not change the y to ie, as required for common nouns. (Do not confuse plural forms with possessives, which are described in 20.2.)
the Costellos
the Frys (not the Fries)
the Rodriguezes
the two Germanys
the Hopis of Arizona (not the Hopi)
20.1.2 Special Cases
20.1.2.1 COMPOUND WORDS. For compound words consisting of two nouns, make the last noun plural (usually by adding s or es).
bookkeepers
district attorneys
actor-singers
When a prepositional phrase or adjective follows, make the main noun plural.
sisters-in-law
attorneys general
men-of-war
20.1.2.2 LETTERS AND NUMERALS. In most cases, form the plurals of capital letters and numerals by adding s alone (not ’s).
three As, one B, and two Cs
the 1950s
767s
With lowercase letters, however, where an s without an apostrophe can seem to create a different word (is) or an abbreviation (ms), add an apostrophe. The apostrophe and s are roman even if the letter is italic (see 22.2.2).
x’s and y’s
20.1.2.3 ABBREVIATIONS. Form plurals of abbreviations without internal periods by adding s alone. If the singular form of the abbreviation ends in a period, put the s before the period. (See 24.1.3 on the punctuation of abbreviations. For academic degrees, see 24.2.3.)
URLs
DVDs
PhDs
vols.
eds.
A few abbreviations have irregular plurals (see also 24.7).
pp. (plural of p., page)
nn. (plural of n., note)
If you are writing in the sciences and using abbreviations for units of measure (see 24.5), use the same abbreviation for both the singular and the plural.
6 kg
37 m2
20.1.2.4 TERMS IN ITALICS AND QUOTATION MARKS. Form the plural of a term in italics by adding s alone (not ’s) in roman type. Form the plural of a term in quotation marks by adding s; better yet, rephrase the sentence.
two Chicago Tribunes
… included many “To be continueds”
or, better,
… included “To be continued” many times
20.2 Possessives
20.2.1 General Rule
Form the possessive of most singular common and proper nouns, including those that end in s, x, or z, by adding an apostrophe and s. This rule also applies to letters and numerals used as singular nouns, and to abbreviations. It also applies to proper names ending in s (whether or not the s is pronounced), as in the last three examples. (Do not confuse possessives with plural forms, which are described in 20.1.) For special cases, see 20.2.2.
an argument’s effects
the horse’s mouth
2009’s economic outlook
the phalanx’s advance
the waltz’s tempo
JFK’s speech
Russ’s suggestion
Descartes’s Discourse on Method
Aristophanes’s plays
Inanimate nouns—except for references to time—rarely take the possessive form.
a day’s length
but not
the house’s door
Form the possessive of most plural common and proper nouns by adding only an apostrophe. For special cases, see 20.2.2.
politicians’ votes
not
politicians’s votes
the Rodriguezes’ house
not
the Rodriguezes’s house
For irregular plurals that do not end in s, add s after the apostrophe.
the mice’s nest
children’s literature
20.2.2 Special Cases
20.2.2.1 SINGULAR NOUNS ENDING IN S. Form the possessive of the following types of nouns with only an apostrophe:
■ nouns that name a group or collective entity but are treated as grammatically singular
politics’ true meaning
the United States’ role
■ nouns in a few traditional For … sake expressions that end in an s or an s sound
for goodness’ sake
for righteousness’ sake
but
for appearance’s sake
To avoid an awkward result, rephrasing is sometimes the better option. (For use of the abbreviation US in a case like the first one below, see 24.3.1.)
the role of the United States
instead of
the United States’ role
for the sake of appearance
instead of
for appearance’s sake
20.2.2.2 COMPOUND WORDS. Form the possessives of singular compound words by adding an apostrophe and s to the last word, even if the main noun is first.
his sister-in-law’s business
the attorney general’s decision
Form the possessives of plural compounds in the usual way (by adding an apostrophe alone), unless the noun is followed by a prepositional phrase or adjective (see 20.1.2). In that case, rephrase.
district attorneys’ decisions
but
decisions of the attorneys general
not
attorneys’ general decisions
and not
attorneys general’s decisions
20.2.2.3 MULTIPLE NOUNS. If a possessive indicates that two or more entities each possess something separately, make all the nouns possessive.
New York’s and Chicago’s teams
historians’ and economists’ methods
If a possessive indicates that two or more entities possess something jointly, make only the last noun possessive.
Minneapolis and St. Paul’s teams
historians and economists’ data
20.2.2.4 TERMS IN ITALICS AND QUOTATION MARKS. If a term in italics is possessive, both the apostrophe and the s should be in roman type. Do not add a possessive to a term in quotation marks; rephrase the sentence.
the Atlantic Monthly’s editor
admirers of “Ode on a Grecian Urn”
If the term ends in a plural form, add only an apostrophe (in roman type). If it already ends in a possessive form, leave it alone or rephrase.
the New York Times’ online revenue
Harper’s editors (or the editors of Harper’s)
20.3 Compounds and Words Formed with Prefixes
Compounds come in three forms: hyphenated, open (with a space, not a hyphen, between elements), or closed (spelled as one word). Choosing the right one can be difficult. The best authority is your dictionary. If you cannot find a compound there, follow the principles in the following paragraphs to decide whether or not to hyphenate. If you cannot find the form in either place, leave the compound open.
The patterns outlined below are not hard-and-fast rules. You will have to decide many individual cases on the basis of context, personal taste, or common usage in your discipline. Although much of the suggested hyphenation is logical and aids readability, some is only traditional.
20.3.1 Compounds Used as Adjectives
Some compounds are used only as adjectives. In most cases, hyphenate such a compound when it precedes the noun it modifies; otherwise leave it open.
Before noun
open-ended question
full-length treatment
duty-free goods
thought-provoking commentary
over-the-counter drug
a frequently referred-to book
spelled-out numbers
After noun
most of the questions were open ended
treatment is full length
goods brought in duty free
commentary was thought provoking
drug sold over the counter
this book is frequently referred to
numbers that are spelled out
There are a few exceptions:
■ If a compound that would normally be hyphenated is preceded and modified by an adverb (such as very), omit the hyphen, because the grouping of the words will be clear to the reader.
Before noun with modifier
a well-known author
an ill-advised step
Before noun with adverb modifier
a very well known author
a somewhat ill advised step
■ Hyphenate compounds that begin with all or end with free.
Before noun
all-encompassing treatment
toll-free call
After noun
treatment was all-encompassing
the call was toll-free
■ Hyphenate compounds that end with the terms borne, like, and wide (both before and after the noun) unless the term is listed as closed in Webster’s.
Hyphenated
food-borne
bell-like
Chicago-wide
Closed (per Webster’s)
airborne
childlike
worldwide
■ Comparative constructions beginning with such terms as more/most, less/least, and better/best should be hyphenated only when there may be confusion about whether the comparative term is modifying the adjective that follows within the compound or the noun after the compound.
Modifying adjective
colleges produce more-skilled workers
Modifying noun
we hired more skilled workers for the holidays
■ Constructions that consist of an adverb ending in -ly followed by an adjective are not compounds and should not be hyphenated in any context.
Before noun
highly developed species
widely disseminated literature
After noun
the species was highly developed
literature has been widely disseminated
20.3.2 Compounds Used as Both Nouns and Adjectives
Some compounds are primarily nouns but can also function as adjectives when they precede and modify another noun. (Unlike the examples in 20.3.1, these compounds are rarely used as adjectives after a noun, and then only with a linking verb such as was or are, as in the third example below.) In most cases, hyphenate such a compound when it precedes a noun that it modifies; otherwise leave it open.
Adjective before noun
the decision-making process
a continuing-education course
a middle-class neighborhood
Noun, or adjective after noun
decision making became her specialty
a program of continuing education
her neighborhood was middle class
There are a few exceptions:
■ For a compound that begins with e (short for electronic), ex, or self, use a hyphen in all contexts. One exception: if self is preceded by un, the compound should be closed (as in unselfconscious).
ex-husband
self-destructive
e-mail
■ For a compound that ends with elect, use a hyphen in all contexts when the name of the office is only one word, but leave it open when the name is two or more words.
president-elect
district attorney elect
■ For a compound formed by two coordinated nouns that could be joined by and, use a hyphen in all contexts.
actor-singer
city-state
mother-daughter relationship
parent-teacher conference
■ For a compound composed of directional words, use a closed compound when the term describes a single direction. Use a hyphen if the compound consists of coordinated nouns that could be joined with and or by.
northeast
southwest
a street running north-south
east-southeast winds
■ Compounds that identify family relationships vary in whether they are closed up or hyphenated. When in doubt, consult your dictionary. (For the plural and possessive forms of in-law compounds, see 20.1.2 and 20.2.2, respectively.)
grandfather
stepdaughter
step-grandmother
great-grandmother
son-in-law
■ Some familiar phrases are always hyphenated.
stick-in-the-mud
jack-of-all-trades
20.3.2.1 COMPOUNDS INCLUDING PROPER NOUNS. Leave open most compounds that include proper nouns, including names of ethnic groups.
Adjective before noun
African American culture
French Canadian explorer
Middle Eastern geography
State Department employees
Korean War veterans
Noun, or adjective after noun
an African American has written
the explorer was French Canadian
the geography of the Middle East
employed by the State Department
veterans of the Korean War
If, however, the first term is shortened, use a hyphen.
Afro-American culture
an Afro-American has written
If coordinated terms could be joined by and, hyphenate them.
Israel-Egypt peace treaty
Spanish-English dictionary
20.3.2.2 COMPOUNDS INCLUDING NUMBERS. If a compound includes a number, hyphenate it if it precedes a noun that it modifies; otherwise leave it open. (For the use of numerals versus spelled-out numbers, see chapter 23.)
Adjective before noun
fifty-year project
twenty-one-year-old student
twentieth-century literature
third-floor apartment
214-day standoff
Noun, or adjective after noun
the project took fifty years
the student was twenty-one years old
studied the literature of the twentieth century
she lived on the third floor
standoff that lasted 214 days
There are a few exceptions:
■ Always leave open a compound including the word percent, and give the number in arabic numerals (see 23.1.3).
a 15 percent increase
increased by 15 percent
■ Always use a hyphen to spell a fraction with words. (See 23.1.3 for use of numerals versus spelled-out numbers in fractions.)
a two-thirds majority
a majority of two-thirds
■ For a fraction beginning with half or quarter, use a hyphen when it precedes a noun that it modifies; otherwise leave it open.
Adjective before noun
a half-hour session
a quarter-mile run
Noun, or adjective after noun
after a half hour had passed
ran a quarter mile
■ For a compound indicating a span of numbers, use a hyphen in both terms, but omit the second part of the compound in the first term.
five- to ten-minute intervals
eight- to ten-year-olds
20.3.3 Words Formed with Prefixes
Words formed with prefixes are normally closed, whether they are nouns (postmodernism), verbs (misrepresent), adjectives (antebellum), or adverbs (prematurely). Use a hyphen, however, in these cases:
■ when the prefix is combined with a capitalized word
sub-Saharan
but
subdivision
pro-Asian
but
pronuclear
■ when the prefix is combined with a numeral
pre-1950
but
predisposed
mid-80s
but
midlife
■ to separate two i’s, two a’s, or other combinations of letters or syllables that might cause misreading
anti-intellectual
but
antidepressant
intra-arterial
but
intramural
■ when the prefix precedes a compound word that is hyphenated or open
non-coffee-drinking
but
nonbelief
post-high school
but
postgame
■ to separate repeated terms in a double prefix
sub-subentry
■ when a prefix stands alone
pre- and postwar
macro- and microeconomics
These patterns apply to words formed with the following prefixes, among others.
ante
anti
bi
bio
co
counter
cyber
extra
hyper
infra
inter
intra
macro
mega
meta
micro
mid
mini
multi
neo
non
post
pre
pro
proto
pseudo
re
semi
socio
sub
super
supra
trans
ultra
un
The patterns also apply to prepositions such as over and under that can be attached to words in the same position as prefixes.
overachiever
underhanded
over- and underused
20.4 Line Breaks
20.4.1 Breaks within Words
For most papers, the only words that should be hyphenated at the ends of lines are those you have deliberately hyphenated, such as compounds (see 20.3). Set your word processor to align text flush left (with a “ragged” right margin), and do not use its automated hyphenation feature.
If, however, you are required to use full justification (where both the left and right margins are aligned), you may have to hyphenate lines to avoid large gaps between words. Set your word processor to limit to three the number of consecutive lines ending with hyphens (to avoid a “hyphen block” along the margin), but do not rely entirely on your word processor’s automated hyphenation feature. It will be generally reliable, but it may introduce errors. So review word breaks, especially as your paper nears completion. When in doubt, consult your dictionary, which indicates acceptable breaks with centered dots or similar devices in the main word entry. (Use your word processor to create exceptions for words that you do not want hyphenated. To manually add an end-of-line hyphen, insert an optional hyphen from your word processor’s menu for special formatting characters.)
One special type of problem concerns words with the same spelling but different pronunciations. Such words may have different syllable breaks, such as rec-ord and re-cord. Your word processor may break such words identically regardless of context.
20.4.2 Breaks over Spaces and Punctuation
Your word processor may also allow certain types of unacceptable line breaks to occur over spaces or punctuation. Always review your paper for such breaks.
■ Initials. If initials are used in place of both a person’s first and middle names, include a space between them but do not divide them over a line (you can, however, break the name before the last name). Because lines will reflow as you write your paper, it is best to replace such spaces with nonbreaking spaces, available in most word processors. See also 24.2.1.
M. F. K. Fisher
M. F. K. / Fisher
but not
M. / F. K. Fisher
■ Numbers and dates. Never put a line break within numbers expressed as numerals (25,000) or any terms consisting of numerals plus symbols, abbreviations, or units of measure (10%; £6 4s. 6d.; 6:40 p.m.; AD 1895; 245 ml). Use nonbreaking spaces as needed. See chapter 23 for more on numbers and date systems.
■ Punctuation. Never begin a line with a closing quotation mark, parenthesis, or bracket (and if this happens, it may be a sign of an extra, unneeded space before the mark). Never end a line with an opening quotation mark, parenthesis, or bracket (also a sign of a possible errant space, after the mark) or with (a) or (I), as at the beginning of a list. Use nonbreaking spaces as needed. See chapter 21 for more on punctuation and 23.4.2 for lists. Avoid breaking an ellipsis (see 25.3.2) over a line; use your word processor’s ellipsis character to prevent this problem.
■ URLs and e-mail addresses. Avoid breaking URLs and e-mail addresses over lines. If you have to break one, insert the break after a colon or a double slash; before or after an equals sign or ampersand; or before a single slash, a period, or any other punctuation or symbol. Hyphens are frequently included as part of a URL or e-mail address, so to avoid confusion, never add a hyphen to indicate the break.
http://
www.press.uchicago.edu
http://www
.press.uchicago.edu
http://www.press.uchicago.edu
/books/subject.html
If your word processor automatically formats URLs and e-mail addresses as hyperlinks, you can generally ignore the guidelines above—as long as each full URL or address is clearly identified as a hyperlink (through underlining or a second color) and no extra hyphens have been added to indicate the line breaks.