1.1 Visitors looking at ‘The Tomb in Which Andrew Jackson Refused to be Buried’ in front of the Arts and Industries Building at the Smithsonian, Smithsonian Institution Archives, image no. OPA-965–08-S-1
1.2 Portrait statue of Alexander Severus, c. 222–24 CE, marble, height 76 cm, Musei Capitolini, Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, ‘Room of the Emperors’, inv. 480
1.3 Giovanni Battista Piranesi and Jean Barbault, Great Marble Coffin, Believed to be of Alexander Severus and His Mother Julia Mamaea, etching, 45.7 × 55.7 cm, in Le antichità romane de’ tempi della prima Repubblica e de' primi imperatori, vol 2 (plate 33) (Rome, 1756). The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo
1.4 Wallpaper with emperors, German, c. 1555, colour woodcut from two blocks in dark brown and ochre and letterpress, 30 × 41.6 cm (borderline), British Museum, inv. 1895,0122.126. © The Trustees of the British Museum
1.5 Tondo: panel of the family of Septimius Severus, Roman Egyptian, c. 200 CE, tempera on wood, diameter 30.5 cm, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Altes Museum, Antikensammlung, inv. 31329. Bridgeman Images
1.6 ‘Poitiers Nero’, detail of stained glass in Cathédrale Saint-Pierre, Poitiers, Nouvelle- Aquitaine, France. Jorge Tutor / Alamy Stock Photo
1.7 The ‘Lothar Cross’, c. 1000 CE, gold- and silver-plated oak with engraved gemstones, height 50 cm (excl. fourteenth-century base), Aachen Cathedral Treasury Museum. Tarker / Bridgeman Images
1.8 Versailles busts: emperors Augustus and Domitian, seventeenth century. Augustus: marble, onyx and porphyry, height 97 cm; Domitian: porphyry (head); Levanto marble (torso); gilded bronze, 86 cm; Palace of Versailles, inv. MV 7102 and MV 8496. Photo: Coyau / Wikimedia
1.9 Transportation of the Powis Castle emperors. Reproduced with the kind permission of Cliveden Conservation andNational Trust
1.10 Michael Sweerts, Boy Drawing before the Bust of a Roman Emperor, c. 1661, oil on canvas, 49.5 × 40.6 cm, Minneapolis Institute of Art, inv. 72.65. The Walter H. and Valborg P. Ude Memorial Fund
1.11 Inkwell in the form of Marcus Aurelius on horseback, Italian (Padua), sixteenth century, bronze, height 23.5 cm. Photo courtesy of Sotheby’s New York
1.12 Giovanni Maria Nosseni, one of a set of twelve imperial chairs made for the elector August of Saxony, c. 1580, Kunstgewerbemuseum, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, inv. 47720. Photo: Jürgen Lösel
1.13 Cameo from necklace or collar, recovered off Lacada Point, Co. Antrim, gold with lapis lazuli and pearl, height 4.1 cm, National Museums Northern Ireland, inv. BELUM.BGR.5. © National Museums Northern Ireland, Collection Ulster Museum
1.14 Angelo Minghetti, Tiberius, mid-nineteenth century, after 1849, enamelled terracotta, height 82 cm (excl. base), Victoria and Albert Museum, London, inv. 172-1885. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
1.15 William Hogarth, A Rake’s Progress (London, 1735), plate 3: The Tavern, etching and engraving, 35.6 × 40.8 cm (plate), Princeton University Art Museum, Princeton, NJ, inv. x1988-32. Gift of Mrs. William H. Walker II
1.16 (Workshop of) Altichiero da Zevio, charcoal wall sketch of a ‘comic’ emperor, found beneath fresco, Palazzo degli Scaligeri, Verona, fourteenth century, Museo degli Affreschi ‘G. B. Cavalcaselle’, Verona, inv. 36370-1B3868
1.17 Paris Bordone, Apparition of the Sibyl to Caesar Augustus, 1535, oil on canvas, 165 × 230 cm, Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow, inv. 4354. Album / Alamy Stock Photo
1.18a Still from Federico Fellini (dir.), La dolce vita (1960). Reporters Associati & Archivi SRL, S.U. Roma
1.18b Chris Riddell, Re-election Blues, from The Guardian, 22 March 2009. © Guardian News & Media Ltd 2021 and Chris Riddell
1.18c ‘The Emperor’ pub sign, Hills Road, Cambridge, England. Photo: Alistair Laming / Alamy Stock Photo
1.18d ‘Augustus’ beer, by Milton Brewery, Cambridge, England. Image courtesy of Milton Brewery
1.18e ‘Nero’ boxer shorts, by Munsingwear. Image courtesy of The Advertising Archives
1.18f ‘Nero’ matches. Photo: Robin Cormack
1.18g A chocolate coin with an imperial head. Photo: Robin Cormack
1.18h Kenneth Williams as Julius Caesar in the film Carry on Cleo (1964). Studiocanal Ltd, UK
1.18i Caesar, from R. Goscinny and A. Uderzo, Astérix series. ASTERIX®- OBELIX®- IDEFIX® / © 2021 LES EDITIONS ALBERT RENE / GOSCINNY – UDERZO
1.19 Bust of the emperor Commodus, ? 180–85 CE, marble, height 69.9 cm, John Paul Getty Museum, inv. 92.SA.48
1.20 Giovanni da Cavino, Antonia, 36 BCE– c. 38 CE, Daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia (obverse) and Claudius Caesar (reverse), bronze, diameter 3.18 cm, Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, inv. 1957.14.995.a–b. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington
1.21 Statue of Alessandro Farnese, first century CE/head sixteenth century, marble, height 172 cm excl. head, Musei Capitolini, Rome, Palazzo dei Conservatori, ‘Hall of the Captains’, inv. Scu 1190. Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, photo: Antonio Idini © Roma, Sovrintendenza Capitolina ai Beni Culturali
1.22a Statue of Helena (so-called ‘Agrippina’), c. 320–25 CE, marble, height 123 cm, Capitoline Museums, Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, ‘Room of the Emperors’, inv. Scu 496. Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, photo: Barbara Malter © Roma, Sovrintendenza Capitolina ai Beni Culturali
1.22b Antonio Canova, Madame Mère, 1804–7, marble, height 145 cm, Sculpture Gallery, Chatsworth House, Derbyshire, UK. Wikimedia
1.23 Paolo Veronese, The Feast in the House of Levi, 1573, oil on canvas, 1309 × 560 cm, Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice, inv. 203. Bridgeman Images
1.24 Male bust, so-called ‘Grimani Vitellius’, first half of second century CE, marble, height 48 cm, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Venezia, Venice, inv. 20
1.25 Henry Fuseli, The Artist’s Despair before the Grandeur of Ancient Ruins, 1778–80, red chalk and sepia wash on paper, 35 × 42 cm, Kunsthaus, Zurich, inv. Z.1940/0144. Bridgeman Images
2.1 The ‘Arles Caesar’, mid-first century BCE, Dokimeion (Phrygia) marble, height 39.5 cm, Musée Départemental Arles Antique, inv. RHO.2007.05.1939. © Rémi Bénali
2.2 The Great Cameo of France (Grand Camée de France), 50–54 CE, sardonyx, 31 × 26.5 cm, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Cabinet des Médailles, inv. Camée.264
2.3 Coin (denarius) with wreathed head of Caesar (obverse), Rome, 44 BCE, silver, ANS Roman Collection, inv. 1944.100.3628. © American Numismatic Society
2.4a Hudson River Caesar, marble, height 23 cm, Carl Milles Collection, Millesgården Museum, Stockholm, inv. A 38. Photo: Per Myrehed, 2019. © Millesgården Museum
2.4b Pantelleria Caesar, mid-first century CE, Greek marble, height 42 cm, Dipartimento dei Beni Culturali e dell’Identità Siciliana, inv. IG 7509
2.4c The Green Caesar, Roman Egyptian, ? first century CE, from Wadi Hammamat (eastern desert of Egypt), greywacke, height 41 cm, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Altes Museum, Antikensammlung, inv. Sk 342. Photo: Johannes Laurentius
2.4d The Casali Caesar, first century BCE or later, marble, height 77 cm, Palazzo Casali, Rome. Photo: Deutsches Archaeologisches Institut, Rome, D-DAI-ROM-70.2015
2.4e Vincenzo Camuccini, The Death of Caesar (detail), 1804–5, oil on canvas, 112 × 195 cm, Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Moderna e Contemporanea, Rome, inv. 10159. © Adam Eastland / agefotostock.com
2.4f Desiderio da Settignano, profile of a man with a laurel crown, often identified as Julius Caesar, c. 1460, marble, 43 × 29 × 10 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, inv. RF 572. Photo: René-Gabriel Ojéda © RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY
2.5 Benito Mussolini announcing the abolition of the Chamber of Deputies and formation of the Assembly of Corporations in Rome, 25 March 1936. Photo by Keystone-France / Gamma-Keystone via Getty Images
2.6 Head of Julius Caesar, Rome, probably c. 1800, marble, height 35 cm, British Museum, inv. 1818,0110.3. © The Trustees of the British Museum
2.7 Bust of Julius Caesar found at Tusculum, ? c. 45 BCE, Luna marble, height 33 cm, Museo di Antichità, Castello di Aglié, Turin, inv. 2098. © MiBACT–Musei Reali di Torino
2.8 Detail of Bust of Julius Caesar at the British Museum, 2.6. Photo: Mary Beard
2.9 The ‘Meroe Head’/head of Augustus (findspot Meroe, Nubia, now in Sudan), 27–25 BCE, plaster, glass, calcite and bronze, height 46.2 cm, British Museum, inv. 1911,0901.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum
2.10a Detail of statue of Augustus, Rome (found in the ruins of the villa of Livia, Augustus’s wife, at Prima Porta on the via Flaminia), early first century CE, marble, height 208 cm, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City, Museo Chiaramonti, Braccio Nuovo, inv. 2290. Adam Eastland / Alamy Stock Photo
2.10b Diagram of hair lock scheme, from Dietrich Boschung, Die Bildnisse des Augustus (Berlin, 1993), Part 1, vol. 2, Fig. 83. Photo: Robin Cormack
2.10c Head from a statue of Tiberius Caesar, c. 4–14 CE, set on a modern bust, marble, total height 48.3 cm, British Museum, inv. 1812,0615.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum
2.10d Portrait bust of the emperor Caligula (Gaius), 37–41 CE, marble, height 50.8 cm, Metropolitan Museum, New York, inv. 14.37. Rogers Fund, 1914
2.10e Portrait head, marble, height 35.6 cm, British Museum, inv. 1870,0705.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum
2.10f Portrait head variously identified, ? of young Nero (reworked from a head of Gaius Caesar or of Octavian) on a modern bust, late first century BCE–early first century CE, white marble, height 52 cm, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City, Museo Pio-Clementino, Sala dei Busti, inv. 591. Photo © Governatorato SCV–Direzione dei Musei e dei Beni Culturali. All rights reserved
2.11 Detail from the Temple of Dendur, Egypt, completed by 10 BCE, Aeolian sandstone, total length 24.6 m. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. 68.154
2.12 Head of the emperor Vespasian, c. 70 CE, marble, height 40 cm, Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, inv. 2585. Photo: Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen
2.13 Bust (believed to be) of the emperor Otho, later first century CE, marble, height 81 cm, Musei Capitolini, Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, ‘Room of the Emperors’, inv. Scu 430. Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, photo Barbara Malter, © Roma, Sovrintendenza Capitolina ai Beni Culturali
2.14 Nicolò Traverso, The Genius of Sculpture, early nineteenth century, marble and plaster, height 140 cm, Palazzo Reale, Genoa, Galleria degli Specchi. Photo: Chiara Scabini. With the permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Palazzo Reale di Genova
2.15 Giambattista della Porta, illustration from De humana physiognomonia, libri IIII, (Vico Equense, 1586). Wellcome Trust, London
3.1 Hans Memling, Portrait of a Man with a Roman Coin [possibly Bernardo Bembo], 1470s, oil on oak panel, 31 × 23.2 cm, Collection KMSKA (Royal Museum of Fine Arts)— Flemish Community (CC0), Antwerp, inv. 5. Photo: Dominique Provost
3.2 Sandro Botticelli, Portrait of a Man with a Medal of Cosimo the Elder, 1474–75, tempera on wood, 57.5 × 44 cm, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, inv. 1890.1488. © Fine Art Images / agefotostock.com
3.3 Titian, Portrait of Jacopo Strada, 1567–68, oil on canvas, 125 × 95 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, inv. GG 81. © DEA / G. Nimatallah / agefotostock.com
3.4 Jacopo Tintoretto, Portrait of Ottavio Strada, 1567, oil on canvas, 128 × 101 cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. SK-A-3902. Purchased with the support of the J. W. Edwin Vom Rath Fonds/Rijksmuseum Fonds
3.5 Casket, German (Nuremberg?), later sixteenth century, silver and gold plated, 40 × 23 × 15.8 cm, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, inv. KK 1178 (on display at Schloss Ambras, Innsbruck, Kunstkammer)
3.6 Chalice of Udalric de Buda (canon of Alba Julia), early sixteenth century, gold coated silver and gold coins, height 21 cm, Diocesan Museum of Nitra. With kind permission of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Nitra, Slovak Republic
3.7a The emperor Galba, from a mid- fourteenth-century manuscript, Fermo, Biblioteca Comunale, MS 81, fol. 40v (illustrated in Annegrit Schmidt, ‘Zur Wiederbelebung der Antike im Trecento’, Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florenz 18 (1974), plate 61). Photo: Kunsthistorisches Institut in Florenz–Max-Planck-Institut
3.7b Coin (sestertius) with bust of the emperor Galba, laureate, draped (obverse), Rome, 68 CE, copper alloy, British Museum, inv. R.10162. © The Trustees of the British Museum
3.7c Coin (denarius) with bust of Maximinus Thrax, laureate, draped, cuirassed (obverse), Rome, 236—38 CE, silver, ANS Roman Collection, inv. 1935.117.73. © American Numismatic Society
3.7d Head of Maximinus Thrax from Giovanni de Matociis (d. 1337), Historia imperialis (begun around 1310), Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, MS Chig.I.VII.259, fol. 11r. © Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana
3.7e Head of Caracalla from Giovanni de Matociis, Historia imperialis [see 3.7c above], Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, MS Chig. I.VII.259, fol. 4r. © Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana
3.7f Coin (denarius) with bust of Marcus Aurelius, laureate (obverse), Rome, 176–77[?], silver, British Museum, inv. 1995,0406.3. © The Trustees of the British Museum
3.7g Altichiero da Zevio, Bust of Marco Antonio Bassiano [= the emperor ‘Caracalla’] e decorazioni, fourteenth century, wall painting (fresco; removed in 1967 from Palazzo dei Scaligeri, Verona), Museo degli Affreschi ‘G. B. Cavalcaselle’, Verona, inv. 36358–1B3856
3.7h Image of Nero from Andrea Fulvio, Illustrium imagines (Rome, 1517), Bibliothèque Nationale de France, RES-J-3269-fol. XLVIIr
3.7i Image of Cato, from Fulvio, Illustrium imagines (Rome, 1517), Bibliothèque Nationale de France, RES-J-3269-fol. XLVIIr
3.7j Portrait of Eve, from Guillaume Rouillé, Promptuaire des medalles des plus renommees personnes qui ont esté depuis le commencement du monde (Lyon, 1577; 2 vols), vol. 1, p. 5, ‘Adam and Eve’, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, J-4730
3.7k Roundel of Nero on the facade of La Certosa, Pavia, Italy, late fifteenth century. Fototeca Gilardi
3.7l Roundel of Attila the Hun, on facade of La Certosa, Pavia, Italy, late fifteenth century. Fototeca Gilardi
3.7m Roundel of Julius Caesar in loggia at Horton Court, Gloucestershire, UK, early sixteenth century. National Trust Images
3.7n Marcantonio Raimondi, ‘Vespasian’ from the Twelve Caesars series, c. 1500–1534 (plate 91 taken from vol. 3 of the later sixteenth- century album Speculum romanae magnificentiae), engraving, 17 × 15 cm (sheet), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. 41.72(3.91). Rogers Fund, transferred from the Library
3.8 ‘Nero’ (opening page) from a manuscript copy of Suetonius’s Lives (C. Suetonii Tranquilli duodecim Caesares) commissioned by Bernardo Bembo, c. 1474, illumination on parchment, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS lat. 5814, fol. 109r
3.9 Ceiling of the ‘Camera picta’ in the Ducal Palace at Mantua, painted c. 1470. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Palazzo Ducale di Mantova
3.10 Vincenzo Foppa, Crucifixion, 1456, tempera on wood, 68.5 × 38.8 cm, Accademia Carrara, Bergamo, inv. 58AC00040. The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo
3.11 Titian, Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery, c. 1510, oil on canvas, 139.3 × 181.7 cm,. Culture and Sport, Glasgow, Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, inv. 181. © Fine Art Images / agefotostock.com
3.12 Michael Rysbrack, George 1, 1739, marble, height 187 cm (left) and Joseph Wilton, George II, 1766, marble, height 187 cm (right). © The Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Reproduced with the kind permission of the University of Cambridge
3.13 George Knapton, Charles Sackville, 2nd Duke of Dorset, 1741, oil on canvas, 91.4 × 71.1 cm. Reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Dilettanti, London
3.14 Follower of Sir Anthony van Dyck, Portrait of King Charles I, eighteenth century, oil on canvas, 137 × 109.4 cm, private collection. © The National Trust
3.15 African American school children facing the Horatio Greenough statue of George Washington at the US Capitol, Washington, DC, 1899. Photo: The Library of Congress, Washington, DC
3.16 Joseph Wilton, Thomas Hollis, c. 1762, marble, height 66 cm, National Portrait Gallery, London, inv. 6946. Photo: © Stefano Baldini / Bridgeman Images
3.17 Emil Wolff, Prince Albert, 1844 (left), marble, height 188.3 cm, Osborne House and Prince Albert, 1846–49 (right), marble, height 191.1 cm, Buckingham Palace, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 42028 and inv. RCIN 2070 respectively. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
3.18 Benjamin West, The Death of General Wolfe, 1770, oil on canvas, 151 × 213 cm, National Gallery of Canada, inv 8007. Wikimedia
3.19 ‘Master of the Vitae Imperatorum’, image of Augustus and the Sibyl, from manuscript edition of Suetonius’s Lives of Caesars (De vita Caesarum, Milan, 1433), illumination on parchment, Princeton University Library, MS Kane 44, fol. 27r
3.20 Mino da Fiesole, busts of Piero de’ Medici, c. 1453, marble, height 54 cm (left; Masterpics / Alamy Stock Photo) and Giovanni de’ Medici, c. 1455, marble, height 52 cm (right; Bridgeman Images), Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence, inv. 75 and 117
3.21 Pisanello (Antonio Pisano), Leonello d’Este, 1407–1450, Marquis of Ferrara (obverse) and Lion Being Taught by Cupid to Sing (reverse), 1441–44, bronze, diameter 10.1 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Samuel H. Kress Collection, inv. 1957.14.602.a/b. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington
4.1 Claudius Tazza (Aldobrandini Tazze), late sixteenth century, gilded silver, height 40.6, diameter 38.1 cm, private collection, on loan to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. L1999.62.1. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York / Art Resource NY
4.2a Scene from Tazza with Tiberius figure and dish with scenes from the life of Nero (Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), private collection, on loan to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. L1999.62.2. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York/ Art Resource NY
4.2b Scene from the Galba Tazza (Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), Bruno Schro-der Collection
4.2c Scene from the Julius Caesar Tazza (Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), Museo Lázaro Galdiano, Madrid, inv. 01453. © Museo Lázaro Galdiano, Madrid
4.2d Scene from the Otho Tazza (Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. From the collection of Viscount and Viscountess Lee of Fareham, given in trust by the Massey Foundation. Courtesy of the Royal Ontario Museum, © ROM
4.2e Scene from the Claudius Tazza (Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. L1999.62.1. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York / Art Resource NY
4.2f Detail of scene from Tazza with Tiberius figure and dish with scenes from the life of Nero (Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), private collection, on loan to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. L.1999.62.2. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York / Art Resource NY
4.3 Giovanni Battista Della Porta, busts of the Twelve Caesars in the entrance hall (Salone d’ingresso) of the Villa Borghese, Galleria Borghese, Rome. Photo: Luciano Romano
4.4 Hieronymus Francken II and Jan Brueghel the Elder, The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Visiting the Collection of Pierre Roose, c. 1621–23, oil on panel, 94 × 123.2 cm, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, inv. 37.2010
4.5 Imperial casket, attributed to Colin Nouailher, French, c. 1545, enamel on copper with gilt-metal frame, 10.6 × 17.1 × 11.3 cm, The Frick Collection, inv. 1916.4.15. Henry Clay Frick Bequest
4.6 Portrait medallion of Caligula, nineteenth century, bronze, diameter 10 cm, private collection. Photo: Robin Cormack
4.7 Christian Benjamin Rauschner, four imperial heads (Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius), mid-eighteenth century, wax, height c. 14 cm (panel). Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum Braunschweig, Kunstmuseum des Landes Niedersachsen, inv. Wac 63, 64, 65, 66. Photo: Museum
4.8 Marcantonio Raimondi, ‘Trajan’ (misidentified as Nerva), engraving from The Twelve Caesars series (plate 94 taken from vol. 3 of Speculum romanae magnificentiae; details as at 3.7 above), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. 41.72(3.94). Rogers Fund, transferred from the Library
4.9 Hendrick Goltzius, Vitellius, early seventeenth century, oil on canvas, 68.1 × 52.2 cm. Stiftung Preußische Schlösser und Gärten Berlin-Brandenburg, inv. GK I 980. Photo: Stiftung Preußische Schlösser und Gärten Berlin-Brandenburg
4.10 Johann Bernhard Schwarzenburger, Titus, shortly before 1730, hardstones, gold, black enamel and precious stones, height 26.6 cm (with pedestal), Grünes Gewölbe, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, inv. V151. Photo: Jürgen Karpinski
4.11 Joost van Sasse (from a drawing by Johann Jacob Müller), Interior View of the Great Royal Gallery at Herrenhausen (Hanover), c. 1725, copperplate engraving, c. 19.5 × 15 cm (image). The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo
4.12 Photograph showing view of the ‘Room of Emperors’ in the Capitoline Museums, Rome, 1890s. Granger Historical Picture Archive
4.13a Statue of Baby Hercules, third century CE, basalt, height 207 cm, Musei Capitolini, Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, inv. Scu 1016. Colaimages / Alamy Stock Photo
4.13b Statue of a young man with his foot resting on a rock, 117–38 CE, marble, height 184.5 cm, Musei Capitolini, Rome, Palazzo Nuovo, inv. Scu 639. Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, photo: Stefano Castellani, © Roma Sovrintendenza Capitolina ai Beni Culturali
4.13c The ‘Capitoline Venus’, second century CE, marble, height 193 cm, Musei Capitolini, Rome, inv. Scu 409. Archivio Fotografico dei Musei Capitolini, photo: Araldo De Luca, © Roma, Sovrintendenza Capitolina ai Beni Culturali
4.14 Photograph of snow on the emperors’ heads outside the Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford. Ian Fraser / Alamy Stock Photo
4.15a and 4.15b Scenes from the Tiberius Tazza (previously identified as that of Domitian; Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above): The Triumph of Tiberius under Augustus (4.15a) and The Escape of Tiberius and Livia (4.15b), Victoria and Albert Museum, London, inv. M.247-1956. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
4.15c Scene from the Caligula Tazza (previously identified as that of Tibertius; Aldobrandini Tazze: for details see 4.1 above), Caligula on His Bridge of Boats, Casa-Museu Medeiros e Almeida Museum, Lisbon, inv. FMA 1183. Courtesy of the Medeiros e Almeida Museum
5.1 After Titian, Tiberius, copy once owned by Abraham Darby IV, by 1857, oil on canvas, 130.2 × 97.2 cm, private collection. Photo courtesy of Christie’s London
5.2a–k Aegidius Sadeler (after Titian), prints of Titian’s Eleven Caesars, 1620s, line engravings, approx. 35 × 24 cm (sheets), British Museum, inv. 1878,0713.2644–54. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved
5.3 Porcelain cup showing Augustus, French, acquired (with matched saucer showing Augustus’s wife Livia Drusilla: see 7.8 below) 1800, hard paste porcelain, tortoiseshell ground and gilded decoration, height 8.8 cm, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 5675. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
5.4 The ‘Camerino dei Cesari’ at the Ducal Palace at Mantua as it is now. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Palazzo Ducale di Mantova
5.5a Workshop of Giulio Romano, The Omen of Claudius’s Imperial Powers c. 1536–39, oil on panel, 121.4 × 93.5 cm, Hampton Court Palace, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 402806. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
5.5b Workshop of Giulio Romano, Nero Playing while Rome Burns, c. 1536–39, oil on panel, 121.5 × 106.7 cm, Hampton Court Palace Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 402576. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
5.6 Giulio Romano, A Roman Emperor[?] on Horseback, oil on panel, 86 × 55.5 cm, Christ Church Picture Gallery, Oxford, inv. JBS 132
5.7 Composite reconstruction of the west wall of the Camerino dei Cesari, from drawings of Ippolito Andreasi, c. 1570, pen, brown ink and grey wash over black chalk, Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf. Upper level: portraits of Nero (20.5 × 15.9 cm), Galba (20.5 × 15.8 cm) and Otho (20.5 × 16 cm) (inv. F.P. 10910, 10911, 10931); niche figures (c. 23.5 × 8.5 cm) (inv. F.P. 10885, 10886, 10881, 10883). Lower level: with ‘stories’ (the fire of Rome, Galba’s dream and Otho’s suicide) and horsemen (35.8 × 97.9 cm) (inv. F.P. 10940). Images © Kunstpalast-Horst Kollberg-ARTOTHEK
5.8 Giulio Romano. The Modesty of Tiberius, c. 1536–37, pen brown ink and brown wash over black chalk, 51 × 42 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, inv. 3548-recto. Photo: Thierry Le Mage © RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY
5.9 Ippolito Andreasi, c. 1570, Lower Right Half of the North [sic; in fact East] Wall of the Camerino dei Cesari, pen, brown ink and grey wash over black chalk, 31.8 × 47.7 cm, Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf, inv. F.P. 10878. Image © Kunstpalast-Horst Kolberg-ARTOTHEK
5.10a Bernardino Campi, The Emperor Domitian, after 1561, oil on canvas, 138 × 110 cm, Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples, inv. Q1152. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte–Fototeca della Direzione Regionale Campania
5.10b Domenico Fetti, The Emperor Domitian, c. 1616–17, oil on canvas, 151 ×112 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, inv. 279. © Photo Josse / Bridgeman Images
5.10c Domenico Fetti, The Emperor Domitian, 1614–22, oil on canvas,133 × 102 cm, Schloss Weissenstein, Pommersfelden, Bavaria, inv. 177. Photo: Robin Cormack
5.10d Unknown artist, Domitian (wrongly labelled Titus), before 1628, oil on canvas, 126 × 88 cm, private collection
5.10e E003354 Supraporte ‘Imperatorenbildnis’ (Domitianus), Umkr. Tizian. Residenz München, Reiche Zimmer, Antichambre (R.55), inv. ResMü. Gw 0156. © Bayerische Schlösserverwaltung, Schaller, Munich
5.10f Aegidius Sadeler, The Emperor Domitian, line engraving, approx. 35 × 24 cm, British Museum, inv. 1878,0713.2655. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved
5.10g Domitian from the set acquired by the Ducal Palace in Mantua in the 1920s. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Palazzo Ducale di Mantova
5.11a Anthony van Dyck, Charles I with M. de St Antoine, 1633, oil on canvas, 370 × 270 cm, Windsor Castle, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 405322. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
5.11b Guido Reni, Hercules on the Funeral Pyre, 1617, oil on canvas, 260 × 192 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, France, inv. 538. Photo: Franck Raux © RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource
5.12 Giovanni di Stefano Lanfranco, Sacrifice for a Roman Emperor, c. 1635, oil on canvas, 181 × 362 cm, Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid, inv. P000236. Photo © Museo Nacional del Prado
5.13a Bernardino Campi after Titian, The Emperor Augustus, 1561, oil on canvas, 138 × 110 cm. Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples, inv. Q1158. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo–Fototeca della Direzione Regionale Campania
5.13b Unknown artist, Ottaviano Cesare Augusto, before 1628, oil on canvas, 126 × 88 cm, private collection, Mantua
5.14 Edition of Suetonius’s Twelve Caesars, printed in Rome, 1470; the binding c. 1800, with Augsburg enamels c. 1690 after Sadeler’s Twelve Caesars inset into the inside front cover. Collection of William Zachs, Edinburgh. Photo courtesy of Sotheby’s London
5.15 Bartholomeus Eggers, Marcus Salvius Otho, late seventeenth century, lead, height 89 cm, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, inv. BK-B-68-C. Peter Horree / Alamy Stock Photo
6.1 ‘The King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, featuring the mural by Antonio Verrio, with a scheme based on Julian the Apostate’s satire The Caesars, written in mid fourth century. Historic Royal Palaces. © Historic Royal Palaces
6.2a Detail of the ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, showing Julius Caesar, Augustus (and Zeno). Historic Royal Palaces. © Historic Royal Palaces
6.2b Detail of the ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, showing Nero. Historic Royal Palaces. © Historic Royal Palaces
6.2c ‘The King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace: south elevation, showing Hermes and Julian the Apostate (seated). Historic Royal Palaces. © Historic Royal Palaces
6.3 The ‘Table of the Great Commanders of Antiquity’ (full table top, and detail of Caesar), French (Sèvres porcelain factory), 1806–12, hard-paste porcelain, gilt bronze mounts, internal wooden frame, diameter 104 cm, Buckingham Palace, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 2634. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
6.4 John Deare, Julius Caesar Invading Britain, 1796, marble, 87.5 × 164 cm, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, inv. A.10:1-2011. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
6.5 Ceiling decoration, 1530–31, of the ‘Chamber of the Emperors’ at the Palazzo Te, Mantua. © Mauro Flamini / agefotostock.com
6.6 Andrea Mantegna, The Triumphs of Caesar, c. 1484–92: 1. The Picture-Bearers (left); 2. The Bearers of Standards and Siege Equipment (right), tempera on canvas, c. 270 × 281 cm, Hampton Court Palace, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 403958 and 403959. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
6.7 Andrea Mantegna, The Triumphs of Caesar, c. 1484–92: 9. Caesar on His Chariot, tempera on canvas, 270.4 × 280.7 cm, Hampton Court Palace, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 403966. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
6.8 The Assassination of Caesar (tapestry), Brussels, 1549, wool and silk, 495 × 710 cm, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City, Galleria degli Arazzi, inv. 43788. Photo © Governatorato SCV–Direzione dei Musei e dei Beni Culturali. All rights reserved
6.9 Tapestry captioned ‘Abripit absconsos thesaurus Caesar …’, Brussels, c. 1560–70, wool and silk, 430 × 585 cm, present location unknown (auctioned by Graupe, Berlin, 26–27 April 1935, lot 685)
6.10 Ilario Mercanti (‘lo Spolverini’) (artist), Francesco Domenica Maria Francia (engraver), Facade of Parma Cathedral Richly Decorated on the Occasion of the Marriage of Elisabetta Farnese, Queen of Spain (16 September 1714) watercoloured engraving, c. 1717, 43.7 × 50.2 cm, Biblioteca Palatina, Parma, inv. S* II 18434
6.11 Tapestry captioned ‘Iacta alea est transit Rubicone …’, Brussels, sixteenth century, wool and silk, 420 × 457 cm, in New York Persian Gallery (saleroom), inv. 27065
6.12 Tapestry captioned ‘Iulius hic furiam Caesar fugitat furietem …’, Brussels, c. 1560–70, wool and silk, 415 × 407 cm, Palácio Nacional de Sintra/National Palace of Sintra, Sintra, Portugal. Image © Parques de Sintra-Monte da Lua, S.A. / EMIGUS
6.13 Tapestry captioned ‘Iulius Caesar impetum facit’, Brussels, c. 1655–70, wool and silk, 335.5 × 467 cm, Blue Drawing Room, Powis Castle, Powys, Wales, inv. NT 1181080.1. © National Trust Images / John Hammond
6.14a Adriaen Collaert (engraver) after Jan van der Straet (Stradanus), Augustus, c. Netherlandish, 1587–89, engraving, 32.3 × 21.7 cm (sheet), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. 49.95.1002(2), The Elisha Whittelsey Collection. The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1949
6.14b Adriaen Collaert (engraver) after Jan van der Straet (Stradanus), Domitian, c. 1587–89, engraving, 32.4 × 21.6 cm (sheet), The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, inv. 49.95.1002(12). The Elisha Whittelsey Collection, The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1949
6.15 Peter Paul Rubens, sketch of Roman emperors, early seventeenth century CE, pen and brown ink, on paper, 23.6 × 41.9 cm, Kupferstichkabinett, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Germany, inv. KdZ 5783 (verso). Photo: Dietmar Katz © bpk Bildagentur / Staatliche Museen zu Berlin / Dietmar Katz / Art Resource, NY
6.16 Jean-Léon Gérôme, The Age of Augustus: The Birth of Jesus Christ, (c. 1852–54; exhibited 1855), oil on canvas, 620 × 1015 cm, Collection du Musée d’Orsay, Paris, dépôt au Musée de Picardie, Amiens, inv. RF 1983 92. Photo: Marc Jeanneteau / Musée de Picardie
6.17: Carle (or Charles-André) Van Loo, Augustus Closing the Gates of the Temple of Janus, (exhibited) 1765, oil on canvas, 300 × 301 cm, Collection du Musée de Picardie, Amiens, inv. M.P.2004.17.29. Photo: Marc Jeanneteau / Musée de Picardie
6.18 Thomas Couture, The Romans of the Decadence, 1847, oil on canvas, 472 × 772 cm, Musée d’Orsay, Paris, inv 3451. Wikimedia
6.19 Georges Rouget, Vitellius, Roman Emperor, and Christians Thrown to the Wild Beasts, exhibited 1847, oil on canvas, 116 × 90 cm, Musée du Berry, Bourges, inv. 949.I.2. Photo: Robin Cormack
6.20a Jules-Eugène Lenepveu The Death of Vitellius, 1847, oil on canvas, 32.5 × 24 cm, Musée d’Orsay, Paris, inv. RF MO P 2015 27. © Beaux-Arts de Paris, Dist. RMN-Grand Palais / Art Resource, NY
6.20b Paul Baudry The Death of Vitellius, 1847, oil on canvas, 114 × 146 cm, Musée Municipal de La Roche-sur-Yon, inv. 857.1.1. © Musée de La Roche-sur-Yon / Jacques Boulissière
6.21 Jean-Léon Gérôme, The Death of Caesar, 1859–67, oil on canvas, 85.5 × 145.5 cm, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, inv. 37.884
6.22 Jean-Paul Laurens, The Death of Tiberius, 1864, oil on canvas, 176.5 × 222 cm, Musée Paul-Dupuy, Toulouse, inv. 49 3 23. Photo: M. Daniel Molinier
6.23 Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, The Roses of Heliogabalus, 1888, oil on canvas, 133.5 × 214.5 cm, Pérez Simón Collection, Mexico. ActiveMuseum / Alamy Stock Photo
6.24 Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, A Roman Emperor: AD 41, 1871, oil on canvas, 86 × 174.3 cm, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, inv. 37.165
6.25 Vasiliy Smirnov, The Death of Nero, 1887–88, oil on canvas, 177.5 × 400 cm, The Russian Museum, St Petersburg, inv. Ж-5592. The Picture Art Collection / Alamy Stock Photo
6.26 Boy with Goose, first–second century CE (copy of Greek original of ? second century BCE), height 92.7 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, inv. Ma 40 (MR 168). Wikimedia
7.1 Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, Agrippina Visiting the Ashes of Germanicus, 1866, oil on panel, 23.3 × 37.5 cm, private collection. Artepics / Alamy Stock Photo
7.2 Bust identified as Faustina, Roman, c. 125–59 CE, Greek marble, height 76 cm, Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, inv. 6749. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Palazzo Ducale di Mantova
7.3a–c Statues from Velleia, Emilia Romagna (Roman Veleia), 37–41 CE: Livia (7.3a), marble, height 224.5 cm; Agrippina the Elder (7.3b), marble, height 209 cm; Agrippina the Younger (7.3c), marble, height 203 cm, Museo Nazionale Archeologico di Parma, Parma, inv. 828, 829 and 830 respectively. With permission of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali e per il Turismo, Complesso Monumentale della Pilotta
7.4 Cameo bust often identified as Messalina, laureate, with her children Britannicus and Octavia, Roman, mid-first century CE, sardonyx, seventeenth-century enamelled gold frame, 6.7 × 5.3 cm, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, Cabinet des Medailles, inv. Camée.277
7.5a Statue of Messalina with Britannicus, Roman, c. 50 CE (heavily restored in the eighteenth century), marble, height 195 cm, Musée du Louvre, Paris, inv. Ma 1224 (MR 280). © Peter Horree / agefotostock.com
7.5b Kephisodotos’s Eirene and Ploutos, c. 375–360 BCE, later Roman copy, marble, 201 cm, Munich Glypothek, inv. 219. Munich Glypothek /Art Resource, NY
7.6 Bas-relief of Agrippina the Younger and Nero, from the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias, Roman, mid-first century CE, marble, 172 × 142.5 cm, Archaeological Museum, Aphrodisias, Caria, Turkey, inv. 82-250. © Funkystock / agefotostock.com
7.7a–l Aegidius Sadeler, prints of twelve empresses from the series ‘The Emperors and Empresses of Rome’ published by Thomas Bakewell, (London ‘Next the Horn Tavern in Fleet-street’, active c. 1730[?]), line engravings, approx. 35 × 24 cm, British Museum, inv. 1878,0713.2656–67. © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved
7.8 Porcelain saucer showing Livia Drusilla, French, acquired (with matched cup showing Augustus: see 5.3 above) 1800, hard paste porcelain, tortoiseshell ground and gilded decoration, diameter 13.5 cm, Royal Collection Trust, inv. RCIN 5675. © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021
7.9 Aubrey Beardsley, Messalina and Her Companion, 1895, graphite, ink and watercolour on paper, 27.9 × 17.8 cm, Tate, London, inv. N04423. Digital Image: Tate Images
7.10 James Gillray, Dido, in Despair!, 1801, hand-coloured etching, 25.2 × 36 cm, pic. ID 161499. Courtesy of the Warden and Scholars of New College, Oxford / Bridgeman Images
7.11 Georges Antoine Rochegrosse, The Death of Messalina, 1916, oil on canvas, 125.8 × 180 cm, private collection. The History Collection / Alamy Stock Photo
7.12 Angelica Kauffman, Virgil Reading the ‘Aeneid’ to Augustus and Octavia, 1788, oil on canvas, 123 × 159 cm, The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. ГЭ-4177. Photo: Vladimir Terebenin © The State Hermitage Museum
7.13a Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Virgil Reading Sixth Book of the ‘Aeneid’ to Augustus, Octavia and Livia, c. 1812, oil on canvas, 304 × 303 cm, Musée des Augustins, Toulouse, inv. RO 124. Album / Alamy Stock Photo
7.13b Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Augustus Listening to the Reading of the ‘Aeneid’, c. 1819, oil on canvas,138 × 142 cm, Musées Royaux des Beaux-Arts de Belgique, Brussels, inv. 1836. Bridgeman Images
7.13c Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Virgil Reading from the ‘Aeneid’ [to Augustus, Octavia and Livia], 1864, oil on paper on panel, 61 × 49.8 cm, private collection. Photo courtesy of Christie’s New York
7.14 Benjamin West, Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus, 1768, oil on canvas, 168 × 240 cm, Yale University Art Gallery, inv. 1947.16. Yale University Art Gallery. Gift of Louis M. Rabinowitz. Photo: Yale University Art Gallery
7.15 Agrippina the Elder and Tiberius, from an incunable German translation by Heinrich Steinhöwel of Boccaccio’s De mulieribus claris, c. 1474 (printed at Ulm by Johannes Zainer), hand-coloured woodcut illustration, 8 × 11 cm, Penn Libraries, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books, and Manuscripts, call number Inc B-720 (leaf [n]7r, f. cxvij)
7.16 Nero and Agrippina, from ‘Baron d’Hancarville’ [Pierre-François Hugues], Monumens de la vie privée des XII Césars, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, RESERVE 4-H-9392, view 212
7.17 William Waterhouse, The Remorse of Nero after the Murder of His Mother, 1878, oil on canvas, 94 × 168 cm, private collection. Painters / Alamy Stock Photo
7.18 Arturo Montero y Calvo, Nero before the Corpse of His Mother, 1887, oil on canvas, 331 × 500 cm, Museo del Prado, Madrid, inv. P006371. Wikimedia
7.19 Nero and Agrippina, illustrating Roman de la Rose, Netherlandish, 1490–1500, detail of illuminated manuscript on parchment, 39.5 × 29 cm, copying (text only) of edition printed in Lyon, c. 1487, British Library, London, Harley MS 4425, fol. 59r. © British Library Board. All Rights Reserved / Bridgeman Image
7.20a Peter Paul Rubens, Germanicus and Agrippina, c. 1614, oil on panel, 66.4 × 57 cm, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, inv. 1963.8.1. Andrew W. Mellon Fund. Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington
7.20b Peter Paul Rubens, Germanicus and Agrippina, c. 1615, oil transferred to masonite panel, 70.3 × 57.5 cm, Ackland Art Museum, Chapel Hill, NC, inv. 59.8.3. Ackland Fund
7.21 ‘The Gonzaga Cameo’ (portraits variously identified), third century BCE or later (setting: later work), sardonyx, silver and copper, 15.7 × 11.8 cm, The State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, inv. ГР-12678. Photo: Vladimir Terebenin © The State Hermitage Museum
8.1a Edmonia Lewis, Young Octavian, c. 1873, marble, height 42.5 cm,. Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC, inv. 1983.95.180. Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Norman Robbins
8.1b Head of ‘Young Octavian’, first century BCE/CE (on modern bust), white marble, height 52 cm, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City, Museo Pio-Clementino, Galleria dei Busti, inv. 714. Photo © Governatorato SCV– Direzione dei Musei e dei Beni Culturali. All rights reserved
8.2 Edmonia Lewis, The Death of Cleopatra, 1876, marble, 160 × 79.4 × 116.8 cm, Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC, inv. 1994.17. Gift of the Historical Society of Forest Park, Illinois
8.3 President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s toga- party birthday celebration, Washington, DC, 1934. © Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum
8.4a James Welling, Julia Mamaea, 2018, gelatin dichromate print with aniline dye and India ink, 35.6 × 27.9 cm. © James Welling
8.4b Barbara Friedman, Julia Mamaea Mother of the Future Emperor Alexander Severus, 2012, oil on linen, 76.2 × 55.8 cm. © Barbara Friedman
8.4c Genco Gülan, Chocolate Emperor, 2014, chocolate, plaster, marble and acrylic, height 60 cm, EKA Foundation Collection. © Estate Genco Gülan
8.4d Medardo Rosso, The Emperor Vitellius, c. 1895, gilt bronze, height 34 cm. Victoria and Albert Museum, London, inv. 210-1896. © Victoria and Albert Museum, London
8.4e Jim Dine, Head of Vitellius, 2000, shellac, charcoal and paint on felt, 115.3 × 77.8 cm, Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, inv. 2013.75.14. © 2021 Jim Dine / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York
8.5 Alison Wilding, Romulus Augustus, 2017, inks and collage on paper, 37 × 37 cm, private collection. Photo: Robin Cormack © Alison Wilding 2017
8.6 Anselm Kiefer, Nero Paints, 1974, oil on canvas, 221.5 × 300.6 cm, Staatsgalerie Moderner Kunst, Munich, WAF PF 51. Photo: Atelier Anselm Kiefer © Anselm Kiefer
8.7a Jean-Léon Gérôme, Pollice Verso, 1872, oil on canvas, 149.2 × 96.5 cm, Phoenix Art Museum, Phoenix, AZ, inv. 1968.52. Museum purchase
8.7b Still from Ridley Scott (dir.), Gladiator (2000). United Archives GmbH / Alamy Stock Photo
8.8 Sarcophagus (see 1.1 above) in its current location in Suitland, MD. Photo: Robin Cormack