Abakumov, V.S., 340
Abkhazia, 560
Achalov, Vladislav, 524
acquiescence, social, 146, 243–4, 250; see also apathy
Adenauer, Konrad, 353
administrators: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; working-class, 96–7; and state centralism, 98, 111; recruits to, 145; material rewards and privileges, 193, 320–21, 371, 410, 550; under Stalin, 236–7, 240–43; indoctrination, 324; discontent, 329; obstructiveness under Khrushchëv, 360; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 370–71; attitude to work, 417; complaints against, 424–5; and Yeltsin’s reforms, 514–15; under privatization, 538–9; see also managers
Adzharians, 424
Adzhubei, Aleksei, 347
Afghanistan: USSR invades (1979), 411; Soviet withdrawal from, 443, 465, 469, 480; costs, 469; American-led invasion (2002), 555
Africa, 389
Agitprop Department (of Party Central Committee), 132
Agrarian Party, 530
agriculture: pre-World War I development, 5, 7; World War I production, 79, 181; backwardness, 91; predominance, 147; improves under NEP, 155; diversification in, 163; prices, 164, 173, 263–4; low output, 181; mechanization, 181–2; under Five-Year Plans, 194–5; post-World War II disputes over, 302, 320; Khrushchëv’s reforms, 320, 347, 349–51, 401–2; Brezhnev’s policy on, 380, 400–403; increased production under Brezhnev, 385; 1980 output, 401; ‘links’ system, 401–2; Gorbachëv proposes reforms, 440, 470–71; inefficiency, 467; and imports, 470; stimulated 535, 542, 551, 558; see also collectivization; harvests
Aitmatov, Chingiz, 415
Akhmatova, Anna, 139, 248, 281, 319, 365, 573
Akvarium, 543
Albania: and end of World War II, 272; condemns Brezhnev Doctrine, 388; criticizes Soviet leadership, 409; survival of communism in, 484
Albert II of Monaco, Prince, 558
alcohol and alcoholism, 417, 439, 467–9, 518
Alekseev, General Mikhail, 102, 113
Aleksi, Patriarch, 282, 369, 538, 547
Alexander II, Tsar, 6–7; assassinated, 18
Alexander III, Tsar, 71
Alexandra, Empress of Nicholas II, 20, 27
alienation, social, 397, 412–13
Alksnis, Colonel Viktor, 480
Allies (1915–18): view of Lenin, 70; and conduct of war, 107
Allilueva, Nadezhda (Stalin’s wife), 195, 315
Allilueva, Svetlana (Stalin’s daughter), 317, 324
All-People’s Union of Struggle for Russia’s Regeneration, 200
All-Russia Congress of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies see Congress of Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies
‘All-Russia’ (party), 547
All-Ukrainian National Congress (1917), 40
All-Union Congress of Soviets: First (1922), 133; Fifth (1929), 175.
Alma-Ata: protests in, 456
alphabet (Cyrillic), 206
Al-Qaida, 555
Andreev, Andrei, 170, 241, 302, 402
Andrei, Archbishop of Chernigov, 370
Andropov, Yuri: mission to Hungary, 343; made KGB chairman, 385; and reform, 410, 428–31, 433–4, 439, 469, 490; and succession to Brezhnev, 426; appointed General Secretary, 428; background and career, 428–9; character and beliefs, 429; employs Gorbachëv, 430–31, 433, 437; foreign policy, 431–2, 442; and tensions with USA, 432–3; health decline and death, 433
Anglo-Soviet agreement (1941), 268, 271
Anglo-Soviet Trade Treaty (1921), 126, 158
Angola, 399
Anpilov, Viktor, 524
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), 555
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1973), 399
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936), 230
Anti-Fascist Jewish Committee, 316
anti-Semitism see Jews
Antonov-Ovseenko, V.A., 162
apartments see housing
apathy, social and political, 83, 243–4, 420, 566
Archangel, 102
Argentina, 401
Arguments and Facts (journal), 449, 479–80
aristocracy: calls for reforms, 17; see also gentry
armaments industry, 4, 28, 255, 266, 275–6, 304, 329, 535–6, 552
armed forces: pre-revolutionary discontent in, 37–8; support Right, 54; form revolutionary committee, 56; democratization after revolution, 67, 87; soldiers granted direct action, 69; demobilization, 86; mutinies, 119; conscription to, 120, 255, 285; Soviet expenditure on, 329; corrupt management 533; army incompetence 533; under Yeltsin 536; see also Soviet Army, Chechnya
Armenia: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Georgia and Azerbaijan, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; terrorist acts, 412; 1988 earthquake, 468–9; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
artists see intelligentsia
Assembly of Plenipotentiaries (1918), 97
associations (factory), 407–8
Augustus, Roman emperor, 226
Aurora (battleship), 65
Austria: Hitler annexes, 231; East German refugees in, 483
Austria-Hungary: relations with Imperial Russia, 1, 3; Imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; and outbreak of World War I, 25–6; and October Revolution, 75; 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 77, 80; unrest in, 81
autonomous republics: introduced, 114
Azerbaijan: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 121, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457, 482; religion in, 136, 370; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
Azerbaijani Popular Front, 482
Babi Yar (Ukraine), 286
Baghdad railway, 1
Bagration, Operation (1944), 267
Baibakov, Nikolai, 439
Baikal, Lake, 468
Bakatin, Vadim, 486, 493, 495, 512
Baker, James, 496
Bakh, Aleksei, 247
Baklanov, Oleg, 496, 498–9, 501–2
Baku: oilfields, 4, 121, 126; Bolshevik success in, 7; Russians in, 23; Muslim Azeris massacred in, 83; disorder over Nagorny Karabakh, 482
Balkans: French influence in, 24; wars in, 24–5
Balkars, 367
Baltic states: Russians in, 23; lost in 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; incorporated in USSR (1940), 258, 456; Germans occupy, 261, 283; post-World War II demands, 298; post-World War II deportations, 300; Russianization of, 366; human chain formed, 481; decline to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania
banks and finance: credit squeeze in World War I, 28; nationalized (1917), 79; central, 452
Barbarossa, Operation (1941), 260, 263
Bashkirs: and Russian rule, 84, 114, 424
Bashkortostan, 521
Basmachi, 208
Bavarian Soviet Republic, 120
BBC Russian Service, 557
BBC World Service, 415
Bedny, Demyan, 205
begging, 517
Belarus (formerly Belorussia): agrees to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Belorussia
Belgium: Germans occupy, 258
Belgrade: Gorbachëv visits, 463
Belorussia: lost in 1918 peace agreement, 77–8, 84; Soviet republic formed, 114; status, 129–30; Germans occupy, 261, 283; loyalties in World War II, 284; relations with Russians, 368; affected by Chernobyl disaster, 445; nationalist protests, 457; see also Belarus
Berezovski, Boris, 532, 548–9, 550, 556–7, 561
Beria, Lavrenti: in Georgia, 201; interrogation methods, 229; promoted, 232, 242; at 18th Party Congress, 233; supports Stalin, 241, 252; on threat of World War II, 260; and conduct of World War II, 262; and murder of Polish officers, 268; and Stamenov, 268; and deportation of nationalities, 276; and nuclear weapons research, 301, 304, 318; post-World War II position, 303; Stalin turns against, 325; advocates easier treatment of non-Russians, 326, 343; and Stalin’s death, 327; position and reform policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3; arrested and shot, 333–4, 345, 357; in Great Terror, 340
Berlin: expected rising in, 101; 1923 insurrection, 159; Red Army occupies, 272; blockade and airlift (1948–9), 310; 1953 strike, 336; Wall, 373–4; see also Germany
Berlin, Sir Isaiah, 316
Beslan, siege at, 549
Bessarabia: annexed by USSR, 258
Big Three (USSR, USA, Britain), 294
Birobidzhan, 317
birth rate, 422
black market: in food, 109, 119; as common practice, 243–4
Blair, Tony, 556
Blok, Alexander, 95
Blokhin, Yuri, 497
Bloody Sunday (9 January 1905), 13
Blyumkin, Yakov, 103
Bogomolov, Oleg, 450
Bogrov, Dmitri, 17
Boldin, Valeri, 498–9
Bolshevik Party see Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Bonch-Bruevich, V.D., 93
Bondarëv, Yuri, 497
Bonner, Yelena (Sakharov’s widow), 521
Book of Delicious and Healthy Food, The, 320
Boundary and Friendship Treaty (Germany–USSR, 1939), 257
bourgeoisie: class war against, 92; emigration by, 136; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; eliminated, 239; see also middle class
Bovin, Alexander, 450
BP, 550
Brandt, Willy, 389
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918), 75–6, 78–80, 84–6, 93, 102–3, 107, 173, 268, 326
Brezhnev, Leonid: career, 236, 383, 568; Khrushchëv sends to Kazakhstan, 338; as Khrushchëv’s prote´ge´, 373, 383; and ousting of Khrushchëv, 376–8; administration, 379–80, 391, 397, 399–400; displaces Shelepin, 379; agricultural policy, 380, 400–403; avoids excessive repression, 382; qualities and background, 382–4, 404; as General Secretary, 385; visits Prague, 386; and Czechoslvak Spring, 387; Doctrine, 387–8; visits abroad, 388, 399; and nationalist aspirations, 390; and Party discipline, 391–2, 399; death and funeral, 397, 426–7, 435; foreign policy, 399; memoirs, 403; political appointments and promotions, 403; health decline, 404, 425–6; personal cult, 404; at 24th Party Congress, 405–6; and static policy, 409; and dissenters, 413; and repression, 415; and material improvements, 417; and ideology, 419; liking for popular entertainment, 421, 425; allows Jewish emigration, 423; and legality, 425; succession to, 426; appoints Andropov to head KGB, 429; and Gorbachëv, 437, 451; Yakovlev criticizes, 459; Yeltsin visits, 504; his post-Soviet reputation, 529
Brezhneva, Galina (Leonid’s daughter), 383, 426
Brezhneva, Viktoria (Leonid’s wife), 382
Britain: empire, 3, 96; in Franco-Russian entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and German naval rivalry, 25; in World War I, 25, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; conduct of World War II, 259, 272, 277; post-war status, 294; state welfare system, 294; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343
British Council, 557
Brodski, Iosif, 412
Bronshtein, Lev Davydovich see Trotski, Lev
Brusilov, General Alexei A., 30, 120
Brutus, 93
Buddhists, 369
budget: deficits, 467–8; balancing under Yeltsin, 510, 532, 535
Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich: agrees to 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; in Central Committee, 85; revolutionary aims, 92; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; encourages German communism, 126; encourages popular education, 142; and Lenin’s health decline, 151; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; attacks Trotski, 156; supports NEP, 156, 158, 162, 172–4; and Western powers, 158; on world capitalism, 159; economic policy, 160, 186–7; reviles critics, 161; and agricultural prices, 164, 173; opposes Stalin’s economic policies, 172–4; qualities, 173–4; conflicts with Stalin, 174–6; forced to condemn rightist policies, 178; dismissed from Politburo, 179; opposes compulsory collectivization, 179, 195; edits Izvestiya, 194; criticized at 17th Party Congress, 213; accused of espionage, 221, 223; arrested and tried, 223, 228, 240; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv and, 341, 348; rehabilitation, 459; historical accounts of, 479; The ABC of Communism (with Preobrazhenski), 142; ‘Notes of an Economist’, 173
Bukovina: annexed by USSR, 258
Bukovski, Vladimir, 412
Bulgakov, Mikhail, 248
Bulganin, Nikolai, 241, 337, 347, 352
Bulgaria: in Second Balkan War, 25; in World War II, 258; Soviet post-War award, 271; and formation of Cominform, 308; Gorbachëv and, 463; communist collapse in, 483
Bulletin of the Opposition (Trotski), 188
Burbulis, Gennadi, 512
bureaucracy: personnel, 145, 320; venality in, 145–6; and record-keeping, 147–8; Gorbachëv on, 438; see also administrators
Buryatiya, 521
Bykaw, Vasil, 415
capital: foreign investments in Russia, 4, 159, 163; industrial, 79; inter-war instability, 170; invested abroad, 519; after communism, 550, 562
capital goods: in post-World War II economy, 303–4, 329; under Khrushchëv, 352, 373
capitalism: Bolsheviks oppose, 62; and industrial syndicates, 95–6; state, 97; under NEP, 144; communist belief in collapse of, 178, 254; post-World War II, 294; Stalin’s views on global, 322–3; Khrushchëv criticizes, 356, 362; and Gorbachëv’s market economy, 385–6; adapts to welfare economics, 398; Gorbachëv recognizes success of, 437; under Yeltsin and subsequently, 469, 514, 533–6, 539–42, 550–1, 553–4, 558, 562–3, 573
Carter, Jimmy, 411
Caspian Sea: pollution, 468
Caucasus: national aspirations, 40; kulaks deported, 195; see also Transcaucasus
Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 483–4
censorship, 94, 324, 366, 380–81; see also samizdat
Central Control Commission, 118, 148, 176
Central Intelligence Agency (United States), 341
Central State Bank, 452
centralization, political, 98, 110–11, 115–17, 129, 169, 452, 521
cereals see grain
Chaliapin, Feodor see Shalyapin, Fëdr
Chalidze, Valeri, 382
Change of Landmarks (group), 128
Chazov, Yevgeni, 404
Chebrikov, Viktor, 438
Chechens, 114, 276–7, 288, 367, 545, 573
Chechnya: declares independence (1991), 421; war in, 533, 538, 546; and Putin 546, 547, 555, 566
Cheka (Extraordinary Commission): formed, 69, 74, 92, 227; in civil war, 103; repression and terror by, 107–8, 110; appointments to, 148; see also OGPU
Chelyabinsk, 103, 364, 468, 518
Cherkessk (Stavropol region), 286, 296
Chernenko, Konstantin, 403–4, 426, 428, 433–5, 442
Chernobyl: nuclear power station accident, 445–6, 457, 469
Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 515–16, 522–3, 526, 529–31, 534, 537, 544
Chernov, Viktor, 19, 36–7, 51, 105
Chernyaev, Anatoli, 486
Chernyshevski, Nikolai, 17
Chiang Kai-shek, 162
Chicherin, Georgi, 158
Children of the Twentieth Congress, 356, 364, 450
China: Russian rail concession in, 3; 1924 treaty with USSR, 159; communists massacred, 162; acknowledges Soviet hegemony, 295; communist power in, 311; Treaty of Friendship with USSR, 311; resents Soviet friendship with USA, 354; Khrushchëv criticizes ‘dogmatism’ in, 362; border skirmishes with USSR, 388; rapprochement with USA (1970s), 399–400; Albania supports, 409; Gorbachëv’s overtures to, 465; Yeltsin’s relations with, 538
Chinese Communist Party: Politburo directs, 162
Chita province, 550
Chkalov, Valeri, 247
Christianity: divisions and sects, 10–11, 13; separation from state, 90; Bolshevik treatment of, 136, 318; see also Orthodox Church
Chronicle of Current Events, The (samizdat journal), 382
Chubais, Anatoli, 512–15, 522, 525
Chubar, Vlas, 226
Chuikov, Vasili, 265
Churchill, (Sir) Winston S.: warns USSR of German invasion, 259; as war leader, 263; meetings with Stalin, 268–71, 273; and dissolution of Comintern, 270
CIS see Commonwealth of Independent States
Civil Code, 145
civil rights, 400, 412–13, 479
Civil War (1918–21), 101–2, 106, 112–13, 116–17, 123–4, 143
class (social): and employment, 7, 97; divisions, 9, 239; and rationing system, 87, 95; conflict, 92, 101, 179, 206, 454–5
clergy see priests and clerics
clientelism, 278, 323, 360, 392, 541
Cold War, 294, 312–13, 336, 465
collective leadership, 332
collectivization: Lenin on, 92; in Ukraine, 109; Stalin introduces, 170, 172, 202, 250; compulsory, 179–82, 234; peasant resistance to, 179, 183–4; supervision of, 186; and death rate, 201; and wartime food production, 276, 286; maintained under German occupation, 287; in Eastern Europe, 309, 311; Ovechkin writes on, 320; Danilov writes on, 381; under Brezhnev, 400–401
Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), 310
Cominform: established, 309; Yugoslavia expelled, 310; First Conference (1947), 311
Comintern (Communist International): 1936 German–Japanese Pact against, 230; dissolved (1943), 270; First Congress (1919), 112; Second Congress (1920), 120; Sixth Congress (1928), 178; Seventh Congress (1935), 229
commissars: appointed by Provisional Government, 40; in Red Army, 279
Committee of Party-State Control, 371, 379
committees of defence (World War II), 278
committees of village poor (kombedy), 109
Commonwealth of Independent States, 506, 518, 535
communes (village), 5–7, 16–17, 22, 38; and soviets, 73
Communist International see Comintern
Communist Party of the Russian Federation, 488–9, 520, 524, 526, 528, 530, 531, 536, 553
Communist Party of the Soviet Union: formed, 19, 71; Lenin leads, 19, 71–2; repressed under Nicholas II, 29; Lenin’s revolutionary aims for, 47–50, 82; and Provisional Government, 47; membership numbers and composition, 48, 110, 118, 140, 346, 410, 416; Central Committee, 50, 58–9, 69, 76–8, 91, 93, 101–2, 111, 118, 160, 176, 222, 224, 232, 326–7, 331, 377, 434, 452, 460, 462, 487; at 1917 Democratic Conference, 57; supports revolutionary action, 58–9; seizes power in October Revolution, 62, 66, 73; calls for new world order, 63–4; differences with Mensheviks, 63, 66; forms first revolutionary government, 66–7; reputation and local successes, 73; failure in Constituent Assembly election, 74; and 1917/18 peace negotiations, 75–8, 80; economic problems, 79; name, 80, 154, 325; popular attitude to and understanding of, 81–3, 96; revolutionary aims, 82–3, 91–2; and Russian peoples, 85; and working-class behaviour, 89; propaganda and promotion, 92–3, 140, 200, 418; intellectuals’ attitude to, 94–5; and administrators, 96–9, 110–11, 236–7, 240–43; authoritarianism, 98–100, 111, 129; and civil war, 101–3, 117; split with Mensheviks, 104; and murder of royal family, 107; Military Opposition, 112; and centralization, 115, 122; ‘cleansing’ (chistka), 118; political monopoly, 119, 123–4, 161, 239, 476, 485, 488; organization, 123; disclaims imperialism, 128; and nationalities, 131–2; encourages personal activities, 140; exalts working class, 142–3; and peasants, 147; and social control, 147–9; Stalin purges, 185–6, 215–21, 225, 233–4, 236; factionalism in, 187–8; enemies, 188; as power-base, 211–12, 219; Stalin restores power, 233; official history of, 237–8; world communist dominance, 295; post-World War II position, 303; under Khrushchëv, 346–7, 349; Khrushchëv’s programme for, 360–63, 371, 373; leadership divided after Khrushchëv’s ousting, 378; in Constitution, 406; and mass control, 418–19; and glasnost, 448; Gorbachëv’s reform of, 448, 459–63, 466; Gorbachëv maintains membership, 486–7, 491; and coup against Gorbachëv, 502; Yeltsin suspends legal status, 505, 512; aims and achievements, 568–70
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) Conferences: Nineteenth (1988), 461–2; Seventh (1917), 48; Tenth (1921), 127; Twelfth (1922), 138; Thirteenth (1924), 156
Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik) Congresses: Second (1903), 19, 104; Seventh (1918), 77–8; Eighth (1919), 112; Tenth (1921), 125–6; Eleventh (1922), 127, 151; Twelfth (1923), 157; Fourteenth (1925), 160; Seventeenth (1934), 212–16; Eighteenth (1939), 224, 232–3, 236, 240; Nineteenth (1952), 325–6, 328; Twentieth (1956), 338–40, 344, 436; Twenty-Second (1961), 360–61; Twenty-Third (1965), 375; Twenty-Fourth (1971), 405–6; Twenty-Fifth (1976), 407, 424; Twenty-Sixth (1981), 407; Twenty-Seventh (1986), 441–2, 444; Twenty-Eighth (1990), 490, 493
‘compound, the Soviet’, 99, 123, 293, 397, 425, 452, 463, 485, 567–8, 570–1
Congress of People’s Deputies, 461–2, 472–5, 478, 479–80, 488–9, 492–3, 502
Congress of Soviets of Workers’ amd Soldiers’ Deputies: First (1917), 46, 49, 62, 65–6, 69; Second (1917), 59; Third (1918), 76, 84; Fifth (1918), 103–4; Eighth (1920), 121
Constituent Assembly: proposed (1917), 34, 38; and regional reorganization, 45; proposed 1917 elections, 55; and October Revolution, 67, 74; elections to, 74–5, 81–2, 89, 472; closed and dispersed, 75, 85, 92–3; in civil war, 102, 104, 106; Committee of Members (Komuch), 102, 104, 106
Constitution: adopted (1922), 133, 152; Stalin reformulates (1936), 239–40, 406; 1977 revision, 406, 488; Yeltsin’s (1993), 527–8, 529, 558, 559
Constitutional Court, 519
Constitutional-Democratic Party see Kadets
consumer goods, 335, 347, 356, 379, 407, 409, 417, 469, 539, 542
Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty (1990), 556
co-operatives, 451, 460, 471–2
Corvalan, Luis, 412
Cossacks: in northern Caucasus, 114, 133
Council of the Federation, 527, 529, 532, 553
Council of Ministers, 331
Council of People’s Commissars (Sovnarkom): formed, 66–7, 73; on landed estates, 68; political reforms, 69; political base, 74, 81; and 1917/18 peace agreement, 75–8; early rule, 85, 91, 100; economic reforms, 87, 91; and withering of capitalism, 96; and administrators, 97; violence, 97; revolutionary aims, 98; in civil war, 103; and food distribution, 109; and regions, 115; appointments to, 148; authority and scope, 151; and campaign against kulaks, 180
Council of the United Gentry, 31
crime see criminality
Crimean Tatars, 367
criminality and criminal gangs, 246, 512, 519, 532–3, 534–5, 549
Croats, 287
Cruise missiles, 400
culture: under communism, 191, 205–8, 246, 248–9, 549; in World War II, 281; Stalin’s repressive views on, 319, 329; under Khrushchëv, 364–6; Brezhnev restricts, 380–81; dissenters and, 415; imports from West, 540; younger writers, 540–41; see also intelligentsia
currency: World War I depreciation, 28, 31; post-World War I depreciation, 109; 1947 devaluation, 304; depreciates under Yeltsin, 519; run on rouble, 535
Czechoslovakia: 1934 treaty with USSR, 229; Hitler occupies, 255; post-World War II elections and settlement, 307; and formation of Cominform, 308; Warsaw Pact invasion (1968), 386–8, 390, 392, 398, 409, 443, 454; communist collapse in, 483; economic recovery, 519
Czech Republic, 537, 556, 561, 562
Czernin, Otto von, 76
D-Day (Normandy, 1944), 269
Dalstroi trust, 179
Danilov, Viktor, 381
Dardanelles, 27
Daugavpils (Latvia), 457
Decembrists, 17
Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia (1917), 69, 83
Declaration of the Rights of the Toiling and Exploited People, 84
de-industrialization, 536
democracy: Gorbachëv advocates, 451–2, 454, 479; Yeltsin’s attitude to, 529
Democratic Centralists, 117–18
Democratic Conference (1917), 57
Democratic Union, 475
demonstrations (protest), 364, 387, 437
de-nationalization see privatization
Denikin, General Anton, 113, 116–17
Denmark: Germans occupy, 258
denunciations, 104, 132, 238, 244–5, 338–42
deportation: of nationalities, 133–4, 276, 284, 329, 339, 367–8; of intelligentsia, 137; in Great Terror, 215, 223–5; of nationals from annexed territories, 258; in World War II, 276, 298; post-World War II, 300; Khrushchëv regrets, 367
‘deprived ones’ (lishentsy), 89, 239
devaluation (of rouble) see currency
developed socialism, 405–7, 467
dictatorship of the proletariat, 64, 88, 92, 94–6, 98, 141
diet, 184, 249, 276, 278, 356, 418; see also famine; food supply
Dimitrov, Georgi, 227
discontent, social, 81, 250–51, 297–300, 329, 358–9, 364, 371–2, 390, 410, 418, 423, 425, 473–4, 477, 518, 542, 554, 563–4
dissenters (‘other-thinkers’), 381, 413–15, 449, 511; see also intelligentsia
doctors, 541
Doctors’ Plot (1952), 324–5, 332, 339
Dolgoruki, Prince Yuri, 323
Don Basin: miners rebel, 56; strikes, 472
Dostoevski, Fëdor, 11, 134, 207, 366, 415
drought (1946), 276
druzhinniki (vigilante groups), 361
Dublin, 530
Dudintsev, Vladimir: By Bread Alone, 344
Duma: formed and assembled, 1, 14–16; Nicholas II’s attitude to, 21–2, 29, 32; supports World War I, 27; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; impotence, 548; under 1998 constitution, 529, 550, 551, 553, 566
Dunkirk evacuation (1940), 258
Durnovo, Pëtr, 25
Dvinsk, 77
Dzhugashvili, Katerina (Stalin’s mother), 196
Dzhugashvili, Yakov (Stalin’s son), 285
Dzierżyński, Felix: supports plan to seize power, 61; heads Cheka, 74, 108; Polish origins, 85; taken hostage by Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, 103–4; advocates terror, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; interrogates Berdyaev, 137; disagreements with Lenin, 153
Dziuba, Ivan: Internationalism or Russification?, 391
East Berlin: Gorbachëv visits, 463
East Germany see German Democratic Republic
Eastern Europe: communist movements in, 302, 305; post-World War II policy on, 303, 305–12; Soviet purges in, 313; resents Soviet subjugation, 330, 553; and Warsaw Pact, 337; Soviet unpopularity in, 342, 353; easing of Soviet policy under Beria, 343; economic reforms, 385–6; Politburo and, 385–7; compliance demanded, 387; anti-Soviet developments, 409; and Gorbachëv’s non-interference policy, 442–3, 463–4, 481–3; communist collapse in, 483–4
economy after communism: real average income drops 529; financial collapse (1998) 530, 535; subsidies 534; devaluation (1998) 535; recovery (1999) 535–6; poverty 541
education: encouraged by Bolsheviks, 140–42, 190–91, 205; privileged, 237, 320–21; and non-Russian languages, 367; discrimination abolished, 410; after communism, 567
eight-hour day, 68
Eikhe, R.I., 213
Einstein, Albert, 318
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 272, 353
Eismont, Nikolai, 188
elections: to Constituent Assembly, 74, 81; Gorbachëv’s reforms on, 451, 460–61; to Congress of People’s Deputies (1989), 472–3, 475; under Yeltsin (1993), 523, 526–9; State Duma (1995), 530; Presidential (1996), 531; State Duma (1999) 552–3; Presidential (2000) 547; State Duma (2003), 552–3; Presidential (2004), 553; State Duma (2007), 559; Presidential (2008), 559
Emancipation Edict (1861), 6–7, 71
emigration: post-revolution, 88
engineers: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; success under NEP, 163; 1928 trial of, 175; protected, 194
environment: and pollution, 468, 518, 552
Epshtein, Avraam, 208
Erenburg, Ilya: The Thaw, 335
Erevan, 390
Estonia: demands autonomy, 40; support for Bolsheviks, 83; Germany acquires (1918), 84; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; granted independence, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy (1941), 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 478; living standard, 423; protest demonstrations, 457, 473–4, 481; claims veto rights over Moscow laws, 473; independence demands, 482, 503; Yeltsin reassures, 489; declares sovereignty, 490; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; after communism, 537
Estonian National Front, 382
Ethiopia, 399
Europe: revolutions in, 120; post-World War II situation, 301–2, 305–8
exile (internal), 21–2
exports, 159
Extraordinary Commission see Cheka
factory workers see workers
Fadeev, Alexander, 319
Fall of Berlin, The (film), 315
family values, 246
famine: Volga region (1891–2), 5; and forcible acquisition of grain, 93; in Ukraine (1932–3), 184, 202, 207; in World War II, 285; post-World War II, 304; see also food supply
Fantomas (film series), 357
Far East: security in, 255–7, 308
farms, private, 542; see also Land Code
fascism: in Italy, 140, 170; popular fronts against, 230; and totalitarianism, 235; in Spain, 254
Fatherland (party), 547
February Revolution see revolution of February 1917
Federal Assembly, 527, 551, 558
Federal Security Service, 530, 545, 550
Federal Treaty (1992), 521
Federation Council see Council of the Federation
Federation of Independent Trade Unions, 542
Fëdorov, Boris, 522
Finland: status under empire, 13; demands autonomy, 40; Sejm disobeys Provisional Government, 60; granted independence, 69, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256; winter war (1939–40), 257; joins EU, 537
First World War see World War I
500 Days Plan (1990), 492–3
Five-Year Plans: First (1928–32), 170, 176–9, 186, 188, 190, 198–9, 205, 208; Second (1933–38), 194, 208, 211; Fourth (1946–50), 303; Eighth (1966–70), 385, 406; Ninth (1971–6), 407; Twelfth (1968–92), 441
food supply: after 1917, 89–90; and malnutrition, 119; and intimidation, 208; 1930s improvements in, 249; and control of population, 278; to armed forces in World War II, 284–5; post-war inadequacy, 304; price rises under Khrushchëv, 364; imported, 467, 470; shortages under Gorbachëv, 472; and price rises under Gorbachëv, 492, 495; price controls lifted, 525; see also harvests; rationing
Food-Supplies Dictatorship, 104, 108–9
football, 559
forced-labour and camps see Gulag
Ford, Gerald, 399
Ford motor company, 177
Foros (Black Sea), 496, 498, 502
France: in Russo-British entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; in World War I, 25, 34, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; loans to Russia, 158; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; 1939 declaration of war, 256–7; 1940 defeat, 258; communist party follows Moscow line, 295, 306, 311; and conference on Cominform, 308; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343
Franco, General Francisco, 230
Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, 25
Franz Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 1
Free Trade Union Association, 414
fraud, IMF funds, 534
Gagarin, Yuri, 351
Gaidar, Yegor, 505, 509–11, 512–14, 516, 521–3, 526–7, 529, 534
Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 412
gas industry, 525, 536, 553, 562
Gazprom, 526
Gdansk shipyards, 409
Geneva: 1955 conference, 353; Gorbachëv–Reagan meeting in (1985), 444, 463
Genghis Khan, 226
Genoa Conference (1922), 158
genocide, 202; see also deportation
gentry: land ownership and seizure, 15–16, 20, 34, 39, 53, 55–6, 67–8, 86, 91; see also aristocracy
Georgia: 1906 unrest, 13; and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 207; reconquered (1921), 128; status, 129, 133; 1924 insurrection, 131; repressed, 201; riots over Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; living standard, 423; minorities in, 424; protest demonstrations (1989), 473–4; independence demands, 481; violence against Abkhazians, 481; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; relations with Russia after 1991, 535, 555, 560
Gerashchenko, Viktor, 516
German Communist Party, 107, 126, 158, 171, 178, 187
German Democratic Republic (East Germany): established, 311; emigration to West, 374; recognized by West Germany, 389; Gorbachëv on, 463; citizens seek asylum in Austria, 483
German Federal Republic (West Germany), 337, 389
German Social Democratic Party: advocates central planning, 63; opposes communist ‘March Action’ in (1921), 126, 158–9; propaganda, 140; Comintern declares enmity for, 178; communists campaign against, 187
Germany: as threat to Imperial Russia, 1; trade with Russia, 3; imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; naval power, 25; and outbreak of World War I, 26–7, 34, 53; returns Lenin to Russia, 47; in World War I, 49, 107; and 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 75–8, 80; and October Revolution, 75; unrest in, 81; 1918 territorial acquisitions, 84; and civil war in Russia, 102; Spartakist rising (1919), 112; 1918 defeat, 117; Soviet negotiations and agreement with, 158–9; rise of Nazism, 171; Stalin’s estimate of, 187; nationalism, 206; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; imports Soviet strategic materials, 259; invades and campaigns in USSR (1941), 260–67; defence of homeland, 270–71; World War II atrocities, 283, 286, 288–9; occupation regime, 286–90, 295–6; Soviet collaborators with, 287; industrial plant transferred to USSR, 307; partition, 308; economic recovery, 322
Ghana, 389
Gierek, Eduard, 386
Gil, Stepan, 107
glasnost, 448–9, 452, 459–60, 464, 466
Glasnost (journal), 480
Glavlit (Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses), 137, 324, 366, 448
Goethe, J.W. von, 85
Gomułka, Władisław, 231, 311, 342–3, 386
Gorbachëv, Mikhail: abolishes Glavlit, 137; Marxist-Leninism, 370; reform programme, 397, 438–44, 446, 448–52, 454–5, 459–62, 466, 468, 479, 485, 490, 494; experiments with ‘links’ system, 402; background and career, 404–5, 435–7, 456; Andropov employs, 430–31, 433, 437; status and influence, 434; appointed General Secretary, 435, 438; formulation of ideas, 437–8, 443, 451, 454–5; visits abroad, 437, 440, 463; political appointments, 438–9, 456; character and style, 439–40; foreign policy and international relations, 442–5, 451, 455, 463–5; and defence commitments, 443–4; negotiates with Reagan, 444, 463; and Chernobyl disaster, 445–6; and collapse of USSR, 447, 507; and public debate (glasnost), 448–9; relations with Yeltsin, 453, 503, 512; speech on 70th anniversary of October revolution, 453–4; foreign policy, 455, 463–5; and nationalities question, 455–7; at 19th Party Conference, 461–2; replaces Gromyko as Chairman of Supreme Soviet, 463; arms reduction, 465–6; popularity in West, 465–6, 496; innocence, 466; mismanagement, 468; and Armenian earthquake, 469; and economic crisis, 470–71, 491–3, 495; accepts 1989 election results, 473; resistance and opposition to reforms, 473–6, 480–81, 485, 488, 493–5; chairs Congress of People’s Deputies, 474–5; popularity in USSR, 477, 479; and independence movements in republics, 481; and collapse of communism in Eastern Europe, 483–4; contradictions in policy, 485–6; remains in Party, 486–7, 491; proposes socialist liberation, 487; at 18th Party Congress, 490–91; attempted coup against (1991), 491, 496–500, 502, 530; loses popularity, 491, 495–6, 499–500; maintains unity of USSR, 494; works with Yeltsin, 494; resignation, 495, 505, 507; Perestroika (book), 453–4, 465
Gorbachëva, Raisa, 436, 438, 453, 455–6, 469, 486, 498, 502
Gordov, General Vasili N., 299
Gorki, Maksim, 137, 191, 206, 248
Gosagroprom see State Committee for the Agro-Industrial Complex
Gosizdat (state publisher), 138
Gosplan see State Planning Commission
Gottwald, Clement, 307
grain: pre-World War I production, 5; World War I regulation of trade, 31, 52, 79–80; production, 78–9, 124; state procurement of, 104, 109, 118, 164, 170, 172–4, 182–3, 194, 305; distribution, 108–9; hoarding by peasants, 109–10; and tax in kind, 124–5; fall in world prices, 147, 159, 177; marketing by peasants, 147; exports under NEP, 155; exports under First Five-Year Plan, 177; quotas, 184; post-World War II production, 328; production under Khrushchëv, 350; production under Brezhnev, 401; purchased abroad, 401; price controls lifted (1993), 525; see also harvests
Great Depression (1929), 170, 177
Great Terror (1937–8) see terror
Great War (1914–18) see World War I
Grebenshchikov, Boris, 543
Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church, 369
Grigoryants, Sergei, 480
Grishin, Viktor, 428, 434–5, 442
Groman, Vladimir, 145
Gromov, General Boris, 497
Gromyko, Andrei, 354, 404, 426, 428, 435, 438, 462–3
Grossman, Vasili, 289; Forever Flowing, 478; Life and Fate, 416
Group of Seven: Gorbachëv appeals to, 496
Grozny (Chechnya), 533, 538, 546
Guchkov, Alexander, 16, 30, 33, 36
Gulag (and forced labour), 179, 191, 210, 223–5, 252, 277, 279–80, 301, 328–9, 335, 342, 451–2; wartime deaths in, 278; Khrushchëv releases inmates, 345, 358–9, 370
Gusinski, Vladimir, 549, 550, 561
Habsburg dynasty, 26–8
harvests: 1917 shortage, 78–9; 1920 decline, 124; high 1926–7 level, 164; 1928–30 average, 181; 1936 fall, 218; low 1952 level, 304; 1954–55 improvements, 337–8; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 337–8, 350, 352, 375, 385; 1963 low level, 375; 1964 improvement, 385
Havel, Vacláv, 483
health and medical care, 417–18
Helsinki Final Act (1975), 400, 413
Herzegovina: Austria annexes (1908), 24
Herzen, Alexander, 17
Hindenburg, Field Marshal Paul von Beneckendorff und von, 75
historiography of Russia since 1900: xxv–xxxii
history: writing of official Soviet, 206, 316, 368, 419, 479
Hitler, Adolf: Comintern disregards, 178; Stalin misjudges, 187; and ‘Final Solution’, 202, 222–3; rise to power, 206; occupies Rhineland, 230; annexes Austria and Sudetenland, 231; totalitarianism, 253; and outbreak of World War II, 255–6; and pact with USSR (1939), 256; and invasion of USSR, 259, 265–6, 573; and campaign in USSR, 262, 266–7; death, 272, 293; mistrusts Volga Germans, 277; and Soviet popular resistance, 286; and German atrocities in Russia, 288, 290; see also Germany; Nazi party
Hohenzollern dynasty, 26
Holland: Germans occupy, 258
homelessness, 517–18; see also housing
honours and awards, 236–7
housing, 192, 357, 359, 418, 517–18
Hrushevskyi, Mihaylo, 132
Human Rights Committee, 382
Hungary: 1919 Soviet Republic, 120; post-World War II settlement, 271, 307; supplies contingents for German army, 286; and formation of Cominform, 308; unrest in, 336; 1956 rising and suppression, 343–4, 353, 387, 443, 454; reforms under Ka´da´r, 385–6; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 464; allows East German immigration and transit, 483; joins NATO, 537
hydrogen bomb, 336, 353; see also nuclear weapons
identity booklets (‘internal passports’), 207–8
ideological authoritarianism, 99, 117
Ignatov, Nikolai, 377
illiteracy see literacy
Imperial Academy, 8
Imperial Economic Society, 7
imperialism, 128–9
‘Industrial Party’, 185
industrial relations see strikes
industry and industrialization: and military strength, 3–4; pre-World War I development, 4–5, 7, 22; labour, 7; growth in World War I, 28–9, 31; Bolshevik policy on, 79–80; World War I production fall, 79; nationalization of, 92, 95, 110; Lenin proposes capitalist syndicates for, 95; post-World War I production decline, 109, 124; small-scale manufacturing under NEP, 126–7; Trotski’s plans for, 151; recovery under NEP, 155, 162, 186; planning campaigns, 160; under Stalin, 175–6, 194, 234, 275–6; under Five-Year Plans, 182, 186, 194; Stakhanovism in, 217; in World War II, 266; regional policy, 302; capital goods, 303–4, 329; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 351; production increases under Brezhnev, 385; capacity (1970s), 397–8; 1979 reforms, 408; statistics on (1966–80), 408; Gorbachëv’s proposed reforms, 440–41; inefficiency, 467–8; increased output (1983–7), 469; production falls under Yeltsin, 516; privatization, 531, 534, 541–2; see also consumer goods
inflation: in World War I, 28, 52, 55, 79; under Gorbachëv, 496; under Yeltsin, 516, 529; see also prices
‘informals’ (neformaly), 476
Ingushi, 367
Institute of the Economy of the World Economic System, 450
Institute of Red Professors, 142, 173
intelligentsia: in imperial Russia, 11; support for Bolsheviks, 94–5; repressed and controlled by Bolsheviks, 137–9, 200–201, 245; and Stalin’s scholarly pretensions, 319; and Khrushchëv’s policies, 364, 366; and Brezhnev, 380–82, 387–8; and Gorbachëv’s glasnost, 449–50; see also dissenters
Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty (1987), 465
International, Communist see Comintern
International, Second, 25
International, Socialist, 62
International Monetary Fund see IMF
Internationale (anthem), 282
Inter-Regional Group, 475–6
Iov, Archbishop of Kazan, 370
Iraq, 555
Islam see Muslims
Italy: unrest in, 120; fascist methods in, 140; Mussolini seizes power, 171; communist party follows Moscow line, 295, 306, 311; and conference on Cominform, 308; communist party abandons Moscow, 398
Ivan IV, Tsar (‘the Terrible’), 206, 226, 319
Ivanovo, 73
Ivashko, Vladimir, 481, 490, 496
Izvestiya (newspaper), 133, 191, 194, 348
Japan: 1904–5 war with Russia, 3, 14; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and Russian civil war, 102, 312; signs Anti-Comintern Pact, 230; aggression against USSR, 231, 255, 257; and threat of World War II, 255; in World War II, 268, 270, 272; surrenders (1945), 273; post-war rehabilitation, 308; economic recovery, 322
Jaruzelski, General Wojciech, 411
jazz, 365
Jewish Autonomous Region, 317, 325
Jews: Russian nationalists’ hatred of, 12; in Pale of Settlement, 13; and anti-Semitism, 116, 201, 365, 416, 423, 458; Nazi extermination of, 222, 286; in October Revolution, 250; persecuted, 316–17; Stalin’s antipathy to, 324–5, 416; allowed to emigrate, 400; and dissenters, 414; after communism, 540, 557
Kádár, János, 343, 385, 387, 464
Kadets (Constitutional-Democratic Party): established, 14; decamp at dissolution of 1st Duma, 15–16; denounce Nicholas II’s autocracy, 15; agrarian reform policy, 20; and beginning of World War II, 25; and Nicholas II’s abdication, 33; in Provisional Government, 34–6, 45; oppose division of state, 45; walk out of cabinet (1917), 49; reject Kerenski’s overtures, 51; in Kerenski’s 3rd coalition, 57–8; suppressed by Bolsheviks, 93, 107; White commanders disdain, 116; excluded from politics, 161
Kafelnikov, Y., 539
Kaganovich, Lazar: follows Stalin’s policies, 171; Stalin attacks, 195; and rebuilding of Moscow, 204–5; and Party power, 211–15, 303; on Politburo commission, 220; and Stalin’s Party purges, 221; supports Stalin, 241, 252; shaves off beard, 246; opposes reform after Stalin’s death, 332; relations with Malenkov, 337; dismissed and posted to Sverdlovsk, 344–5; recommends Khrushchëv to Stalin, 348; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360; retirement, 477
Kaganovich, Moisei, 243
Kaliningrad (formerly Königsberg), 306
‘Kalinka’ (song), 530
Kalmyks, 367
Kamenev, Lev: favours co-operation with Mensheviks, 47; imprisoned (1917), 50; opposes Lenin’s plan to seize power, 60; relations with Lenin, 72; scepticism over Bolsheviks’ continuing support, 81; Jewishness, 85, 201; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; in Politburo, 112, 151, 160; supports NEP, 125; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; edits Lenin’s works, 154; and succession to Lenin, 154–5, 157–8; attacks Trotski, 156; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; expelled from Party and re-admitted, 162, 188; tried and sentenced, 215–16; shot, 218
Kaplan, Fanya, 107
Karachai, 367
Karelia: demands recognition of independence, 490, 521
Karlovy Vary (Czechoslovakia), 320
Kataev, Valentin, 248
Katushev, Konstantin, 404
Kazakhstan: nationalism, 131, 391; population victimized, 201–2; Soviet Republic formed, 207; deportees settled in, 225, 276, 300, 368; Khrushchëv advocates agricultural development, 332, 338, 351–2, 379; party leadership replaced, 338; effects of nuclear testing in, 359; nationalist resurgence, 456, 458; scandals in, 456; Russians in, 458, 520; strikes, 472; non-cooperation with State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 503; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
Kazan, 106
Kemerovo (Kuzbass), 472
Kemerovo coal-mine, 218
Kerenski, Alexander: co-operation with other parties, 30; in Provisional Government, 33, 36, 49; heads Provisional Government, 50–54, 57; loses army support, 54; and social disruption, 56; in Pre-Parliament, 58; and Lenin’s bid for power, 59; and government collapse, 60; overthrown in October Revolution, 62, 67; escapes from Winter Palace, 65; in newsreels, 73; and promised elections, 74
KGB (Committee of State Security): and Cheka, 69; formed, 334; and Khrushchëv’s speech against Stalin, 341; unmentioned in Khrushchëv’s programme, 361, 363; Russians dominate, 367; and Orthodox Church, 369; repressive methods and acts, 382, 412, 414, 420; reports on popular opinion, 418; relaxes under Gorbachëv, 480
Khakamada, Irina, 553
Kharitonov, Nikolai, 553
Khasan, Lake, battle of (1938), 231, 255
Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 495, 500, 512, 515–16, 521–5
Khataevich, M.M., 237
Khlysty (religious sect), 10
Khlystun, Oleg, 534
Khodorkovski, Mikhail, 550, 561
Khrennikov, Tikhon, 319
Khrushchëv, Nikita: supporters, 199, 450; and Great Terror, 223, 340, 348; Stalin admits trusting nobody to, 232; Stalin promotes, 241–2; on impending World War II, 259; on Stalin’s behaviour in World War II, 263–4; Stalin humiliates, 265; reforms, 293, 355–60, 372–3, 409; and agricultural reforms, 302, 320, 347, 349–51, 401–2; position and status, 303; and Stalin’s xenophobia, 316; on need for ‘vigilance’, 326; offices and policies after Stalin’s death, 332–3, 335–8, 346–7; in plot against Beria, 333–5; conflict with Malenkov, 335–7; denounces Stalin at 20th Party Congress, 338–42, 344, 360, 436; and Hungarian rising, 343–4; criticized, 344; prevails over opponents, 344–5; administration, 346–7, 349–55, 550; behaviour, 346, 349; personal publicity, 347–8; background and career, 348, 555; foreign policy, 352–4, 373–4, 399; overseas visits, 353, 376; achievements, 354–7, 375; programme of communism, 356, 360–63, 372, 405–6; and arts, 364–6, 416; anti-religion campaign, 369–70; antagonizes officials, 370–71, 375; enjoys luxuries, 371; repressive measures, 371–2; Party hostility to, 372–3, 375; and building of Berlin Wall, 373–4; and Cuban missile crisis, 374–5; contradictions and eccentricities, 375, 392; conspiracy against and ousting, 376–8, 385; in retirement, 388; in Brezhnev’s memoirs, 404; and dissenters, 413; promotes Andropov, 429; and public debate, 448
Kichko, T.: Judaism without Veneer, 423
Kiel naval garrison, 81
Kiev, 40, 49, 75, 120, 261, 264, 296, 364, 367
Kim Il-Sung, 312
Kirgiz (Kazakh) Republic: formed, 115
Kirov, Sergei, 160, 213–15, 217, 340
Kissinger, Henry, 399
Klebanov, Vladimir, 414
Klub Perestroika, 476
Knorin, V.G. and others: The History of the All-Union Communist Party: A Short Course, 237–8, 249
Kolbin, Gennadi, 456
Kolchak, Admiral Alexander V., 102, 106, 112–13, 116–17
kolkhozes (collective farms), 183; markets, 194; members refused passports, 208; conditions, 224, 421, 440, 540; and work-force, 243; private plots, 284; under German occupation, 288; rumours of disbandment, 298; wages, 304–5, 328; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 349–51, 358–9, 401; Brezhnev and, 401; run at loss, 402; and family contracts, 470; unpaid under Yeltsin, 516; government credit for, 526; resistance to privatization, 542; see also collectivization; peasants
Kollontai, Alexandra, 50
Kolpino, 97
Komar, Dmitri, 501
kombedy see committees of village poor
Komi, 521
Kommunist (journal), 511
Komsomol (communist youth organization), 140, 171, 199, 361, 538
Komuch see Constituent Assembly: Committee of Members
Kondratev, Nikolai, 145
Konev, General Ivan, 263, 265, 272
Königsberg see Kaliningrad
Korean war (1950–53), 312, 330, 336
Koreans: deported, 225
Kornilov, General Lavr, 52, 54–7, 60, 82, 88, 102, 113
Korotich, Vitali, 449
Kosior, Stanislav, 170
Kosmodeyanskaya, Zoya, 289
Kostov, Trajcho, 311
Kosygin, Aleksei: career, 236, 373, 378; advocates reform, 379–80, 385, 407, 431; relations with Brezhnev, 384; hesitates over Czechoslovak intervention, 387; overseas visits, 388; resignation and death (1980), 403
Kovalëv, Sergei, 519
Kozyrev, Andrei, 512, 536, 537
Krasin, Lev, 70
Krasin, Viktor, 412
Krasnov, General P.N., 67
Krasnoyarsk, 329
Krasnoyarsk Regional Committee, 221
Kravchenko, Viktor, 234
Kravchuk, Leonid, 506
Krestinski, Nikolai, 112
Krichevski, Ilya, 501
Kronstadt, 50, 58, 119, 125, 127, 446
Krupskaya, Nadezhda (Lenin’s wife), 152–3, 195, 227
Kryuchkov, Colonel-General Vladimir A., 496, 499–502
Ksenofontov, F.A., 158
Kuban region, 195
Kühlmann, Richard von, 76
Kuibyshev see Samara
Kuibyshev, Valeryan, 171, 175, 213, 218
Kukly (TV programme), 538, 549
kulaks: status, 6; rejoin communes, 86; Lenin advocates hanging, 108; Lenin proposes rewarding, 121; persecuted, 171, 179–81, 195, 202–3; grain seized, 174; enfranchised under 1936 Constitution, 239; post-World War II demands, 298; see also peasants
Kulichenko, Aleksei, 208
Kunaev, Dinmukhammed, 391, 403, 456
Kurchatov, Sergei, 304
Kurds: deported, 225
Kursk (submarine), 549
Kutuzov, Mikhail, 134
Kuznetsov, Admiral N.G., 258
labour: agricultural, 7; industrial, 7, 178; movement, 13, 21, 29, 32, 37, 143–4, 540; and administrators, 97, 417; discipline, 243, 416, 469, 516; shortage of skilled, 243; in World War II, 285–6; mobility, 416–17; promotion prospects reduced, 422; unpaid under Yeltsin, 516; see also wages
Labour Party (British), 63, 178
Labytnangi, 329
land: peasant tenure, 5–6, 22, 34, 39–41, 55–6; and gentry, 15–16, 20, 34, 39, 53, 55–6; reform demands in 1906 Duma, 15; redistribution after October Revolution, 67–8, 82, 86–7, 90–1; socialization, 82; privatization delayed, 526, 542, 551
Land Code, 551
Land, Decree on (Lenin’s), 68, 73–4, 85, 87, 90
Land and Freedom (party), 17–19
Landau, Lev, 248
Landowners Union, 88
languages: diversity of, 9–10, 130; see also linguistics; Russian language
Larionov, A.M., 349
Latsis, Martyn, 108
Latvia: demands autonomy, 40; support for Bolsheviks, 83; Germany acquires (1918), 84; soldiers (Riflemen), 87, 103; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; granted independence, 128; awarded to USSR in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy, 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 478; Communist Party purged, 367; protest demonstrations, 457, 473–4, 481; independence movement, 482; Yeltsin reassures, 489; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; demands independence, 503; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507
Latvian Popular Front, 482
Lavrov, Sergei, 560
Law on Co-operatives, 451, 460–61
lawlessness see criminality and criminal gangs
Laz people, 131–2
Lazar, Berel, 557
Lazurkina, D.A., 360
League of the Militant Godless, 136, 204
League of Nations, 229
Left Opposition, 156–7, 161, 164
Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, Party of, 59, 74, 76, 78, 81, 89, 93, 102–4, 107, 110
leisure and recreation, 191, 357, 420–21; see also sport
Lenin, Vladimir I.: leads Bolsheviks, 19, 71–2, 74; 1917 return to Russia, 26, 47; advocates immediate Bolshevik seizure of power, 47–50, 58–60; in hiding in Finland, 50; and socialist proposals to end war, 52; accuses Kerenski, 55; negotiates 1917/18 peace, 62, 68, 75–8, 102; and October Revolution, 62, 65–7; advocates dictatorship, 63–4, 549; revolutionary ideas and aims, 63–5, 82–3, 91–2, 98, 548; forms 1917 government, 66–7; issues decrees, 68–9, 73; Allies’ view of, 70; background and reputation, 70–73, 553; character, 72, 74; economic difficulties, 79–80; expects continuing support, 81; proposes federation of Soviet republics, 84; ethnic origins, 85; and Latvian Riflemen, 87; and workers’ control, 88; language, 92; personality cult, 93, 199, 551; and state capitalism, 96; and state administrative organization, 98–9; and civil war, 101, 104, 106; and murder of Mirbach, 103; advocates terror, 107–8, 145, 227; and Allied victory over Germany, 107; assassination attempt on, 107–8; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; and central Party administration, 111–12, 123; economic policies, 111; chairs Politburo, 112; introduces federal rule, 114; and regions, 115; and Party purges, 118; favours requisitioning of foodstuffs, 120; favours foreign concessions, 121, 125–6, 159; on rewarding kulaks, 121; and Trotski’s union proposals, 122; and peasant unrest, 124; introduces NEP, 125–7, 150–51; attacked at 10th Party Conference, 127; and republics and nationalities, 129–30, 132–3; health decline, 132, 151–3; religious persecution, 135; criticizes Mayakovski, 137; Gorki criticizes, 138; and Civil Code, 145; political testament, 152, 157, 174; death and preservation, 153–4; succession to, 154–5, 157–8, 197, 376; and Stalin’s use of terror, 227; on withering away of state, 239; on overthrow of capitalism, 254; Stalin praises at 19th Party Congress, 326; Khrushchëv proposes return to, 341–2; on co-existence with global capitalism, 352; Western disenchantment with, 398; on literary classics, 419; writings, 419–20, 479; and public debate, 448; Gorbachëv praises, 454; on class struggle, 455; Soloukhin analyses, 479; and Gorbachëv’s reforms, 487–8; denounces politicking, 522; and Russian dominance, 554; April Theses, 47–8; Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade K. Kautsky, 108; The State and Revolution, 58, 63, 98, 361; ‘Theses on a Separate and Annexationist Peace’, 76; What Is To Be Done?, 19, 71, 143
Lenin Collection, 154
Leninakan: 1988 earthquake, 468
Leningrad see St Petersburg
Leningrad Opposition, 160–61
Leningrad State University, 548
Liberal-Democratic Party, 520, 522, 527–8, 532
life expectancy, 518
Lifshits, Yevgeni, 248
Ligachëv, Yegor: Andropov promotes, 430–31; supports Gorbachëv, 435; Gorbachëv promotes, 438; background and career, 439; undermines Gorbachëv, 452–3, 458, 460, 476; and Russian nationalism, 458; at 19th Party Conference, 461; and Yeltsin, 462, 503; disbelieves in reform, 468; taunts Yeltsin over rationing, 470; loses offices, 489, 490, 521
linguistics: Stalin’s views on, 318–19, 322
lishentsy see ‘deprived ones’
literacy: pre-1914 rates, 6; Bolsheviks increase, 140–41, 190, 205
literature and writers, 139, 248, 324, 335, 344, 365–6, 414–15, 476–7; see also samizdat
Lithuania: protest demonstrations, 57, 473, 481; Germany acquires (1918), 84; Soviet republic established (1918), 107; independence, 128; awarded to Germany in 1939 Non-Aggression Treaty, 256–7; annexed by USSR, 258, 306, 398; Germans occupy, 261; post-World War II settlement, 270, 306; SS units from, 287; post-World War II deportations, 300; culture downgraded, 316; and Khrushchëv’s denunciation of Stalin, 342; nationalism, 366, 456, 473, 478; overrules Soviet legislation, 474; independence demands, 482, 503; Yeltsin reassures, 489; Soviet forces repress (1991), 494; resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; declines to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507
Litvinenko, Alexander, 557
Litvinov, Pavel, 387
livestock: killed by peasants, 181
living standards: among peasants, 147; under communism, 192–3; under Gorbachëv, 469–70; changes under Yeltsin, 517–19, 525, 534, 541–2, 553–4
lobbying organizations, 514–15
Lobov, Oleg, 512
Lominadze, Beso, 187
Lozovski, Semën, 317
Ludendorff, General Erich, 75, 78
Lukyanov, Anatoli, 499, 502, 511
Lunacharski, Anatoli, 94
Lvov, Prince Georgi, 29–30, 33, 35–6, 49–50, 60, 80
McCartney, Paul, 477
machine-tool industry, 468
machine-tractor stations, 181–2
magnitizdat (cassette publishing), 380
Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing Houses see Glavlit
Makashov, Albert, 524
Malenkov, Georgi: Stalin promotes, 241; submits to Stalin, 252; and conduct of World War II, 262; post-World War II policies, 302; position and status, 303; and Cominform, 308; at 19th Party Congress, 325–6, 328; favours light-industrial investment, 326; and Stalin’s death, 327; offices and policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3, 337–8; and Beria’s arrest, 334; advocates consumer-goods production, 335, 347, 379; conflict with Khrushchëv, 335–7, 348; and supplies to Ukraine in World War II, 339; and 20th Party Congress, 341; mission to Hungary, 343; dismissed and posted to Kazakhstan, 344, 345; seeks better relations with USA, 352; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360
malnutrition see food supply
managers: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; protected, 194; and labour discipline, 243–4; discontent, 329; and Kosygin’s reforms, 379; opportunities reduced, 422; and Yeltsin’s reforms, 514–15; see also administrators
Manuilski, Dmitri, 161
Mao Zedong, 311–12, 354, 378, 388
‘market, the’: under NEP, 144–5; under Stalin, 194–5, 244; under Yeltsin, 509, 512–15, 534, 535, 547; and criminal gangs, 512–13; and capitalism, 514
Marshall, George: European aid plan, 308, 310
Marx, Karl, 92–3, 136, 317; Das Capital, 70
Marxism: organizations formed (1890s), 18; intellectual appeal, 19–20; dissemination of, 92, 136; as religion, 136; and withering away of state, 240
Marxism-Leninism: term adopted, 154; development of, 169; and Bukharin’s Right Deviation, 176; and Russian nationalism, 205, 207; and local party committees, 216; explained in A Short Course, 237–8; and administrators, 242; and cultural expression, 249, 281, 319; and post war young rebels, 299; and science, 318–19; absolutism, 324; and collective leadership, 332; Khrushchëv promotes, 356; and non-Christian faiths, 370; lacks popular support, 418; Andropov’s belief in, 429–30; Yeltsin on discrediting of, 512
mass communication, 92–3, 191, 200, 358
Mayakovski, Vladimir, 137–9
Mazowiecki, Tadeusz, 483
Mazurov, K.T., 403
Medvedev, Dmitri, 559–62
Medvedev, Roy, 298, 366, 381, 412–14, 433, 449, 511
Medvedev, Vadim, 462, 486, 493
Meir, Golda, 316
Mekhlis, Lev, 265
Melnikov, Vladimir, 487
Mendeleev, Dmitri Ivanovich, 8
Menshevik Party: rivalry and differences with Bolsheviks, 19–20, 63, 66, 104; repressed under Nicholas II, 29; and Provisional Government, 35; constitutional aims, 45–6; disaffected Bolsheviks join, 48; seeks end to World War I, 51–2; Kerenski seeks support from, 53; wins over army, 54; Lenin disavows, 59, 118; anti-capitalism, 62–3; and October Revolution, 65; non-cooperation in Lenin’s 1917 government, 66–7; formed, 71; excluded from Sovnarkom, 74; repressed by Bolsheviks, 93, 185; excluded from soviets, 107; Lenin proposes trials of, 128; denounced, 134; excluded from politics, 161; and opposition to Bolshevik Party, 188
mental illness, 417
Mercader, Ramon, 231
Meshcherski, V.P., 96
Mid-Volga Regional Committee, 186
middle class: 1917 representative bodies, 39; in Bolshevik leadership, 49; demoralized by reforms, 88; terror used against, 108; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; after communism, 553; see also bourgeoisie
‘middle-peasantization’, 90–91
Mikhail, Grand Duke, 33
Mikhelson Factory, Moscow, 107
Mikhoels, Solomon, 316
Mikoyan, Anastas: and grain procurement, 170; dissents at 17th Party Congress, 213; submits to Stalin, 219; supports Stalin, 241; visits Stalin on German invasion, 261; favours light-industrial production, 302; Stalin accuses of political cowardice, 327; position after Stalin’s death, 331; and plot against Beria, 333; denounces Stalin at 20th Party Congress, 338; visits Hungary, 343; and Novocherkassk unrest, 364; and plot to depose Khrushchëv, 376–7
Military Opposition, 112
Milosevic´ Slobodan, 537
Milyukov, Pavel Nikolaevich, 27, 30, 33–4, 36, 45, 82
miners, 514–15
Ministry of Economics (Russian Federation), 535
Ministry of External Affairs (Russian Federation), 537
Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), 332–4; see also NKVD
minorities see nationalities and minorities
Mirbach, Count Wilhelm, 103
mitingovanie (neologism), 38
Mladenov, Petar, 463–4
modernization, 192
Moldavia: deportations from, 258, 300; Romanians in, 284; famine, 304; culture downgraded, 316; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; Brezhnev in, 383; nationalism in, 474
Moldova: resists State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 502; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Moldavia
Molotov, Vyacheslav M.: and Lenin’s health decline, 151; supports Stalin, 171, 175, 241; as Moscow Party Committee secretary, 176; and compulsory collectivization, 179; hard line on Party power, 213–14; and Stalin’s use of terror, 216, 221, 223; on Politburo commission, 220; medal, 236; on 1936 Constitution, 240; submits to Stalin, 252; and Nazi pact (1939), 256; and Soviet bases in Baltic states, 257; discounts German attack on USSR, 258; speech on German invasion, 261; and conduct of World War II, 262; favours concentrating industry in European areas, 302; position and status, 303; wife’s persecution, 316, 325; visits Eisenstein with Stalin, 319; Stalin accuses of political cowardice, 327; and Stalin’s death, 327; position after Stalin’s death, 331–2; opposes reform, 332; foreign policy, 337; relations with Malenkov, 337; and 20th Party Congress, 338, 341; dismissed after conflict with Khrushchëv, 344; appointed to Mongolia, 345; reviled at 22nd Party Congress, 360; retirement, 477