Index

• Note: Page numbers in italic type indicate illustrations.

• Académie des Beaux-Arts, 223
• Addison, Joseph, 85
• Aelia Paetina, 251
• Aelst, Pieter Coecke van, 200, 205, 208, 211
• Agrippa, 53, 131
• ‘Agrippina’ (Roman sculpture), 31–32, 33, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142
• Agrippina, Vipsania. See Vipsania Agrippina
• Agrippina the Elder: confused with the Younger, 31–32, 259; death of, 31, 237, 272; in medieval woodcut from Bocaccio’s On Famous Women, 263, 263; modern representations of, 259, 262–64; as mother of Caligula, 32, 237, 263; in Rubens’s Germanicus and Agrippina, 269–71, 270; statue of, 243, 243; as wife of Germanicus, 31, 139, 219, 235–36, 269
• Agrippina the Younger: Canova’s Madame Mère possibly modeled on, 31–32, 116, 137; confused with the Elder, 31–32, 259; crowning of Nero by, 248, 249; as daughter of Germanicus, 139; modern representations of, 259, 264–68; as mother of Nero, 32, 164, 264; murder of, 264–69; statue of, 243, 243; as wife of Claudius, 31–32, 249
• Albani, Cardinal, 47, 52, 139–40
• Albert, Prince Consort, 108–9, 108
• Albia Terentia, 251
• Albrecht V of Bavaria, 81, 159, 179, 181
• Aldobrandini, Pietro, 118, 145
• Aldobrandini Tazze, 41, 118–22, 119, 121, 123, 145–50, 211
• Aldrovandi, Ulisse, 53
• Alexander III of Russia, 234
• Alexander Severus, 1–7; identification/dating of images of, 3–5, 68; life and death of, 1–2, 4; panel with family of, 11; portrait bust of, 2, 3; portraits of, 10, 38; relationship of, to Twelve Caesars, 2; Roman sarcophagus linked to, 4–5, 5, 7; Washington, DC, sarcophagus linked to, 1, 2, 4–7, 285–86, 286
• Alexander the Great, 30–31, 48, 49, 94, 98, 122, 143, 169, 189–92, 193
• Alma-Tadema, Lawrence, 227–28; Agrippina Visiting the Ashes of Germanicus, 235–37, 236; The Assassination of Caligula, 16; A Roman Emperor, 229–31, 231; Roses of Heliogabalus, 1, 228, 230, 277
• alteration of images. See cleaning/restoration/alteration of images
• Altichiero: Caracalla, from Palazzo degli Scaligeri, Verona, 90; sketch of an emperor, 19, 21, 98
• Andreasi, Ippolito, drawings of Camerino dei Cesari, 161–66, 163, 165, 169, 182
• Anglesey Abbey, England, 125
• Antinoos, 141, 142
• Antonia (Augustus’s niece), 253
• Antonia (mother of Claudius), 28–29, 29
• Antoninus Pius, 131, 133
• Antony. See Mark Antony
• Apollo Belvedere, 39, 89, 110
• Aretino, Pietro, La humanità di Christo (The humanity of Christ), 99
• Arles (Rhône) Caesar, 43–44, 44, 46, 61
• Ashmole, Bernard, 59
• Astérix (cartoon), 24, 25, 63
• Attila the Hun, 91, 94, 95, 99
• Augusta (mother of George III), 263–64
• Augustan History, 38
• Augustus: achievements of, 69, 105; from Aldobrandini Tazze, 147; in Alma-Tadema’s A Roman Emperor, 230; Autobiography, 10; cameo on Aachen cross, 12, 13; coin images of, 84; death of, 212, 241–42; in fifteenth- century manuscript of Suetonius’s Lives, 112, 113; in Foppa’s Crucifixion, 95, 96; in Gérôme’s Age of Augustus, 215–16, 216, 227; Great Cameo of France, 45, 47; Gülan’s Chocolate emperor, 278, 281; head from statue at villa of Livia, Prima Porta, 65, 66, 70; heads identified as Augustus, Caligula, and others, 66, 72; identification/dating of images of, 10, 24, 64, 68; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 212; in Kauffman’s Virgil Reading the ‘Aeneid’, 258; in ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, 191; Lewis’s Young Octavian, 275–76, 278; ‘Meroe head’, 65, 65, 70; Mussolini’s use of image of, 8; and origins of empire, 48, 69; physical appearance of, 70, 72; portrait bust, Versailles, 14; portraits of, 10, 27, 53, 70; positive assessment of, 133; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 165, 165, 169; in Sabbioneta theatre, 143; Sadeler’s print of, 155, 155, 182, 186; van der Straet’s print of, 212, 213; Suetonius on, 70, 169, 241; teacup image, based on Sadeler’s print, 155, 155, 182; in Titian’s Christ and the Adulteress, 95, 97; Titian’s painting of, 155, 158, 165, 165, 170, 176, 181; in van Loo’s painting of the shutting of the Temple of Janus, 217–18, 217; Vatican bust of, 275–76, 278; Virgil being read to, 16; vision of baby Jesus, 22–23, 22; on walls of temple at Dendur, 67, 67; wax relief panel, 127, 128
• Augustus beer, 23, 25
• Augustus ‘the Strong’, Elector of Saxony and King of Poland, 135–36
• autocracy, associated with Roman emperors, 6, 8, 39, 47–48, 105–6, 156, 176, 242, 254, 259, 280, 283

• Baby Hercules, 141–42, 141
• Baring-Gould, Sabine, 56
• Baudry, Paul-Jacques-Aimé, The Assassination of Vitellius, 224–26, 225
• Beardsley, Aubrey, Messalina and her companion, 254, 255
• Beerbohm, Max, Zuleika Dobson, 142, 143–45
• Bembo, Bernardo, 78, 116; commissioned manuscript copy of Suetonius’s Lives, 89, 92, 93
• Boccaccio, On Famous Women, 263
• Bolsover Castle, England, 14, 143, 182
• Bonaparte, Letizia (Madame Mère), 31–32, 33, 102, 104, 116, 259
• Bonaparte, Lucien, 59
• Bonaparte, Napoleon, 31–32, 136, 142, 151, 193, 218, 274, 276
• Borda, Maurizio, 59, 61
• Bordone, Paris, Apparition of the Sibyl to Caesar Augustus, 22, 23
• Botticelli, Sandro, Portrait of a Man with a Medal of Cosimo the Elder, 80, 80
• The Boy and the Goose, 233–34, 234
• Brett, John Watkins, 151, 154
• Britannicus, 245, 246, 247, 264
• Brodsky, Joseph, 49
• Brutus, 215
• Bryn Mawr College, 5, 285
• Buchan, John, 57, 61
• Buzzi, Ippolito, sculpture of Alessandro Farnese, 29–31, 30
• Byrd, William, 144

• Caesar, Gaius, 66
• Caesar, Julius: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 120, 121, 147; Arles (Rhône) Caesar, 43–44, 44, 46, 61; assassination of, 43, 48, 50, 69, 107, 195, 197, 200–201, 201–2, 208, 226–27; in Astérix, 24, 25, 63; bust in British Museum, 56–59, 57, 61–62, 61 (detail); Buzzi’s sculpture of Alessandro Farnese incorporating body of, 29–31, 30; in Camuccini’s Death of Caesar, 54, 63; coin images of, 44, 46, 51–52, 84; in Deare’s relief of Caesar fighting from a boat, 194, 194, 208; Desiderio da Settignano’s head of, 54, 63; eighteenth-century figure of, 135; full-length sculpture moved by Mussolini from Capitoline hill, 53, 55, 55, 62; in Gérôme’s Death of Caesar, 226–27, 228; Great Cameo of France, 45; Green Caesar, 53, 54, 62; head from Hudson River, 52–53, 54; from Horton Court, Gloucestershire, 91, 95; identification/dating of images of, 43–47, 50–68; Julius Caesar from Pantelleria, 53, 54, 61; Julius Caesar in Casali Collection, Rome, 53, 54; Kenneth Williams as, in Carry on Cleo, 25; in ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, 190–91, 190; in Mantegna’s Triumphs, 63, 197; modern figures modeled on, 102; Mussolini’s use of image of, 8; among Nine Worthies, 122; physical appearance of, 44, 50–52, 56, 59–60, 62–63; and Pompeia, 241; Pompey as enemy of, 140, 193–95, 200, 202–3, 207–10; portraits of, 48–50, 52–53, 309n21; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 169; role of, in Rome’s political history, 47–48, 192–95; Rubens caricature of, 213–14, 214; Sadeler’s print of, 186; sculpted head substituted on sculpture of Alexander the Great, 31, 49; Suetonius on, 48, 49, 50–51; on Table of the Great Commanders, 192–93, 193, 195; in tapestries, 199–211, 201, 202, 205, 206; Titian’s painting of, 102, 154, 176; Tusculum head of, 59–61, 60; use of images by, 48–49; wax relief panel, 127, 128
• Caesar, Lucius, 66
• Caesar Breaking into the Treasury (tapestry), 202, 203
• Caesar Crossing the River Rubicon (tapestry), 203, 205
• Caesarian tapestries, 199–211, 201, 202, 204, 205, 206, 209, 285
• Caesars (Titian), 150–87; actual number of, 133, 167, 172; audience for, 170; Augustus, 158, 165, 165, 170, 176, 181; in Camerino dei Cesari, 156–71, 157, 179; Claudius, 158, 176; destruction of, 152, 154, 179; dispersal of, 171–73; Galba, 158, 163; influence of, 15, 24, 102, 154–55, 171–72, 179, 182–85; Julius Caesar, 102, 154, 176; links of other Titian works to, 39; in ‘mini-Mantua’ (Albrecht V’s Kunstkammer), 161–62, 179, 181, 325n76; monetary value of, 199; Nero, 163, 177; Otho, 103–4, 154, 158, 163, 175, 184, 185; prints after, 153, 182–87, 183, 326n78; reproductions of, 123, 151–56, 153, 159, 161, 167, 172–73, 179–85; Tiberius, 152, 158; van Dyck’s restoration work on, 103–4, 155, 172–73, 177; Vitellius, 172–73, 177
• Caesonia, 251
• Caligula: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 147, 149; Alma-Tadema’s paintings involving, 227, 229–30, 231; assassination of, 16, 38, 227, 229; coin image of, 99; and death of Tiberius, 227; drawing in Della Porta’s treatise on physiognomics, 77; Germanicus as father of, 219; head, modeled on Tiberius, 66; headless sculpture identified as, 63–64; heads identified as Augustus, Caligula, and others, 66, 72; identification/dating of images of, 64; image on imperial chair for elector of Saxony, 18; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 1, 32; nickname of, 64; nineteenth-century bronze medallion, 127, 127, 183; omitted from sets of Twelve Caesars, 131–33; physical appearance of, 77; portraits of, 72; Sadeler’s print of, 127, 127, 183, 185; as son of Agrippina, 32, 237, 263
• Camera picta, Ducal Palace, Mantua, 157
• Camerino dei Cesari (Room of the Caesars), Ducal Palace, Mantua, 156–71, 179, 250
• Campi, Bernardino: Augustus, 181; copies of Titian’s Caesars by, 179–80, 182; Domitian, 167, 168, 179, 181
• Camuccini, Vicenzo, Death of Caesar, 54, 63
• Canova, Antonio: sculpture of Napoleon’s mother, Madame Mère, 31–32, 33, 102, 137; and Vatican bust of Young Octavian, 276
• Capitoline Museums, Rome, 3–5, 17, 24, 29, 31, 33, 39, 74, 137–43, 138, 141, 250
• Capitoline Museums matches, 23, 25
• Capitoline Venus, 141, 142
• Capponi, Alessandro Gregorio, 138–40
• Caracalla: Altichiero’s relief from Palazzo degli Scaligeri, Verona, 90; from il Mansionario’s compendium of imperial biographies, 90, 97, 98; panel with family of, 11
• Cárdenas, Alonso de, 177
• Carracci brothers, 158, 180, 185
• Carry on Cleo (film), 24, 25
• Catherine the Great, 22
• Cato the Younger, 91, 99
• Cavino, Giovanni da, ‘Paduans’ (replica coins), 28, 29
• Cellini, Benvenuto, 146
• La Certosa, Pavia, 91, 93–94, 95, 97, 99
• Chalice, from Nitra, with eighteen inset coins, 87, 88
• Charles I of England, 1, 4, 102–4, 104, 116, 152, 154, 159, 167, 171–77, 196, 200, 247
• Charles II of England, 176
• Charles IV, Holy Roman emperor, 83, 84
• Charles V, Holy Roman emperor, 81, 157, 170, 178
• Chaucer, Geoffrey, Canterbury Tales, 267, 268
• chocolate coin with head of Augustus, 23, 25
• Christina of Sweden, 200, 203, 205
• Cicero, 105
• Cincinnatus, 105, 106
• Claudius: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 119, 120, 121, 147; Alma-Tadema’s paintings involving, 227, 229–30, 231; assassination of, 32, 249; and Caligula’s assassination, 38, 227; in Fulvio’s Illustrium imagines, 253; image on Cavino ‘Paduan’, 29; as Nero’s adoptive father, 164; physical appearance of, 72; portraits of, 71; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 160, 166, 169, 171; Titian’s painting of (copy), 158, 176; wax relief panel, 127, 128
• cleaning/restoration/alteration of images, 28–31
• Cleopatra, 130, 211, 213, 216, 275, 279
• coins, 78–117; Augustus, 84; burial of, 116; Cavino’s ‘Paduans’, 28, 29; chocolate coin with head of Augustus, 23, 25; as identification aids, 51–52, 74, 242; Julius Caesar, 44, 46, 51–52, 84; meanings associated with, 77, 82–83, 85, 88, 98; as models for artists, 89–100, 114–15; Nero, 78–80, 79; original purpose of, 84; as portraits, 84–89; Roman emperors’ issuance of, 74; trade in/collecting of, during the Renaissance, 81–82, 86, 89; Trajan, 83
• Commodus, 24, 26–28, 26, 38
• Conrad, Holy Roman emperor, 98
• Constantine, sculpted hand and foot of, in Fuseli’s The Artist’s Despair, 39, 40
• Cossutia, 253
• Cotton, Robert Bruce, library of, 129–30, 276
• Coustou, Nicolas, 24
• Couture, Thomas, The Romans of the Decadence, 75, 218–19, 220–21, 222, 256
• Cromwell, Oliver, 198–99
• Cross, Aachen Cathedral, 12, 13
• Cyriac of Ancona, 83

• Dalí, Salvador, 41, 277
• Dante Alighieri, 192
• Darby, Abraham, III, 151
• Darby, Abraham, IV, 151, 154, 182
• David, Jacques-Louis, 215, 222
• Deare, John, relief of Caesar fighting from a boat, 194, 194, 208
• Delécluze, Etienne-Jean, 224–26
• Della Porta, Giambattista, 75
• Della Porta, Giovanni Battista, busts of Twelve Caesars, Villa Borghese, 123, 124, 136
• Desiderio da Settignano, head of Caesar, 54, 63
• Devonshire, Duke of, 32
• dictatorship, 37, 48
• Diderot, Denis, 217
• Dilettanti, Society of (London), 102
• Dine, Jim, Head of Vitellius, 278, 281
• Domitia Longina, 251
• Domitian: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 120, 146–47, 149–50; eighteenth-century figure of, 135; from Herrenhausen Castle collection, 137; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 212; as missing Titian portrait, 133, 167, 168, 169, 172–73, 179; portrait bust, Versailles, 14; Rubens caricature of, 214, 214; Sadeler’s print of, 168, 186; van der Straet’s print of, 212, 213; successor of, 131
• Domitilla, 251
• Domitius Ahenobarbus, 164
• Drusus, 165
• Ducal Palace, Mantua, 93, 94, 156–71
• Dyck, Anthony van: King Charles I on horseback, 173, 174; portrait of King Charles I, 102–4, 104, 154, 175; and Titian’s Caesars, 103–4, 155, 172–73, 177
• Dying Gaul, 89

• Eggers, Bartholomeus, imperial busts by, 184–85
• Elagabalus, 1, 38, 228, 230, 277
• Elliott, Jesse D., 1, 4–7, 62, 285–86
• Este, Leonello d’, 115–16, 116

• Fairhaven, Lord, 125
• fakes and forgeries: Cavino’s ‘Paduans’, 27–28; defined, 27; difficulties presented by, 27–28; Julius Caesar bust in British Museum, 57–59, 57, 62
• Farnese, Alessandro (Il Gran Capitano), 29–31, 30
• Farnese, Alexander, 203
• Farnese family, 180, 200
• Faustina (wife of Antoninus Pius), 130, 237, 239
• Faustina (wife of Marcus Aurelius), 38, 130
• Fellini, Federico, La dolce vita, 23
• Ferdinand, Habsburg prince, 123
• Ferdinand I, Holy Roman emperor, 180, 181
• Ferdinand II, Holy Roman emperor, 182, 187
• Fetti, Domenico, paintings of Domitian, 167, 168
• Filarete, 84–85, 116; bronze doors, with Nero, of St Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 22
• Flavian dynasty, 72–73, 222, 244
• Florus, 201
• Fontane, Theodor, Effi Briest, 184
• Foppa, Vincenzo, Crucifixion, 95, 96
• forgery. See fakes and forgeries
• Francken, Hieronymus, and Jan Brueghel, panel commemorating visit of Habsburg governors to Brussels, 123, 125, 129
• Frederick II of Prussia, 53
• Friedman, Barbara, Julia Mamaea, 281
• Fronto, 67
• Fry, Roger, 196, 228
• Fugger family, 133
• Fulvio, Andrea, Illustrium imagines (Images of the Great), 91, 93, 98–99, 134, 164, 253
• Furtwängler, Adolf, 58, 59
• Fuseli, Johann Heinrich, The Artist’s Despair before the Grandeur or Ancient Rome, 39, 40

• Galba: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 120, 121, 147; brief reign of, 73; coin images of, 88, 90, 99; drawing in Della Porta’s treatise on physiognomics, 77; from Herrenhausen Castle collection, 137; physical appearance of, 74, 77; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 163, 163; from Suetonius’s Lives, 90; Titian’s painting of, 158, 163, 163
• Galileo Galilei, 75
• Gautier, Théophile, 215–16
• George I of England, 100–102, 101, 136
• George II of England, 100–102, 101
• George III of England, 111, 263
• George IV of England, 155
• German casket, with replicas of coins of the Twelve Caesars, 87–88, 87
• Germanicus, 31, 139, 219, 235–36, 262–63, 269–71, 270
• Gérôme, Jean-Léon: Age of Augustus, 215–16, 216, 227; Ave Caesar! 75; Death of Caesar, 226–27, 228; Pollice Verso (Thumbs Down), 284, 285
• Getty Commodus, 24, 26–28, 26
• Ghisi, Theodore, 250
• Gillray, James, 254; cartoon of Emma Hamilton watching Nelson’s fleet depart, 254, 256, 256
• Giovanni de Matociis (‘il Mansionario’), 89; compendium of imperial biographies, 89, 90, 95, 97, 98
• Girard, Stephen, 5
• Girard College, 5
• Girona (ship), 18–19
• Gladiator (film), 24
• Golden Legend, 269
• Goltzius, Hendrick, Vitellius, 134, 134
• Goltzius, Hubert, 85–86, 95
• Gonzaga, Federico (Duke of Milan), 15, 151–52, 157–58, 169–71, 195
• Gonzaga Cameo, 270–71, 271
• Gonzaga family, 180–81, 196, 198
• Goscinny, R., and A. Uderzo, Astérix, 24, 25, 63
• Goyder, David George, 75–76
• Graves, Robert, 284
• Great Cameo of France, 44, 45, 47
• Greenaway, Peter, Prospero’s Books, 185
• Greenough, Horatio, George Washington, 106, 106
• Grimani, Domenico, 36
• Grimani Vitellius, 16, 34, 36, 37, 46, 75–77, 76, 218, 222, 278, 280
• Grynder, Ralph, 176
• Gülan, Genco, Chocolate emperor, 278, 281

• Habsburg monarchs, linked to Roman emperors, 123, 133, 169–70
• Hadrian: Antinoos as lover of, 142; in ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, 190; physical appearance of, 72; portraits of, 71; substituted in set of Twelve Caesars, 131; Suetonius’s service to, 36
• Hamilton, Emma, 254, 256
• Hamilton, William, 254, 256
• Hampton Court Palace, England, 159, 188–92, 196–203, 211, 247
• Hancarville, Baron d’, Monumens de la vie privée des XII Césars (Evidence for the Private Life of the Twelve Caesars), 264, 264
• Handel, George Frideric: Alessandro Severo, 1, 2; Giulio Cesare in Egitto, 211
• Hartt, Frederick, 167
• Haydon, Benjamin, 75
• Helena (mother of Constantine), 137
• Henry II of France, 99
• Henry VIII of England, 199–207, 210–11, 234, 285
• Herrenhausen Castle, Hanover, 136, 136
• Hogarth, William, Tavern Scene or Orgy, from The Rake’s Progress, 19, 21
• Hollis, Thomas, 107, 107
• Horton Court, Gloucestershire, 91, 94, 99
• Houghton Hall, England, 22

• I, Claudius (television series), 237, 284
• identification/dating of images: aids and clues in, 27, 64, 67–69; from Aldobrandini Tazze, 146–50; Alexander Severus, 3–5; Augustus, 10, 24, 64, 68; Caligula, 63–64; Camerino dei Cesari, Ducal Palace, Mantua, 166–67; coins, 97–98; Commodus, 24, 26–28; of figures in tapestries, 207–10; imperial women, 242–49; Julius Caesar, 43–47, 50–68; Nero, 68; problems in, 7, 24, 27–28, 50, 242; Roman emperors and associated figures, 7, 24, 28–29, 34, 50–51, 64–65, 67–68, 72, 276–77; Rubens’s Germanicus and Agrippina, 269–73; Titian’s Caesars, 166–67, 180–85; Vespasian, 68; Vitellius, 74
• Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, Virgil Reading the ‘Aeneid’ to Augustus and Octavia, 16, 258–59, 260, 261
• Inquisition, 34, 53
• Isabella d’Este, 237

• Jackson, Andrew, 5–6, 8–9, 32, 39, 42, 105, 192, 285
• James II of England, 191
• Jesus, 22, 34, 36, 95
• Julia (daughter of Augustus), 165, 273
• Julia Domna, 11
• Julia Mamaea, 2, 4–5, 10, 38, 278, 281, 285
• Julian, 141, 189–91, 190; The Caesars, 189–91
• Julio-Claudian dynasty, 69, 71–73, 240
• Julius III, Pope, 200–201
• July Monarchy, 218, 225

• Kauffman, Angelica, Virgil Reading the ‘Aeneid’ to Augustus and Octavia, 16, 258, 258
• Kiefer, Anselm, 41; Nero Paints, 282–83, 283
• ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, England, 188–92, 189, 190
• Knapton, George, 98, 102; portrait of Charles Sackville, 102, 103

• Lanfranco, Giovanni di Stefano, Sacrifice for a Roman Emperor, 178
• Laocoon, 39, 89
• Laurens, Jean-Paul, Death of Tiberius, 227, 229
• Lenepveu, Jules-Eugène, The Assassination of Vitellius, 224–25, 224
• Lepida, 251
• Lewis, Edmonia: The Death of Cleopatra, 275, 279; Young Octavian, 275–76, 278
• library classification system, 129–30
• Ligorio, Pirro, 120
• Livia: on Altar of Peace, 243; and death of Augustus, 212, 241; Great Cameo of France, 45, 47; in Ingres’s Virgil Reading the ‘Aeneid’, 259, 260; and Marcellus’s death, 258–59; as mother of Tiberius, 69, 146, 259; portraits of, 242; power of, 238; Sadeler’s print of, 251; saucer image, based on Sadeler’s print, 252, 253; statue of, 243, 243; as wife of Augustus, 10, 69, 165, 237
• Livilla, 165
• Loo, Carl van, Augustus shutting the Temple of Janus, 217, 217
• Lothar, King, 13
• Lothar Cross, 12, 13
• Louis XIV of France, 14, 136, 176
• Louis XV of France, 217
• Louis Philippe of France, 218, 225
• Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus), Pharsalia, 207–11

• Macro, 227
• Magnus Decentius, 141
• Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition, 151, 154
• Mantegna, Andrea, 237; Camera picta, Ducal Palace, Mantua, 93, 94, 157; The Triumphs of Caesar, 63, 157, 195–98, 196–98, 228
• Marcellus, 257–59
• Marcus Aurelius, 11–12, 38; Capitoline equestrian statue of, 17, 47, 175; coin images of, 90, 97; column of, 16; inkwell with image of, 17; in ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, 190; Thoughts, 38; wife of, 38, 131
• Mark Antony, 213, 216, 230
• Martia, 251
• Mary II of England, 188
• Maurits, Prince of Orange, 134
• Maximilian I, Holy Roman emperor, 169
• Maximilian II, Holy Roman emperor, 180, 182
• Maximinus ‘the Thracian’, 3; coin image of, 89, 90; from il Mansionario’s compendium of imperial biographies, 89, 90
• Mazarin, Cardinal, 14, 22
• Medici, Cosimo de’, 80, 114
• Medici, Giovanni de’, 114, 115, 130
• Medici, Piero de’, 114, 115
• Memling, Hans, Portrait of a Man with a Roman Coin, 78–80, 79, 93, 95, 100, 116–17
• Messalina, 237, 241, 245, 246–47, 247, 251, 254–55, 255, 264
• Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 149
• Michelangelo, 86, 95; Flood, Sistine Chapel, 160
• Millingen, James, 56
• Minghetti ceramic busts of Roman emperors, 18–19, 20
• Mino da Fiesole: Giovanni de’ Medici, 114, 115; Piero de’ Medici, 114, 115
• Le mistère de la vengeance de la mort et passion Jesuchrist (Revenge of Jesus Christ), 267–68
• Montero y Calvo, Arturo, Nero before the Corpse of His Mother, 16, 265, 266–67
• Mucius Scaevola, 106
• Mussolini, Benito, 8, 52, 53, 55, 55, 59, 62

• Napoleon III of France, 215
• National Institute, Washington, DC, 5
• Nelson, Lord, 254, 256
• Nero: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 120–21, 121, 147; from Bembo’s manuscript copy of Suetonius’s Lives, 92, 93; boxer shorts based on, 23, 25; and Caligula’s assassination, 16; Christians persecuted by, 212; coin image of, in Memling’s Portrait of a Man with a Roman Coin, 78–80, 79; coin images of, 88, 99; crowned by Agrippina, 248, 249; fiddling during Rome’s burning, 38; from Fulvio’s Illustrium imagines, 91; head identified as Augustus, Caligula, Nero, and Gaius Caesar, 66, 72; in Hogarth’s The Rake’s Progress, 19, 21; from Horton Court, Gloucestershire, 95; identification/dating of images of, 68; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 1, 32, 234; in ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, 190, 190; matches based on, 23, 25; meanings associated with, 19, 21, 22; in Montero y Calvo’s Nero before the Corpse of His Mother, 265, 266–67; murder of his mother by, 16, 264–69; physical appearance of, 72, 75; portraits of, 72; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 161, 163, 163, 164, 171; Riddell’s cartoon of Gordon Brown as, 25; on roundel at La Certosa, Pavia, 91; Sadeler’s print of, 186; in Smirnov’s The Death of Nero, 231–34, 232–33; as son of Agrippina, 32, 164, 264; stained-glass portrait of, Poitiers Cathedral, 12, 12, 19, 112, 212; succession of, 246; Suetonius on, 231–32, 264–66; suicide of, 231–34, 283; Titian’s painting of, 163, 163, 177; in Waterhouse’s The Remorse of Nero, 265, 265
• Nerva, 131
• New York Public Library, 130
• Nine Worthies, 122
• numismatics, 84, 93, 95, 98–99
• Nys, Daniel, 172

• Octavia (sister of Augustus), 257–59, 258
• Octavia (wife of Nero and daughter of Messalina), 237, 245
• Otho: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 120, 121, 149; brief reign of, 73; bust of, 74; from Herrenhausen Castle collection, 137; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 103; physical appearance of, 74; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 163, 163; Suetonius on, 74; suicide of, 38, 103, 120; Titian’s painting of, 158, 163, 163, 175, 184, 185; van Dyck’s portrait of Charles I modeled on Titian’s portrait of, 103–4, 116, 154, 175
• Ovid, Metamorphoses, 34

• Palazzo Farnese, Rome, 123
• Palazzo Te, Mantua, 158, 195, 195
• Panvinio, Onofrio, 169–70
• Paris Salon, 218–19, 222, 231
• Parma Cathedral, 203, 204
• pastry moulds, 9
• Patent Office, Washington, DC, 5–6
• Peace, 247–48, 247
• Penn, John, 194
• Penny, Edward, 110
• Pérez, Antonio, 180, 181
• Pescara, Marquis of, 180
• Petrarch, 83, 84
• Petronia, 251
• Philip II of Spain, 180
• Philip IV of Spain, 177–78
• Philip V of Spain, 203
• Phillips, Siân, 237
• phrenology, 75–76
• physiognomics, 75
• Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, engraving of sarcophagus linked to Alexander Severus’, 4, 5, 7
• Pisanello, bronze medallion of Leonello d’Este, 115, 116
• Pitt, William, the Elder, 110
• Pitt, William, the Younger, 102
• Plaudilla, 253
• Pliny the Elder, 89, 233
• Pliny the Younger, 89
• Poggio Bracciolini, 192, 195
• Poitiers Cathedral, France, stained glass window with Nero, 12, 12, 19, 112, 212
• Pompeia, 241, 251
• Pompey the Great, 140, 193–95, 200, 202–3, 207–10
• Portland Vase, 4
• portrait books, 98–99
• portraiture, Roman, 49, 70, 315n51
• Poussin, Nicholas, 263
• Powis Castle, Wales, 14
• Prix de Rome, 16, 17, 36, 222–26

• Quo Vadis (film), 284

• Raimondi, Marcantonio: images modeled on engravings of, in sixteenth-century metal casket, 126, 126; luxury series of the Twelve Caesars, 91, 93, 98, 131, 132
• Raphael, 93, 158
• Renaissance: representations of Romans in, 111–17; sets of Twelve Caesars in, 122–31
• Reni, Guido, Hercules on his funerary pyre, 173, 175
• restoration of images. See cleaning/restoration/alteration of images
• Reynolds, Joshua, 110–11, 113–14, 277
• Rice Holmes, Thomas, 56, 58
• Riddell, Chris, cartoon of Gordon Brown as Nero, 25
• The Robe (film), 284
• Rochegrosse, Georges Antoine, Death of Messalina, 256, 257
• Roman de la Rose, 267, 268
• ‘Roman emperors’, Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, 142, 143–45
• Roman emperors and their images: ancient and modern cross-influences concerning, 23–32, 25, 63; assassination as theme in, 226–31; Bolsover Castle, England, 14; Caesar’s initiation of, 48–49; coins produced by, 74, 82–83; in contemporary popular culture, 23, 25, 277–84; exemplary function of, 186, 194, 215–18; guidelines on, 17; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 42, 212–19; living subjects represented in guise of, 100–111, 275; Long Gallery, Powis Castle, Wales, 14, 15; the ‘look’ of, 62–72, 244; number and variety of, 9–23; political and other meanings associated with, 6, 8, 17, 23, 32, 41–42, 73, 77, 105–7, 115, 117, 123, 133, 169–70, 173, 175–78, 211, 225–26, 274–75, 277–84; and power, 222, 227–30, 234, 238–39, 274–75; realism of, 73; Renaissance representations of, 111–17; in Room of the Emperors, Capitoline Museums, 137–43, 138, 141; satiric treatment of, 19, 21, 188–92, 215; subject matter of, 15–16; succession among, 69–70, 169, 226, 239, 241, 268–69; Suetonius’s Lives and other texts as source material for, 38; survival of, 10–11; Titian’s depiction of, 157–58; use of images by, 65, 67. See also cleaning/restoration/alteration of images; coins; identification/dating of images; Twelve Caesars
• Romano, Giulio: Camerino dei Cesari, Ducal Palace, Mantua, 158–67, 169, 171, 186; Domitian attributed to, 167; figures on horseback, from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 162; Palazzo Te, Mantua, 158, 195, 195; story from Augustus’s life, from Camerino dei Cesari, 165, 165, 169; story from Claudius’s life, from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 160, 166, 169, 171; story from Galba’s life, from Camerino dei Cesari, 163, 163; story from Nero’s life, from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 161, 163, 163, 164, 171; story from Otho’s life, from Camerino dei Cesari, 163, 163; story from Tiberius’s life, from Camerino dei Cesari, 164; story from Vespasian’s and Titus’s lives, from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 166
• Romney, George, 110
• Room of the Emperors, Capitoline Museums, Rome, 3, 31, 74, 123, 137–43, 138, 141, 250
• Room of the Philosophers, Capitoline Museum, Rome, 139–41
• Roosevelt, Franklin D., 280
• Rosso, Medardo, Emperor Vitellius, 278, 281
• Rothschild family, 145
• Rouget, Georges: painting of Titus and Vespasian, 222, 223; Vitellius, Roman Emperor, and Christians Released to the Wild Beasts, 222, 223
• Rouillé, Guillaume, Promptuaire des medalles (Handbook of coins), 91, 99
• Rovere, Guidobaldo della, 158
• Royal Ontario Museum, 149
• Rubens, Peter Paul, 41, 47, 213, 245–46; Germanicus and Agrippina, 269–73, 270; imperial caricatures, 213–14, 214; Julius Caesar, 134, 213; ‘Portico of the Emperors’, 122–23, 133
• Rudolf II, Holy Roman emperor, 123, 133, 181–82
• Ruskin, John, 230
• Rysbrack, John Michael, King George I, 100–102, 101

• Sabbioneta theatre, 143
• Sackville, Charles, 102, 103, 154
• Sadeler, Aegidius: Augustus, 155, 155, 182, 186; Caligula, 127, 127, 183, 185; Domitian, 168, 186; Julius Caesar, 186; Nero, 186; prints after Titian, Eleven Caesars, 153, 182–87, 183, 285; Tiberius, 186; Titus, 186; twelve ‘empresses’, 250, 251, 252, 272–73; verses accompanying the Twelve Caesars prints, 156, 185–87, 285, 289–301; Vespasian, 186
• Sala delle Teste, Ducal Palace, Mantua, 170
• Sasse, Joost van, view of the Gallery at Herrenhausen Castle, Hanover, 136, 136
• Scaeva, Cassius, 208, 209
• Scipio, 192
• Scott, Ridley, 24; Gladiator, 284–85, 285
• Sejanus, 165
• Septimius Severus, 11
• Shakespeare, William, 89, 158; Julius Caesar, 113, 192, 201, 204, 226, 277; Love’s Labours Lost, 83
• Sheldonian Theatre, Oxford, 143
• Smirnov, Vasily, The Death of Nero, 231–34, 232–33
• Smithson, James, 5
• Smithsonian Institution, 1, 5–6
• Socrates, 75
• Spitzer, Frederic, 145
• St James’s Palace, London, 173, 174
• St Peter’s Basilica, Rome, Nero on bronze doors of, 22
• Strada, Jacopo, 81, 82, 86, 126, 155, 159, 161, 167, 169, 179; Epitome thesauri antiquitatum (Encyclopaedia of antiquities), 81, 89
• Strada, Ottavio, 81–82
• Straet, Jan van der (Stradanus), 212; Augustus, 212, 213; Domitian, 212, 213
• Strathmore, Lady, 254
• Suetonius (Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus), 7, 36; on Augustus, 70, 169, 241; on Julius Caesar, 48, 49, 50–51; Lives of the Twelve Caesars, 36–38, 85, 89, 90, 92, 93, 112–13, 112, 119–20, 130–31, 159, 183, 252; on Nero, 231–32, 264–66; on Otho, 74; on Tiberius, 162, 164, 273; on Vespasian, 72; on Vitellius, 36
• Sulla, 53
• Sweerts, Michael, Boy Drawing before the Bust of a Roman Emperor, 16, 36

• Table of the Great Commanders, 192–93, 193, 195
• Tacitus, 246
• tapestries. See Caesarian tapestries
• tapestry makers of Flanders, 41
• teacup: with image after Sadeler’s Augustus, 155, 155, 182, 252, 253; and saucer, with image after Sadeler’s Livia, 252, 253
• Tempesta, Antonio, Twelve Caesars on Horseback, 320n8
• Thackeray, William Makepeace, 215
• Thuin, Jean du, Hystore de Jules César, 210–11
• Tiberius: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 146–47, 148, 150; death of, 227; in fifteenth-century manuscript of Suetonius’s Lives, 112–13; in Foppa’s Crucifixion, 95, 96; Germanicus’s murder ordered by, 31, 219, 236; Great Cameo of France, 45, 47; head of, 66, 72; in Laurens’s Death of Tiberius, 227, 229; maiolica bust of, 20; physical appearance of, 72; portraits of, 72; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 162, 164; in Rubens’s Germanicus and Agrippina, 272–73; Sadeler’s print of, 186; as son of Livia, 69, 146, 259; succession of, 69; Suetonius on, 162, 164, 273; Titian’s painting of, 152, 158; Vipsania as wife of, 272–73; wax relief panel, 127, 128
• Tiberius Nero, 165
• Tintoretto, Portrait of Ottavio Strada, 81–82, 83
• Titian, 41; Bacchanals, 39; Christ and the Adulteress, 95, 97; Portrait of Jacopo Strada, 81–82, 82. See also Caesars (Titian)
• Titus: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 146; eighteenth-century figure of, 135, 135; positive assessment of, 133, 222, 223; from Raimondi’s luxury series of the Twelve Caesars, 98, 131; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 166; Rubens caricature of, 214; Sadeler’s print of, 186; succession of, 70; in Titian’s Caesars, 133
• Trajan: coins with images of, 83; column of, 16; Dalí‘s images of, 277; likened to George Washington, 139; physical appearance of, 70; portraits of, 71; positive assessment of, 133; from Raimondi’s luxury series of the Twelve Caesars, 131–33, 132; in Sabbioneta theatre, 143
• Traverso, Nicolò, ‘Genius of Sculpture’, 75, 76
• Trojan Suite, Ducal Palace, Mantua, 156–57, 170
• Turner, J.M.W., 262
• Twelve Caesars, 118–50; adoption of ‘Augustus’ as title by, 69; adoption of ‘Caesar’ as title by, 48, 69; Alexander Severus’s relationship to, 2; cameos of, 18, 19, 86; as collections, 133–36; German casket with replicas of coins of, 87–88, 87; imperial chairs for elector of Saxony, 18, 18; ordered/disordered groupings of, 122–23, 129–37, 145–50, 167, 276; political and other meanings associated with, 41–42, 42, 186; portrait busts at Versailles, 14, 14; sets of, as Renaissance artistic innovation, 122–31; silver set of, 41, 118–22, 145–50; substitutions in, 131–33; Suetonius’s Lives of, 7, 36–38, 119–20, 130–31. See also Roman emperors and their images

• Universal Exhibition (Paris, 1855), 216

• Vasari, Giorgio, 86, 95, 158, 167, 172
• Velasquez, Diego, Las Meninas, 154
• Veronese, Guarino, 192
• Veronese, Paolo, Last Supper (The Feast in the House of Levi), 34, 35, 36, 75, 219, 222
• Verrio, Antonio, Caesars in ‘King’s Staircase’, Hampton Court Palace, 189–91, 189, 190, 196
• Vespasian: death of, 42, 70, 226, 241; eighteenth-century figure of, 135; founder of Flavian dynasty, 72; head of, 68, 68; from Herrenhausen Castle collection, 137; identification/dating of images of, 68; portraits of, 72–73; positive assessment of, 222; from Raimondi’s luxury series of the Twelve Caesars, 91, 98, 131; related image from Camerino dei Cesari, 159, 166; Rubens caricature of, 214, 214; Sadeler’s print of, 186; successor of, 70; Suetonius on, 72
• Vico, Enea, 85
• Victoria, Queen of England, 108–9
• Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 146–50
• Villa Borghese, Rome, 123, 124, 136
• Villa Medici, Rome, 130
• Vipsania Agrippina, 251, 272–73
• Virgil, 257–59
• Vitellius: from Aldobrandini Tazze, 149; assassination of, 34, 36, 77, 222–25; brief reign of, 73; Dine’s Head of Vitellius, 278, 281; drawing in Della Porta’s treatise on physiognomics, 75, 77; Goltzius’s painting of, 134, 134; Grimani Vitellius, 16, 34, 36, 37, 46, 75–77, 76, 218, 222, 278, 280; identification/dating of images of, 74; immoral and excessive behaviour of, 16, 36, 219, 225; likeness of, in Couture’s The Romans of the Decadence, 75, 218–19, 220–21, 222, 256; likeness of, in Veronese’s Last Supper, 34, 35, 36, 75; lynching of, 17; physical appearance of, 73, 75–77; portraits of, 73–77; as Prix de Rome subject, 222–25; Rosso’s Emperor Vitellius, 278, 281; in Rouget’s Vitellius, Roman Emperor, 222, 223; Suetonius on, 36; Titian’s painting of, 172–73, 177
• Vitellius, Lucius, 36
• Voltaire, 111

• wallpaper, with imperial decorations, 8, 9
• Walpole, Robert, 22, 105
• Walters, William T., 231
• Warhol, Andy, 278, 280
• Washington, George, 106, 106, 139
• Waterhouse, John William, The Remorse of Nero after the Murder of His Mother, 265, 265
• Wax relief panels of emperors, 127, 128, 133
• Wedgwood, Josiah, 41, 127, 129
• Welling, James, Julia Mamaea, 281
• Wellington, Duke of, 151
• West, Benjamin, 113; Agrippina Landing at Brundisium with the Ashes of Germanicus, 262, 262, 263–64; The Death of General Wolfe, 109–11, 109
• Westmacott, Richard, portrait of William Pitt the Younger, 102
• Wilde, Oscar, The Picture of Dorian Gray, 70
• Wilding, Alison, 41; collage, 280, 282, 282
• William III of England, 188, 191
• Wilmot, Catherine, 274
• Wilton, Joseph: King George II, 100–102, 101; Thomas Hollis, 107, 107
• Winckelmann, J. J., 24, 47, 52, 136, 139
• Wolfe, James, 109–10, 113
• Wolff, Emil, sculptures of Prince Albert, 108–9, 108
• women: cameos of, 245; as ‘empresses’, 238, 242, 244, 246–47, 249–50, 251, 252, 254, 269; imperial roles of, 237–73; and imperial succession, 239, 241, 268–69; in Julio-Claudian dynasty, 240; modern interpretations of, 254–59; physical appearance of, 243–44; and power, 238–42, 247, 254, 257, 264, 268; represented as goddesses, 246–49; sculptures of, 242–49; sexuality of, 241, 254, 264
• Wren, Christopher, 143, 144, 188

• Young Octavian (Vatican bust), 275–76, 278

• Zeno, 190