Acclimatization, 121
Acculturation: definition of, 167; modes of, 167–68
Adaptation: attitudinal, 120; automatic, 118–20; linguistic, 119–20
Adaptive value, 33
Adaptive variation, 87
Afro Barometer, 132
Al-Torki, M. T., 119
Analysis-Holism Scale, 181
Animal(s): mating strategy, 88; risk predation, 87
Antisocial Personality Disorder, 228
Arab Barometer, 132
Asian Americans, 68, 159, 161, 189, 240, 246, 253
Asian Barometer, 132
Assessing: cold and heat, 124–25; wealth resources, 125
Assessment: Big Five personality traits, 95; on pathogen prevalence, 93–95
Attachment representations, 17
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), 228
Attitude toward Contradiction, 181
Attitudinal adaptation, 120
Attributes: personality-related, 155–57
Australian culture, 255
Authenticity, 194
Authoritarian personality, 99–100, 103–4
Bacterial infections, 91
Balanced selection, 34
Beck Depression Inventory, 131
Behavioral change, 182
Behavioral geneticists, 2
Benet-Martínez, V., 253
Bicultural identity integration (BII), 169–70
Big Five traits, culture variation on, 99
Binding moral values, 102
Bootstrap analysis, 131
Brown, J. D., 188
Buss, D. M., 1, 22, 33, 34, 36, 94, 107
Caregivers, 15
Causal inference, 93
Causality, 181
Children: obedient traits in, 100
Classic Freudian theory, 265
Climatic determinism, fallacy of, 120–21
Climato-economic interaction, 121–24; effect on cultural creativity, 139
Climato-economic measures, 124–26
Climato-economic pressures: on Chinese and American identities, 129–30; on collectivist and individualist identities, 126–27; on creative behavior, 136–40; on cultural identity, 125–26; on fear and trust, 130; on fearfulness, 130–31; on ingroup favoritism, 127–28; meta-analytic comparison, 141; on outgroup discrimination, 128; refined prediction, 137; strengths and weaknesses, 140–41; theorizing, 141; on tight behavior, 134–36; on tightness and creativity, 133–34; on trustfulness, 132–33
Coding strategy, 94
Cognitive Change, 182
Cognitive neuroscience, 63–64; language, 66–67; visual perception, 67–68
Cohabitation status, 16
Cohen, D., 253
Coherence of mind scale, 17
Collectivism: and individual identities, 157–63; national-level, 155–57; and personality, 154–57
Collectivistic culture, 254
Collectivist identity, 126–27; as the term, 126–27
Communal rationalism, 287
Compartmentalization, 224
Conformity behavior, 99
Consequences: of losing face culture, 251–53
Construal-level theory, 221
Cook, C. J., 118
Cook, G. C., 119
Correlational methods, 93
Cosmides, L., 4
Cosmological axioms, 283
Costly signaling models, 22
Creativity. See Cultural creativity
Cross-cultural data, 291
Cross-cultural differences: in beliefs, 279; ecological perspectives on human, 88–90; in individuals’ dispositions, 103; in openness to experience, 98; in self-consistency, 189
Cross-cultural variation: in creativity and innovation, 110
Cross-national surveys, 152–53
Cultural anthropologists, 283
Cultural creativity, 117, 137; apparent geography of, 136–37; cultural, 137; pressures on, 133–34
Cultural differences, 23, 66; attentional processes, 68–69; ecological variation and, 87; empathy and, 73–74; in extraversion, 96; in impression formation, 69–70; language and, 66–67; self vs. others, 74–75; in visual perception, 67–68
Cultural identity: climato-economic pressures on, 125–26; definition of, 118; as the term, 118; theory building on, 142. See also Identity
Cultural neuroscience, 60–61; biological approaches to, 78; challenges limiting, 63–65; self vs. others, 74–75
Cultural neutrality, 289
Cultural psychology, 266; principles, 266–89
Cultural syndromes, 118
Cultural variation, mechanisms influencing, 108–9
Culture: collectivistic, 254; defined, 265; definition of, 153–54; individualism-collectivism as dimensions of, 150–51; personality and, 265; role of, 22–23
Culture variation: on Big Five traits, 99; dispositional variation, 99–100
Current predictability measure, 18
Curry, A., 118
Darwin, Charles, 4
Denissen, J. J. A., 2, 22, 43, 52
Death, infectious diseases and, 90
Developmental (ontogenetic) explanations, 5–7
Dialectical Self Scale, 181
Differential cost/benefit ratio, 90
Dignity culture: vs. hunter-gatherer culture, 254–55; overview, 238–40
Dopamine function, 76
Duan, D., 89
Duncan, O., 17
Early harshness measure, 17
Early maternal support, 17
Early predictability measure, 16
East Asian culture, 67–68, 71, 73, 187, 243, 253
Ecological-contingent models, 23
Ecological perspectives: cross-cultural differences and, 88–90; infectious disease and, 91
Ecological threat, 216
Ecological variation, 87–90; in prevalence of pathogens, 91
Ecology: defined, 88
Egadi archipelago: genetic influence and, 42–44
Electroencephalography (EEG), 215
Emotional Stability, 62
Employment status, 16
Environmental conditions, significance of, 13–14
Environmental heterogeneity, 2; in fitness optima models, 22
Environmental perspective: on personality traits, 44
ENVOI, 110
Epidemics, mortality rates and, 31
Ethnonationalism, 282; as political religion, 278
Euro-Americans, 253
Euro Barometer, 132
European Values Study, 132
Evoked culture, 285
Evolutionary approach, 2; key features of, 4–7; life history theory and personality variation, 7–11; and origin of specific traits, 5
Evolutionary genetics perspective, 33–35
Evolutionary history, 5
Evolutionary models: role of culture and, 22–23
Evolutionary psychology in personality traits, 33–35
Expatriation, 226
Expression of personality: compartmentalization, 224; trait-behavior consistency, 223–24
Extraversion, 21, 62, 76, 96–97
Face and dignity culture: distinction between, 255; overview, 238
Face cultures: as feigned modesty, 243; harmony, 242–43; hierarchy, 240–42; humility, 243–44; losing, 244–45, 251–53; moral self-evaluation and, 248–49; overview, 240–45; relationship between self and, 244; self-evaluation and, 247–48; self-perception and, 246–47
False uniqueness bias, 243, 244
Family, tight relationships with, 101–2
Fearfulness: climato-economic pressures on, 130–31
Fischer, R., 131, 141, 153, 279
Five Factor Model (FFM), 35
Fought, C. R., 119
Fought, J. G., 119
Frequency, personality as function of, 8–9
Frequency-dependent selection models, 22
F Scale, 99
Functional (ultimate) explanations, 5, 6
Gangestad, S. W., 5, 8, 20, 21, 23, 33, 34, 94, 107
Gene-culture interaction, 216
Genetic drift hypothesis, 51–52
Genetic evolutionary processes: plausibility of, 106
Genetic hypothesis, 43
Genotypic lactase persistence, 118–19
Global epidemiological record-keeping, 93
Global Infectious Disease & Epidemiology Network (GIDEON), 95
Go/No-Go Task, 188
Good, E. M., 119
Gradient of insularity, 42
Habitats: challenging, 123–24; climato-economic, 121–25; Nordic, 132; threatening, 122; unchallenging, 123; unthreatening, 122–23
Heat radiation, 118
Historical (phylogenetic) explanations, 5, 6
Hofstede, G., 149–55, 157–62, 168
Human adaptation, 88
Human morphological features, 5
Hunter-gatherer cultures, 254–55
Identity: affective, 125–26; Chinese and American, 129–30; collective, 163–66; collectivist and individualist, 126–30; cognitive, 125–26; conative, 125–26; cultural, 117–43; features, 117–18; motives, 161–63; in multicultural contexts, 166–70; personality, 78, 117; predicted pressures on, 125–26; social, 78
Implications: for self-concept, 188–91; for social cognition, 183–88; for well-being, 191–98
Impulsiveness, 98
Inbreeding depression hypothesis, 52
Income inequality, 131
Individual difference-generating evolutionary process, 23
Individual differences: Big Five personality facets and, 221–22; construal-level theory, 221; expressions of, 223–24; felt accountability, 222–23; homogeneity of, 225–26; motivation and self-regulation, 219–20; neurobiology of, 77–78; personality traits and, 31–53, 75–78; temporal differences, 220–21; in thinking patterns, 288–89; tightness-looseness and, 218–29
Individual identities: collectivism and, 157–63
Individualism-collectivism, 65–66; as dimensions of culture, 150–51; empirical validation of, 151; levels of analysis, 153–54; measurement of, 151–54; overview of, 149–50; within-culture variability, 198–99
Individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures, 166
Individualistic identity, 126–27; as the term, 126–27
Individualizing moral values, 102
Inductive cultural typology, 285
Infectious diseases, 90; salience of, 108
Inferential value, 98
Innovative technology, 284
Internalizing vs. externalizing disorders, 227–28
Italian small islands: history, 38–39; original vs. non-original, 40–41; people characteristics, 41; personality assessment, 39–40; reference group effect, 41; sampled, 37–38
Karakitapoglu-Aygün, Z., 253
Kim, Y.-H., 253
Kitayama, S., 89
Kwan, V. S. Y., 253
Lack of constraint, 21
Lan, X., 89
Language(s): culture and, 66–67; human mechanisms for, 5
Large-scale cross-institutional collaborations, 64
Latino Barometer, 132
Least squares regression, 132
Life Events Schedule, 16
Life history theory (LHT), 3; as metatheory, 23; and personality variation, 7–11
Life satisfaction: dialecticism and, 195–97
Linear thinking: and naïve dialecticism, 180
Locus of Attention, 181
Maslach Burnout Inventory, 131
Mating strategies. see Reproductive strategies
Mead, Margaret, 284
Mean-centered main effect, 131
Measurement: cross-cultural, 36; of dialecticism, 181; early harshness, 17; error, 63, 152; of individualism-collectivism, 151–54; instrument content and validity, 155; invariance, test of, 155, 279; issues related to, 218; mental health and, 229; operationalization, 286; of self-construal, 157–59; thinking-pattern and, 289; trustfulness, 132
Men: under-representation of, 117
Mental mechanisms, 4
Mental state inferences, 70–71
Migrant change, 167
Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (MLSRA), 16–19
Misunderstandings, cross-cultural, 71
MLSRA. See Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation (MLSRA)
Modal needs, 118
Modes of acculturation, 167–68
Moral foundations theory, 102–3, 288
Moral licensing, 223
Mortality rates: and epidemics, 31; migrating vs. sedentary populations, 49–51; and personality gene flow hypothesis, 49–51
Mortality risk: spices and, 91–92
Motivation and self-regulation, 219–20
MRI scanners, 63
Müller-Lyer optical illusion, 89
Multidimensionality, individualism-collectivism and, 158–59
Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), 21, 281
Multiple regressions, 109
Munroe, R. L., 119
Murray, D. R., 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101
Mutation-selection equilibrium, 2, 34
Naïve dialecticism: consequences of, 183–98; definition of, 179; limitations for, 182; linear thinking and, 180; and meaning in life, 197–98; measuring, 181–83; and other predictors of life satisfaction, 195–97; and perceptions of groups, 187–88; and perceptions of individuals, 184–87; principles of, 179–80
National character, 118
Negative emotions, 76
Negative liberty, 254
Neurobiology: of individual differences, 77–78
Neuroimaging, 64
Neuroscience: cognitive, 63–64; cultural, 60–61; overview, 59–60; personality, 61–63
Neuroscientific research, 215–16
Neurotic mental disorder, 131
Neurotransmitters, 62
Neutral selection, 34
Non-zoonotic vs. zoonotic diseases, 95
North American culture, 255
Null-hypothesis statistical testing, 64
Obedient traits in children, 100
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD), 228
Oishi, S., 89
Omnibus Personality Inventory, 282
Ontogenetic development, 5
Openness to Experience, 62, 97–98
Parasitic attack, 88
Parasitic disease burden, 131
Parental care, quality of, 14–15
Parental disruption, 14
Pathogen prevalence: assessment on, 93–95; implications of, 104–5; and personality traits, 95–99; regional variation in, 96; relationship, 100, 106–7
Perceptions of Change, 181
Perceptual susceptibility, 89
Personal identity, 117
Personality: assessment, 39–40; authoritarian, 99–100; collectivism and, 154–57; and culture, 265; differences, 31; FFT of, 36; functions, 8–11; population differences in, 32–33; related attributes, 155–57; tightness-looseness and, 227–29
Personality gene flow hypothesis, 32, 34–35, 38, 44, 46–47; cross-validating, 47–49; genetics influence, 42–44; individual differences, 40–41; mechanisms underlying, 44; mortality and, 49–51
Personality neuroscience, 61–63; biological approaches to, 78; challenges limiting, 63–65; emotions and, 72–73; individualism and collectivism, 65–66
Personality profiles, 20, 34; hypothesis, 36–37; overview, 35–36; research on, 36
Personality psychology, 266, 289
Personality trait(s), 21; cultural variation in, 90; emotions and, 72–73; environmental perspective on, 44; evolutionary psychology in, 33–35; expressions, 75; extraversion, 96–97; genetic evolution, 106–7; and individual differences, 75–78; individual differences in, 31–53; islanders vs. mainlanders, 46–47; islanders vs. mainlanders and, 40–41; Italian islands as samples, 37–39; and openness to experience, 97–98; overview, 1–4; pathogen prevalence and, 95–99; role of migration and, 32; surveys, 96–97; tendencies, 75; T-scores and, 39–40; xenophobic, 101–2
Person-culture match hypothesis, 226–27
Physiological immune system, 90
Political religion, 279
Population density, 100
Population differences in personality, 32–33
Positive distinctiveness, 163–66
Positive polarity, 39
Positve and negative affect well-being, 192–94
Postfigurative culture, 284
Predator inspection behavior, 88
Predictable vs. unpredictable environmental feature, 12–13
Prediction: climato-economic pressures and, 137
Pressure. See Climato-economic pressures
Proximate causation, 5
Psychobiological mechanisms, 13–14
Psychological Review, 209
Reference group effect, 41
Relational mobility, 165
Religiosity: levels of, 283
Reproduction, 20
Reproductive strategies, 11–22
Research: on tightness-looseness, 218–29
Research on islands, 35–52; biomolecular evidence, 45–47; comfortable vs. uncomfortable environment, 45; founder effect and genetic drift hypothesis, 51–52; inbreeding depression hypothesis, 52; personality gene flow hypothesis, 44, 46–47; practical implications, 52–53; selective mortality hypothesis, 51
Risk: of pathogen transmission, 97
Romantic relationship, 13
Sacred culture, 287
Schaller, M., 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 101
Schwartz, S. H., 153, 158, 162, 165, 284
Secular moralities, 283
Selective mortality hypothesis, 51
Self: empirical evidence for, 245–53
Self-categorization theory (SCT), 163
Self-concept: cultural differences in, 188–91
Self-consistency: cross-cultural differences in, 189; and well-being, 194–95
Self-construal: individual-level, 159–63; measurement of, 157–59; mediate nation-level effects, 161; vary by context, 160–61
Self-Determination Theory of motivation, 194, 287
Self-enhancement in East Asian cultures, 243
Self-evaluation: and face culture, 247–48; face culture and, 247–48; moral, 248–49; process of, 249–52
Self-other representation, 74–75
Self-perception: and face culture, 246–47
Self-reliant traits, 100
Sexuality, unrestricted, 100
Sexual reproduction, 96
Shimin, C., 89
Simpson, J. A., 5, 8, 20, 21, 23
Singelis, T. M., 253
Smith, Anthony D., 279
Smoking gun, 45
Sneaky matings, 88
Social cognition: implications for, 183–88
Social competition, 169
Social creativity, 169
Social identity theory (SIT), 118, 163
Social reputation, role of, 249–52
Socio-demographic information, 39
Sociosexuality: in early adulthood, 17–18, 19; restricted (slow), 19–22; unrestricted (fast), 19–22
Sociosexual orientation, 3
Sociosexual Orientation Inventory (SOI), 21
Spices: and mortality risk, 91–92
Spielberger State-Trait Inventory, 131
Spoken language, 66
Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, 94
Standardization procedure, 153
Steinbeck, John, 123
Stigmatization of personality disorders, 229
Structural equation modeling (SEM), 18
Suicide inclination, 120
Suppression/concealment of personality disorders, 229
Surrogate religion, 279
Survey of World Views project, 278
Surveys, personality trait, 96–97
Talhelm, T., 89
Temperament and Character Inventory, 282
Temporal precedence, 93
Thermal comfort, 123
Thermoregulation, 119
Threatening habitats, 122
Threats: ecological, 216; to measurement validity, 159
Tightness-looseness: computer agents and, 217; connection between, 207–8; and culture fit, 226–27; historical and contemporary perspectives on, 208–17; and individual differences, 218–29; in modern nations, 209–17; multilevel theory of, 211, 213; personality and mental health disorders, 227–29; pressures on, 133–34; rating scale and items, 212; research on, 218–29; in traditional societies, 208–9
Tooby, J., 4
Trait-behavior consistency, 223–24
Trustfulness: climato-economic pressures on, 132–33; positive emotion of, 132
Unbalanced random-effects models, 132
Unchallenging habitats, 123
Unthreatening habitats, 122–23
Validity: convergent and divergent, 212
Variables: control, 137–38; regression results for, 138–40
Violation: social norm, 215
Well-being: implications for, 191–98; positive and negative affect, 192–94; self-consistency and, 194–95; subjective, 252–53
Withdrawal-related reactions, 76
Within-culture variability, 198–99
Women: over-representation of, 117; unrestricted sexuality and, 100–101
World Values Surveys, 132
Wright, R., 8
Zero-acquaintance, 70
Zhang, X., 89
Zoonotic diseases, 95